This document provides 19 suggestions for writing good scientific papers. It discusses important aspects like knowing your audience, avoiding first drafts, using an outline to organize ideas, paying attention to tenses, writing clear captions for tables and figures, focusing on ideas rather than authors when citing references, and taking editorial comments seriously. It also outlines the standard structure of a scientific paper, which typically includes an introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion section.

1. Writing good scientific
papers
Reza Assadi
MD, HSCR, MPH, Mphil, PhD candidate

2. Without publication science is dead
Piel

3.  Aspects of writing a paper:
 Contents
 Language
 Figures and Tables
 Literature (introduction, discussion)
 Choosing a Journal
 First draft
 Submitting draft to supervisor

4. 1. Nineteen Suggestions for
Writing Good Scientific Papers:
from:
 http://course1.winona.edu/mdelong/EcoL
ab/21%20Suggestions.html

5.  1. Know your audience and write for that
specific audience.
 Scientific and technical writing is never a 'general
purpose‘, but written for a specific audience, i.e.
the community who read a particular journal or
study a particular subject.
 You must adopt the style and level of writing that is
appropriate for your audience. Study them as they
are manifested in a selection of highly regarded
papers and in the "Instructions for Authors" for key
journals.

6.  2. Your supervisor/professor is not here to
teach you basic grammar and spelling.
 The more time and emotional energy she or he
spends on correcting basic English usage, the less
remains for issues of content or fine-tuning. You are
responsible for mastering the basics of the
language. With word processors and spellcheckers
having become standard writing tools, typos or
other spelling errors should be very rare.

7.  3. Do Not Turn in a First Draft!
 Ever! Most people's first drafts are terrible. "Good
writing is rewriting," and you should make a serious
effort at editing, rewriting, and fine-tuning before
you give the manuscript to anyone else to read. If
you need to put a piece of writing away for a few
days before you can approach it dispassionately
enough to rework it, do so.

8.  4. Get and use stylebooks.
 Distinguish between those that are primarily
manuals of accepted rules, those that address how
to create a draft (e.g., disconnecting the creative
from the critical voice, etc.), and those that focus
on rewriting.

9.  5. Avoid abusing word forms.
 Use words in the form that conveys your meaning as
clearly and simply as possible.
 For example, consider the sentence, "The low rate
of encounters was a reflection of population density
reductions." versus: "The low rate of encounters
reflects a reduced population density."

10.  6. Do not use more words where fewer will
do.
 Do not use long words where short ones will do.
 For example:
 "utilization" vs. "use"
 "in order to" vs. "to"
 Do not use special words to make your writing seem
more technical, scientific, or academic when the
message is more clearly presented otherwise.

11.  7. Use an outline to organize your ideas and
writing.
 When you first start a writing project, make an
outline of the major headings. List the key ideas to
be covered under each heading. Organize your
thinking logic and the logic of your arguments at
this level, not when you are trying to write
complete, grammatical, and elegant sentences.
 Separate out the three tasks of: (1) figuring out what
you want to say, (2) planning the order and logic of
your arguments, and (3) crafting the exact
language in which you will express your ideas.

12.  8. Think about the structure of paragraphs.
 Though most students can write reasonable
sentences, a surprising number have difficulty
organizing sentences into effective paragraphs. A
paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that
sets the stage clearly for what will follow. Make
topic sentences short and direct. Build the
paragraph from the ideas introduced in your topic
sentence and make the flow of individual
sentences follow a logical sequence.

13. ساختار یک پاراگراف استاندارد
جمله
:پیشرو
حاوی پیام
اصلی
پاراگراف.
مابقی
جملت
پیرامون
همان
موضوع
بحث می
.کنند

14.  9. Pay attention to tenses.
 Problems of inappropriate or inconsistent tenses are
common in student writing. What you, or others, did
in the past should be stated in the past tense (e.g.
data were collected...."). Events or objects that
continue to happen or exist can be described in
the present tense (e.g., "in this paper, I examine.......
The data reject the hypothesis that......). Whatever
tense you choose, be consistent.
 Be careful in using "might," "may," and "would" (as in
"this might indicate that..."). They are frequently
used as ways of weaseling out of making a clear
statement.

15.  10. Captions should not merely name a
table or figure, they should explain how to
read it.
 A caption (figure or table heading) should contain
sufficient information so that a reader can
understand a table or figure, in most cases, without
reference to the text. Very simple tables and figures
may require only a title for clarity, and exceptionally
complex ones may require reference to the text for
explanation.
 Do not leave caption writing to the end of the
project; write captions when you organize your
Results section and it will help you write the text.

16.  11. When citing a reference, focus on the
ideas, not the authors.
 Unless the person who reported a result is an
important point in a statement, literature citations
should be parenthetical, rather than in the body of
the sentence: “… growth rates of > 80 cm are
common in populations in Alberta (Marx 1982)."
rather than “…, Marx (1982) found growth rates of
>80 cm to be common in populations in Alberta.'

17.  12. Show us don't tell us.
 Rather than telling the reader that a result is
interesting or significant, show them how it is
interesting or significant. For instance, rather than
'The large difference in mean size between
population C and population D is particularly
interesting," write 'Mean size generally varied
among populations by only a few centimeters, but
mean size in populations C and D differed by 25
cm.“.

18.  13. Write about your results, not your tables,
figures, and statistics.
 Confusing and disjointed Results sections often arise
because the writer does not have a clear idea of
the story she/he intends to tell. When preparing to
write your results, decide on the elements of the
story you wish to tell, then choose the subset of text,
figures, and tables that most effectively and
concisely coveys your message. Organize this
subset of tables and figures in a logical sequence;
then write your story around them.

19.  14. Develop a strategy for your Discussion.
 Many novice paper writers begin their Discussion
section with a statement about problems with their
methods or the items in their results about which they
feel most insecure. Unless these really are the most
important thing about your research (in which case
you have problems), save them for later. Begin a
Discussion with a short restatement of the most
important points from your results. Use this statement
to set up the ideas you want to focus on in
interpreting your results and relating them to the
literature. Use sub-headings that structure the
discussion around these ideas.
 Note: Often 1 “results and discussion” section!

20.  15. Introductions and conclusions are the
hardest parts.
 Many technical writers prefer to write their
introductions last because it is too difficult to craft that
balance of general context and specific focus
required for a good introduction. If you need to write
the introduction first to set the stage for your own
thinking, resist the temptation to perfect it. The
introduction will likely need substantial modification by
the time you have finished the rest of the paper. The
same concerns apply to conclusions, abstracts, and
summaries. These components of the paper are all
that many people will read, and you must get your
message across in as direct, crisp, and enticing a
manner as possible.

21.  16. Break up large projects into small pieces
and work on the pieces.
 Writing and analysis for any given paper is often an
iterative process. Writing the results section of a
paper is often the best way to discover the analyses
and figures that still need to be done.

22.  17. Make your writing flow and resonate.
 Papers written so well that they 'flow and resonate'
are much more likely to influence your readers than
the equivalent message presented in a form that is
merely clear. When you find a paper that succeeds
in this, study carefully how the authors constructed
their augments and used language; try to identify
what makes the paper work so well.

23.  18. Use word processors effectively and
back up your work religiously.
 You need not learn how to use all the more exotic
features of your word processor, but learn the
options that are available and how to find out the
details when you need them. Minimally, be familiar
with basic requirements for document formatting
and basic operating system requirements. The same
comments apply to the use of statistical packages,
graphics programs, and spreadsheets.

24.  19. Take editorial comments seriously.
 It may be clear from an editor's comments that they
did not understand the point you were making. If
so, that is a clear indication that you need to
improve your writing. Also, an editor, no matter
who they might be, has invested their time to help
improve the quality of your writing. Respect their
investment.

25.  The structure of a journal paper
 http://classweb.gmu.edu/biologyresources/
writingguide/ScientificPaper.htm

26. ساختار استاندارد یک مقاله
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussions
Conclucion
از دانسته های عمومی
شروع و به جزییات کار
حاضر خاتمه می یابد.
این دو بخش باید
هماهنگ و هم اندازه
باشند
از مهمترین یافته های کار
حاضر شروع و به تعمیم و
مقایسه با کارهای مشابه و
مرتبط سایر محققین بسط
داده می شود

27.  The Scientific Paper
 A well-written scientific paper explains the scientist's
motivation for doing an experiment, the experimental design
and execution, and the meaning of the results. Scientific
papers are written in a style that is exceedingly clear and
concise. Their purpose is to inform an audience of other
scientists about an important issue and to document the
particular approach they used to investigate that issue.
 Please do not think that good English is not critical in science
writing. In fact, scientists try to be so concise that their English
should be better than that of workers in other disciplines! If
English is not your first language, then proofreading by a
native-speaker might be helpful.
 If you have read scientific papers, you will have noticed that
a standard format is frequently used. This format allows a
researcher to present information clearly and concisely.

28.  Types of title that can be used for scientific papers
 Indicative titles indicate the subject matter of a paper but give no
indication of any results obtained or conclusions drawn e.g. The
effectiveness of bed nets in controlling mosquitoes at different
seasons of the year.
 Informative titles give an indication of results achieved and
conclusions drawn as well as the subject matter of the paper e.g.
Bed nets control mosquitoes most effectively when used in the
rainy season.
 Question-type titles
 This type of title obviously asks a question. e.g. When are bed nets
most effective when used to control mosquitoes?
 Main-subtitle (series) type
 This approach is not liked by editors of scientific journals because if
they accept the first paper they will be duty bound to accept
sequels. e.g. The effect of bed nets on mosquitoes: 1.Their
effectiveness when used only in the rainy season.

29. 2. General organization and order of writing:
 (6) Abstract
 (3) Introduction
 (1) Methods
 (2) Results / Results and Discussion
 (4) Discussion / Conclusion
 (5) Literature Cited

30.  The Scientific Paper: Abstract
 An abstract is a shortened version of the paper and should
contain all information necessary for the reader to determine:
 (1) what the objectives of the study were;
 (2) how the study was done;
 (3) what results were obtained;
 (4) and the significance of the results.
 Frequently, readers of a scientific journal will only read the
abstract, choosing to read at length those papers that are most
interesting to them. For this reason, and because abstracts are
frequently made available to scientists by various computer
abstracting services, this section should be written carefully and
succinctly to have the greatest impact in as few words as
possible.
 Although it appears as the first section in a paper, most scientists
write the abstract section last.

31. How to Write an
Introduction

32. Purpose:
Main job: Why the study is done.

33. Practical importance: • Introduction is a transition from the world outside the article to the
world within it.
• Most referees make up their minds within 15 minutes of reading a
paper, i.e. while reading the introduction.
• The editor may choose the referees from those referenced in
Introduction.
• The type of terminology, logic and evidence the reader should
expect in the body is shown in Introduction.

34. So,
Devote half the writing time to
introduction and conclusion

35. When to write:
Some prefer to do it first,
Some, last.

36. Questions to answer before
writing:
• What do I have to say?
• Is it worth saying?
• What’s the right format for the message?
• Who is the audience?
• Which journal?

37. Answer what really
interested you
1. A patient was anaesthetized for an operation to
repair his hernia and asked whether the fact that
he used Ecstasy four nights a week would cause
problems. We were unable to find an answer in
published medical reports, and so we designed a
study to answer the question.
2. Because of pressure to reduce night work for
junior doctors we wondered if it would be safe to
delay operating on patients with appendicitis
until the morning after they were admitted.

38. Content
First line:
• Hook the readers.
• Say something the reader doesn’t know.
Bad: It is widely accepted that X is important
Bad: Metal foams are a new class of material attracting
interest world-wide and with great potential….. X, Y, Z have
measured their strength properties … P, Q, and R have
developed theoretical models … Comparison of the
experiments with the models suggests that the measured
strength are less than those predicted …..

39. Better:
Metal foams are not as strong as they should be. Models, which
describe polymer foams well, overestimate the strength of metal
foams by factor of 2 to 5. This research explores the reasons. To
be more specific… (details of literature X, Y, Z, P, Q, R here).

40. You can start the first
sentence by:
• A question
• An opposite opinion
• A very short relevant narrative or anecdote
• An interesting fact
• An irony or a paradox
• An original analogy
• Definition or explanation of a term

41. Use quotations
cautiously:
“God created solids, but Devil created surfaces”.
(suitable as the first sentence for a review-article on friction and wear)

42. First paragraph:
• You can use journalistic devices
sparingly (arresting story, interesting
facts, describing a scene vividly).
• Don’t go straight to what you did in
the article.
• But, use some key words from the
title in the first few sentences.

43. Later on…
• Make clear how your work adds importantly to what gone before.
• Discuss real world examples.
• A systematic review of all previous works and explaining that the
new work is needed. If difficult, a brief account is enough.
• Don’t forget the ELPS rule (electronic long, paper short) and focus on
works directly related to your study.

44. Important:
• Try hard to clarify the relevance of cited works to your
study.
• Unsatisfactory explanation of this relevance is a common
problem.
• Try to make generalizations from literature, rather than just
naming them.

45. The rule of inverted
triangle
• Start by general considerations.
• Then, slowly focus on your specific work.
• You can first write it in reverse and then invert
everything.
• Use the rule even for your literature review.

46. • Mention the cited authors with
publication dates while giving the
exact source in the References.
• Cite original articles in primary
research journals, not textbooks
and encyclopedias.
• Mention works of the potential
referees in the first page
(Introduction).

47. • Explain about how the works of
potential referees is related to your
study.
• Use quotations from well known
people but not from dead ones too
often.

48. Last paragraph:
• The best place for statement of
purpose is the topic sentence of
the last paragraph.
• Look for the match between the research problem and title.
• It is the place for the merits of
the new technique or
methodology (if applied to your
article).

49. Last sentence:
• You can explain the study’s design briefly, but not the
conclusion
We therefore conducted a double blind
randomized study with 10 year follow up
to determine whether teetotalers drinking
3 glasses of whisky a week can reduce
their chances of dying of coronary artery
disease.

50. Important Don’t s
• Don’t compare strengths and weaknesses of your study with
others.
• Don’t put detailed critique of other studies.
• Don’t repeat consistently textbook materials that everybody
knows. Either,
• Don’t write so vague that nobody knows.
• Don’t say what the paper does not do.

51. • Don’t impress the readers by
summarizing everything gone before.
• Don’t use references only to show
you’ve done a lot of study.
• Don’t cite your own works
predominantly.
• Don’t use others’ statements without
using quotation marks.

52. • Don’t attack previous studies rudely.
• Don’t use negative words to
criticize previous works:
The deficiency of Smith’s approach is…
Or
The problem of these papers…

53. Length:
• Introduction should be short.
• It should be 2 pages or 1/6 of the paper at most (whichever
is less).

54. Vocabulary:
• Don’t use meaningless
abbreviations.
• Don,t use the words “hypothesis”
and “null hypothesis” if possible.
• Don’t use “I”. Referees hate it.
• Don’t use your keywords
repeatedly.
• “The purpose of this study is that…”
has become very common. Try not
to use the exact phrase.

55. Most common problems:
• Not answering the question of “why”.
• Not citing relevant references.
• Describing studies only tangentially related to your article.
• Ignoring the theoretical framework underlying your work.
• Omitting a clear statement of purpose.

56.  The Scientific Paper: Introduction
 Why is this study of scientific interest and what is your
objective?
 This section discusses the results and conclusions of previously
published studies, to help explain why the current study is of
scientific interest.
 The Introduction is organized to move from general
information to specific information. The background must be
summarized succinctly, but it should not be itemized. Limit the
introduction to studies that relate directly to the present study.
Emphasize your specific contribution to the topic.
 The last sentences of the introduction should be a statement
of objectives and a statement of hypotheses. This will be a
good transition to the next section, Methods, in which you will
explain how you proceeded to meet your objectives and test
your hypotheses.

57.  How to Cite Sources in the Introduction Section
 It is important to cite sources in the introduction section of
your paper as evidence of the claims you are making. There
are ways of citing sources in the text so that the reader can
find the full reference in the literature cited section at the end
of the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly
interrupted.
 Note that articles by one or two authors are always cited in
the text using their last names. However, if there are more
than two authors, the last name of the 1st author is given
followed by the abbreviation et al.. It is acceptable, and
encouraged, to cite more than one source for a particular
statement. This gives the statement more validity in its context
and suggests that your research was thorough.

58. Material & Methods
How did we do the research

59.  Function
 Subjects
 Design (experimental of sampling)
 Protocol of collecting data
 analysis
 Style

60.  Area, population, sampling, gathering
data, analysis.
 Organism: source, size, handling,
 Site: physical & biological, map
 Design: hypothesis, controls, treatments,
variables, data, …
 Protocols: how much, how long when,…
 Others should be able to repeat it.
 Probability & Power, analysing

61.  Analysis:
 Summarized & measures of variability
 Data transformation (normalize)
 Statistical tests
 Other techniques

62. Common problems
 Avoid repeatedly a single sentence to relate a single
action.

63. Problematic Example:
"The petri dish was placed on the turntable. The lid was then raised slightly.
An inoculating loop was used to transfer culture to the agar surface. The
turntable was rotated 90 degrees by hand. The loop was moved lightly back
and forth over the agar to spread the culture. The bacteria were then
incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."
Improved Example:
"Each plate was placed on a turntable and streaked at opposing angles with
fresh overnight E. coli culture using an inoculating loop. The bacteria were
then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."
Best:
.
"Each plate was streaked with fresh overnight E. coli culture and incubated at
37 C for 24 hr."

64. Common problems
 Avoid using ambiguous terms
Problematic example:
"A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 of Tubes 1,2, and 3 immediately after
chloroplasts were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was
completely reduced. Tube 4's A600 was measured only at Time 0 and at the end
of the experiment."
Improved example:
"A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 of the reaction mixtures exposed to light
intensities of 1500, 750, and 350 uE/m2/sec immediately after chloroplasts were
added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was completely
reduced. The A600 of the no light control was measured only at Time 0 and at the
end of the experiment."

65. انواع مطالعات
مطالعه اولیه 
مطالعه ثانویه 

66. Primary studies
مطالعات تجربی 
مطالعات کارآزمایی بالینی 
مطالعات توصیفی 

67. مطالعات ثانویه
مرورها 
مرور غیرنظام مند 
مرور نظام مند همراه با متاآنالیز 

68. انواع مقالت پزشکی
 Original Article
 Review Article
 Case Reports
 Editorial
 Short Communication (short papers)
 Letter to Editor
 Personal Views

69. Letter
اشاره یک مساله 
بیان یک مشکل یا ارایه یک فرضیه 
توصیف بستر یک مساله 
تمرکز بر پیشنهادات، نظرات و راه حل های نویسنده 
ارایه یک نتیجه گیری قوی 
توجه به محدودیت ها 

70. Editorial
نگارش برای خوانندگان یک مجله خاص 
توجه به نظرات و ابعاد مختلف مساله 
کلی گویی و عدم قطعی صحبت کردن بهتر است 

71. Short communication
این نوع مقالت در حال بیشتر شدن است 
دارای مقدمه مشخص 
ارایه داده ها و بحث درباره آن 
تعداد جداول و نمودار اندک 
محدودیت تعداد کلمه 

72. مزایای این سه نوع مقاله کوتاه؟
چاپ آسان تر و سریع تر 
ورود سریع تر نام نویسنده به پایگاه ها و مجلت 
مناسب برای کارهای کوچک، داده های اندک و نتایج 
contraversy

73. Writing Methods

74. Methods
 Study design
 Participants
 Ethical approval
 Sample size
Design (experimental of sampling)
Protocol of collecting data
 Questionnaires
 Interventions
 Clinical assessments
 Statistical methods

75.  Area, population, sampling, gathering data,
analysis.
 Organism: source, size, handling,
 Site: physical & biological, map
 Design: hypothesis, controls, treatments,
variables, data, …
 Protocols: how much, how long when,…
 Others should be able to repeat it.
 Probability & Power, analysing

76.  Analysis:
Summarized & measures of variability
Data transformation (normalize)
Statistical tests
Other techniques

77. Problematic Example:
"The petri dish was placed on the turntable. The lid was then raised slightly.
An inoculating loop was used to transfer culture to the agar surface. The
turntable was rotated 90 degrees by hand. The loop was moved lightly back
and forth over the agar to spread the culture. The bacteria were then
incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."
Improved Example:
"Each plate was placed on a turntable and streaked at opposing angles with
fresh overnight E. coli culture using an inoculating loop. The bacteria were
then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."
Best:
.
"Each plate was streaked with fresh overnight E. coli culture and incubated at
37 C for 24 hr."

78. Common problems
 Avoid using ambiguous terms
Problematic example:
"A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 of Tubes 1,2, and 3 immediately after
chloroplasts were added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was
completely reduced. Tube 4's A600 was measured only at Time 0 and at the end
of the experiment."
Improved example:
"A Spec 20 was used to measure A600 of the reaction mixtures exposed to light
intensities of 1500, 750, and 350 uE/m2/sec immediately after chloroplasts were
added (Time 0) and every 2 min. thereafter until the DCIP was completely
reduced. The A600 of the no light control was measured only at Time 0 and at the
end of the experiment."

79. What to include in the methods
section (1)
 How the study was designed:
 Keep the description brief
 Say how randomization was done
 Use names to identify parts of study
sequence

80. What to include in the methods section
(2)
 How the study was carried out:
 How the participants were recruited and
chosen
 Give reasons for excluding participants
 Consider mentioning ethical features
 Give accurate details of materials used
 Give exact drug dosages
 Give exact form of treatments

81. What to include in the methods section
(3)
 How the data were analysed:
 Use a P value to disprove the null
hypothesis
 Give an estimate of power of the study
 Give the exact tests used for statistical
analysis

82. Writing Results

83. Results
Simple complex
 Describe the population
 Start with positive findings
 Establish how comparable your groups were
 Use a mixture of text, tables and figures
 Mention units of measurement
 Mention what numbers, brackets, etc. refer to
 9+4, 854 (12.3)
 Bring the P values

84. Sample
 "Males (180.5 ± 5.1 cm; n=34) averaged
12.5 cm taller than females (168 ± 7.6 cm;
n=34) in the AY 1995 pool of Biology
majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f.,
p < 0.001)."
84

85. Results
Provide only enough interpretation to lead
the reader from one experiment to the
other
Avoid lengthy analysis and comparison to
the work of others
 No need to follow chronology of study
Rather, provide a logical progression and
tell a story

86. Results
1. Start with positive findings.
2. Do not compare the present data with
previously published results.
3. Write the text of the Results section
concisely and objectively.
4. The passive voice will likely dominate
here, but use the active voice as much as
possible
86

87. Tables and Figures
 Consider using a table to present large
amounts of data/results.
87
Must refer to all tables in text.
 Use figures to graphically represent
significant results.

88. Results
 Use the “Stand alone” tables
 Make sure totals add to 100%
 Do not repeat the Tables and Figures in
text
Summarize: e.g., there were no significant
associations…
Describe: e.g. there was a three fold increase
in the risk of ..

89. Tables and Figures
 Each Table or Figure must include a brief
description of the results being presented and
other necessary information in a legend.
 Table legends go above the Table; tables are
read from top to bottom.
 Figure legends go below the figure; figures are
usually viewed from bottom to top
89

90. Tables and Figures
 Tables and Figures are assigned numbers
separately and in the sequence that you
will refer to them from the text.
90
The first Table you refer to is Table 1, the next
Table 2 and so forth.
Similarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the next
Figure 2, etc.

91. Tables and Figures
 When referring to a table from the text,
"Figure" is abbreviated as Fig.,e.g.,
Fig. 1.
 Table is never abbreviated, e.g., Table 1.
91

92. Example 1: Courtesy of Shelley Ball.
Example 2: Courtesy of Shelley Ball.
92

93. 93

94. Figures
 Used when we want to distinguish a result
& make it prominent into readers view
 Figures are visual presentations of results,
including graphs, diagrams, photos,
drawings, schematics, maps, etc.
 Graphs are the most common type of
figure.
 Graphs show trends or patterns of
relationship.
94

95. Figures
Avoid clutter (too many numbers or
symbols)
 Should provide a clear statistical message
Vertical (“Y”) axis: outcome/dependent
variable
Horizontal (“X”) axis: exposure/independent
variable
Name & define each axis
Give the measurement unit of each axis
95

96. 96

97. 97

98. Results
Common mistakes
Raw data
Redundancy
Discussion and interpretation of data
No figures or tables
Methods/materials reported

99. Figure 1. Effect of total alkaloid fraction of methanolic extract on mean
survival time

100. Figure 1. Effect of total alkaloid fraction of methanolic extract of unripe fruit of Solanum
pseudocapsicum on mean survival time (MST) in tumor bearing mice.

102. Something to avoid !
 Do not present the same data in both a
Table and Figure - this is considered
redundant and a waste of space and
energy.
 Decide which format best shows the result
and go through it.
 Do not report raw data values when they
can be summarized as means, percents,
etc.
102

103. Do NOT !
103
 Use big words that you do not really mean
Attributable
Causality
Preferential
Significant (without statistical evidence)
Validity
 Mix incidence and prevalence
 Mix frequency, rate, proportion, ratio

105. گزارش نتايج آماري
نوشتن تعداد فراواني همراه با درصدها وقتي 
تعداد نمونه اندك است.
عدم نياز به نوشتن فرمول های حجم نمونه و 
آزمون های آماری
ارائه پارامترهاي یكه آزمون شده اند مانند ميانگين, 
نسبت يا درصد, ضريب همبستگي, حتي اگر
آزمون ها معن يدار نشده باشند.
نوشتن شاخص آزمون و مقدار آن همراه با درجه 
آزادي و

106. گزارش نتايج آماري
تعريف كردن علئمي كه براي نتايج معن يدار ب هكار 
م يرود (مانند ستاره) و ب هكار بردن علئم مشابه
نوشتن اعداد ب هصورت گرد شده با درنظرگرفتن 
دقت داد ههاي اوليه (ميانگين تا يك رقم اعشار و
انحراف معيار و خطاي معيار تا دو رقم اعشار
بيشتر از داد ههاي خام)
درج درصدها تا يك رقم اعشار (گاهي حتي نياز به 
ارقام اعشاري هم نيست).
تا دو رقم اعشار t ,r نوشتن شاخص هايي مانند 

107. The p-value in a nutshell
Could the result have occurred by chance?
The result is
unlikely to be due
to chance
0 1
p < 0.05
a statistically
significant result
p = 0.05
or 1 in 20
result fairly
unlikely to be due
to chance
The result is
likely to be due
to chance
1
20
p > 0.05
not a statistically
significant result
p = 0.5
1
2
or 1 in 2
result quite likely
to be due to
chance

108. Confidence Interval (CI)
Is the range within which the true size of
effect (never exactly known) lies, with a
given degree of assurance (usually
95%)

109. Check list for Results
 Baseline data provided?
 Primary and other endpoints clear and
complete?
 Does the text complement figures and
tables?
 Are measures of uncertainty mentioned?
(SD, SE, CI)

110. Mechanics of Writing-Results
 Tell a story
 Use the most logical sequence to present
the data (not necessarily the order in
which you did the experiments)
 Just report the data - do not include
interpretation or comparison to literature
 No duplication of data

111. Guidelines for Writing Results -
The Study as it was Conducted
 Specify the dates of the study
 Provide a schematic summary
 Describe the characteristics of each
group
 Indicate if the sample is representative
 Indicate if randomization was successful
 Describe duration and nature of follow up

112. Guidelines for Writing Results:
The Study Outcomes
 Report statistical findings in detail
 Report actual p values , 95% CI , etc.
 Report the main findings in figures or
tables, you don’t need to also report them
in the text
 Report confounders

113. A Few Rules
 The first time you use an abbreviation,
define it
 When you give the commercial source for
a reagent, the first time you cite the source
include the location of the company (city
and state)
 Make sure the subject and verb agree in
every sentence
 No contract. or exclamation points!

114. A Few Rules - continued
 Look for redundancy within the manuscript
 Try not to use “it” or “they” - be specific!
 No jargon
 Two shorter sentences are frequently much
more effective than a long, complex sentence
 “Data” is plural not singular, i.e., “the data
are…” NOT “ the data is…”

115. A Few Rules - continued
 Capitalize people’s names, i.e., Golgi
apparatus
 Never, ever plagiarize! (even from
yourself!)
 Use numbers when expressing
measurements, except when the number
would begin a sentence

116. Discussion

117. Discusion
• When most people read paper, they read the title
and abstract first, then the introduction, some
graphs or tables and then the discussion.
THEREFORE:
the discussion should begin by summarizing the
main findings .Then interpret the findings in
relation to the introduction and finally draw
conclusion.Keep the discussion to the results;
don`t go beyond the data

118. Discussion
• The least formalized part of an article
• The most difficult part of an article
• The structure is the the same for every experiment
• It`s practice of logic and discipline
• It`s not repeating the results
• Since sometimes results are self-explanatory,many
students find it difficult to know what material to
add in this last section

119. Discussion
• Simply:
Discussion is where you
REFER to your results …
EXPLAIN your results …
INTERPRET your results in light of other work
in field …
(Don`t repeat or reformulate or
recapitulate results!)

120. A n s w e r r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n
S u p p o r t a n d d e f e n d a n s w e r s w i t h r e s u l t s
E X P L A I N
- C o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s y o u g o t o
- U n e x p e c t e d f i n d i n g s
- D i s c r e p a n c i e s w i t h o t e h r r e s e a r c h
S t a t e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e s t u d y
E s t a b l i s h n e w n e s
A n n o u n c e f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h

121. Discussion
• Answer research question
• Support and defend answers with results
• EXPLAIN:
- conflicting results you got
- unexpected findings
- discrepancies with other research
• State limitations of the study
• Establish newness
• Announce further research

122. Discussion
• Why the research was done?
• Interpretation
• Findings in association with hypothesis
• Findings in association with other researches
• Evaluation of scientific validity
• Comments about meaningful results
• Explanation of negative opinions
• Association of topic with current sitiuation
• Future studies

123. Discussion
First paragraph
** Summarize main findings
** Start by presenting the essential
conclusions of your specific study

124. Discussion
• What`s this?

125. Discussion
• Remember inverted triangle at Introduction…!
• There is a triangle at Discussion too, but is not
inverted..!
Basically discussion contains several parts in no
particular order but roughly moving from specific
(related to your experiment only) to general (how
your finding fit in the larger scientific community)

126. Discussion
• General structure of an article

127. Discussion
• Explain whether data support your hypothesis
• Acknowledge any anomalous data or deviations
from what you expected (next slide)
• Derive conclusions based on your findings and
about the process you`re studing
• Relate your findings to earlier work in the same
area (if you can)
• Explore the theoritical and practical implications
of your findings

128. Discussion
• Explain whether the data support your
hypothesis
You should begin this part of discussion by
explicitly stating the relationships or
correlations your data indicate between the
independent and dependent variables.
Example

129. Discussion
• Make sure you are very explicit about the
relationship between the evidence and the
conclusions you draw from it.
• Tell your readers exactly how you got from
point A (was the hypothesis supported) to
point B (yes or no)
• You should defend your claim !

130. Discusion
• Occasionally it is appropriate to introduce new
data in the discussion section.Give this only as a
description of unpublished results, and make it
very clear that `s only a preliminary evidence.This
should not be used as a means to publish your new
materials, and should only be included to make a
point,perhaps confirming your major conclusions
or to show the direction your work is going.

131. Discussion
• Abstract >>> Past tense
• Theory >>> Past tense
• Methods & Materials >>> Past tense
• Discussion >>> Alternates! :

132. Discussion
Past tense
Your current results
Other studies that are
preliminary or cast
into doubt by your
studies
Present tense
Results of previous
studies that are well-known
and confirmed
Interpretation of your
results

133. Discussion
• Last paragraph
- Draw conclusion
- Mention to theoritical implications
- Mention to practical implications
- Extend your findings to other species
- Point to broader topics and need to further
researches
- Show that you`ll continue research on it

134. Some advices
• Emphasize the new and important aspects of the
study
• Compare and contrast the results with other
relevant studies
• State the limitation of study
• If your method is new and strange,explain more
and try to defend it
• In randomized clinical trials mention to:
- sources of potential bias
- imprecisions
- dangers associated with multiplicity of analysis
and outcome

135. Some advices(continued)
• Be sure that all conclusions are supported by
results(give evidence for each conclusion)
• Make it clear that are major hypotheses in the field
supported by your research or contradicted?
• Although there may be some repetition of
information in the results and discussion section, it
should kept to minimum
• Point out any exception or any lack of correlation
• Discussion is often far too long

136. Don`t…!
1) Don`t write an unabridged and long
criticism on previous researches
2) Avoid making statements on economic
benefits and costs unless their manuscript
includes the appropriate economic data and
analysis
3) Avoid claiming priority and alluding to
work that has not been completed

137. Don`t…!(continued)
3) Don`t omit other previous good evidences to show
your study is unique …don`t magnify it!
4) Don`t explain the concepts more than what is
necessary
5) Discussion part is not for review of literature
6) Don`t be shy! Discuss the theoritical implications
& practical applications of your work

138. Don`t…!(continued)
7) Don`t hide unexpected results…they`re useful
8) Keep the discussion to the results,don`t go beyond
data
9) Don`t ignore or bury the major issue
10) don`t over generalize
11) Don`t ignore deviations in your data
12) Avoid speculation that can`t be tested in the
foreseeable future

139. Don`t…!(continued)
13) Be direct; avoid qualifying phrases such as “it
appears that…” or “our data suggest that…”
14) Labs are not as practical tests of undeniable
scientific truths, so don`t say that the hypothesis
was “proved” or “disproved” or that it was
“correct” or “incorrect”.
words like “supported”, “indicated” and
“suggested” are more acceptable ways to evaluate
your hypothesis

140. AA ssmmiillee iiss tthhee sshhoorrtteesstt
ddiissttaannccee bbeettwweeeenn
hhuummaann--bbeeiinnggss

141.  The Scientific Paper: Discussion
 In this section, you are free to explain what the results mean or why
they differ from what other workers have found.
 You should interpret your results in light of other published results, by
adding additional information from sources you cited in the
Introduction section as well as by introducing new sources. Make sure
you provide accurate citations.
 Relate your discussion back to the objectives and questions you raised
in the Introduction section. However, do not simply re-state the
objectives. Make statements that synthesize all the evidence
(including previous work and the current work).
 Limit your conclusions to those that your data can actually
support. You can then proceed to speculate on why this occurred
and whether you expected this to occur, based on other workers'
findings.
 Suggest future directions for research, new methods, explanations for
deviations from previously published results, etc.

142.  How to Cite Sources in the Discussion Section
 It is important to cite sources in the discussion section of your
paper as evidence of the claims you are making. There are
ways of citing sources in the text so that the reader can find
the full reference in the literature cited section at the end of
the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly interrupted
(see also Introduction).
 Make sure you give a full citation in the Literature Cited
section (“references”) for all sources mentioned in the text.

143.  The Scientific Paper: Literature Cited
 This is the last section of the paper. Here you should provide an
alphabetical (or numbered according to the occurrence in
your paper) listing of all the published work you cited in the text
of the paper.
Note: in most journals, listed and numbered according to
sequential appearance in text!
 A standard format is used both to cite literature in the text and
to list these studies in the Literature Cited section. Consult a
recent issue of the respective journal for guidance.
 For papers published in journals you must provide the date, title,
journal name, volume number, and page numbers. For books
you need the publication date, title, publisher, and place of
publication.

144.  Practical Tips for Scientific Writing
 PROOFREAD!!! You should check your paper to catch and
correct these and other common errors:
 You should avoid abbreviations by writing out the full word
(minimum, October, first, temperature, ...). Exceptions include
common terms like ATP and DNA, units of measure (m, g, cm, °C),
and mathematical or chemical formulas. Sentences should
never begin with an abbreviation or an acronym.
 You may wish to introduce an acronym for a term that is
repeated often: if your paper deals with soybeans, Glycine max,
you may use the full scientific name once and substitute G. max
thereafter.
 Chemical elements are not proper nouns, so do not capitalize
them. Only the first letter of the symbol is a capital letter: nitrogen
(N), carbon (C), calcium (Ca).
 Reference:
 V.E. McMillan's Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences , a highly recommended
resource for scientific writing).

145.  In formal writing, you should never use contractions (didn't,
can't, haven't...).
 The word "data" is plural, as in "the data were collected on
January 21, 2001."
 Direct quotes should be avoided, unless you are presenting
another author's specific definition or original label. You can
usually paraphrase the writing effectively and more concisely,
taking care to properly attribute the sources of your statements.
 Read and re-read your references. Consult a textbook or
another reference to help you resolve any aspects of the paper
you do not understand before you start writing.
 You should review your writing to make sure that each sentence
presents one or two clear ideas. This will also help you organize
sentences within paragraphs in a logical order.

146.  In science, the word "significant" implies the result of a statistical
test. You should analyze your results to determine whether they
are statistically significant and report the test you used.
 Do not use slang. Try to use precise, scientific terms where
possible (without unnecessary jargon) and avoid colloquialisms
and figures of speech: "somewhat" rather than "sort of," "many" or
"a great deal" instead of "a lot."
 Your word processor's spell-check and/or grammar-check
function is not error-free. It cannot tell you when to use "it's" and
"its," and it cannot tell you that a particular sentence does not
make sense. Give yourself enough time to proofread and correct
your paper.

147.  Tenses
When describing methods and results, you should use the past
tense. The present tense is appropriate for accepted facts,
such as the background information presented in the
Introduction. In addition, you may use the present tense when
you discuss your results and conclusions. Looking over other
scientific papers may help you answer questions you might
have on this topic.
 Units
All units of measure must be metric or SI (international System).

148. End of Session one

149. 3. Language
 Three aspects of style seem to cause problems:
 Division of the text into sentences and paragraphs. Sentences
should have only one idea or concept. In general, sentences in
scientific prose should be short, but full stops should not be added
so liberally that the writing does not flow. The use of paragraphs
helps the reader to appreciate the sense of the writing.
 Superfluous phrases and words should be avoided. Do not write
phrases such as "It is also important to bear in mind the following
considerations". Most woolly phrases can be omitted or replaced
by a single word.
 Try to use familiar, precise words rather than far-fetched vague
words. "Cheaper" may replace "More economically viable", and
ongoing situation" doesn’t mean very much.

150.  Tense and mood
 Write in past tense unless you are describing present or future
situations. Use the active voice rather than the passive voice.
 For example, instead of writing "The food was eaten by the pig",
write "The pig ate the food". The active voice is easier to read
and reduces the sentence length
 It can be acceptable to write in more than one tense in the
literature review e.g. "Brown (1995) showed that the brain is more
fully developed at birth than other organs". In this case the
present tense can be used for the second half of the sentence
because its gives knowledge that is universally accepted.
 Materials and methods should be written in the past tense. "The
experiment was designed in the form of a 6 x 6 Latin square."
Remarks about Results should mainly be in the past tense. "When
a high protein diet was fed to rabbits they grew rapidly."

151.  Sentence construction
 The purpose of any paper is to convey information and ideas. This
cannot be done with long involved sentences. Keep sentences
short, not more than 30 words in length. A sentence should
contain one idea or two related ideas. A paragraph should
contain a series of related ideas.
 Choice of words
 Words have precise meanings and to use them correctly adds
clarity and precision to prose. Look at the following pairs of words
that are often used in scientific texts. Learn how to use them
correctly: Fewer, less; infer, imply; as, because; disinterested,
uninterested ; alibi, excuse ; data, datum; later, latter; causal,
casual; loose, lose; mute, moot; discrete, discreet. See, for
example: Less active blood cells vs.
Fewer active blood cells
 Use a standard dictionary and Roget's Thesaurus of English Words
and Phrases to find the correct meaning of words.

152.  Use of pronouns
 When you write ‘it’, ‘this’, ‘which’ or ‘they’ are you sure that the
meaning is plain? A pronoun usually deputizes for the nearest
previous noun of the same number (singular or plural) - The cows
ate the food; they were white. The cows ate the food; it was white.
 Correct spelling, including the use of plurals
 Some words have alternative spelling e.g. tyre, tire, grey, gray;
draft, draught, often the difference is between the American and
British spelling. In other cases an apparent misspelling is a misuse of
a word e.g. practice, practise.
 The plural of many words in English is achieved by adding an s (or
es) to the single. However some words have the same form in both
the singular and plural. Other words are already plural such as
people and equipment, so don't use peoples (unless you are
referring to different groups of people or different ethnic groups)
and equipments. Adopted words sometimes take on the plural of
the original language, for example datum becomes data and
fungus become fungi.

153.  Use of abstract words
 Use the concrete and not the abstract to achieve clarity and
precision: "Cessation of plant growth operated in some of the plots."
Obviously a cessation cannot operate (Some plots of plants did not
grow during the trial)
 The abstract noun basis is commonly overworked. "Measurement of
storm intensity involves recording staff to be available both day and
night on a 24 hour basis." "To measure storm intensity recording staff
have to be in duty throughout the day and night."
 Be careful with the use of the present participle(Gerund):
 After standing in boiling water for an hour, examine the flask.
 The gerund always ends in 'ing.' If the sentence is left without a subject
(a hanging participle) then the action of the verb is transferred to the
person taking the action.

154.  Misuse of emotional words (avoid)
 One cannot develop a logical argument using emotional words: e.g.
progressive, reckless, crank, sound, good, correct, improved,
superior.
 Superlatives
 Very, more, much, have a place when used economically. As
superlatives they are out of place in scientific writing. Superlatives
such as gigantic, earth shattering or fantastic should never be used.
 Qualifying the absolute
 Some adjectives are absolute and cannot be modified such as:
sterile or unique. Other adjectives, such as pregnacy, have to be
qualified with care. A petri dish is either sterile or not sterile. It cannot
be very sterile, quite sterile or fairly sterile; An object is unique, and
although a woman can be recently pregnant, she can't be slightly
pregnant.

155.  Loose expressions (avoid)
 In each selected village 30 farmers were interviewed, namely 10
large, average and small farmers. Is the reference here to the size
of the farmers or to the size of their farms?
 Grandiloquence
 Avoid the use of scientific jargon. The aim in scientific writing is to
inform using simple language not to confuse by the use of
grandiose sounding words and phrases.
 Grandiloquent phrase: The ideal fungicide ... must combine high
fungitoxicity with low mammalian toxicity and phytotoxicity, and
with an absence of tainting or other deleterious side effects when
the fruit is processed.
 Simple replacement: The ideal fungicide ... must kill fungus
effectively, but must be harmless to animals and plants, and must
cause no tainting or other harmful side effects when the fruit is
processed.

156.  Genteelism
 "I" is not immodest in a research worker and therefore use it (although
not to excess), NOT "The present writer" or "The author of this
communication".
 The Misuse of the definite article "The"
 Avoid overuse of the word "the" . Only use when it applies to a
particular item that has been referred to before. All others could be
omitted.
 The excessive use of the pronoun "it"
 Avoid excessive use of the indefinite pronoun "it".
 "It would thus appear that" can be replaced by "apparently";
 "It is evident that" by "evidently";
 Other commonly used phrases such as: "It will be seen that"; "It is
interesting to note that" and "It is thought that", can be left out without
any meaning being lost.

157.  Avoid verbal obscurantisms and use simple words
 Some phrases show sloppy thinking. For example the phrase 'It has
long been known that' usually means that the writer has not
bothered to look up the reference.
 ‘Correct to an order of magnitude’ probably means that the
answer was wrong.
 ‘Almost reached significance at the 5% level’ usually means a
selective interpretation of results.
 Text is easier to understand if simple words and phrases can be
used to replace more complex or foreign ones. For example
analogous can be replaced by similar ; utilise by use; terminate
by end.

158.  Punctuation
 Colon (:) and semi colon (;)
 A colon is used when a list or explanation follows, a semi colon is used
to separate two or more related clauses provided each clause forms
a full sentence.
 Commas
 A comma is put in a sentence to denote a brief pause between
groups of words:
 I will show you the paper about which I was speaking, but it is not as
useful as I first thought.
 Or to separate subclauses:
 Professor Brown, who is in charge of recruiting for the University, said
that the latest estimates were higher than those for this time last year.
 Finally to separate all items in a list except for the last two;
 The following items may be imported duty free into Azania: Animals,
cereals, plants, fruit, trees, legumes and nuts.

159.  Other points concerning the use of English
 A singular verb must always be associated with a singular noun.
Similarly a plural verb with a plural noun. Difficulties arise especially
with nouns like, for example, livestock and data, which are plural.
 Numbers and Units
 Quantities should be given only as many significant figures as can
be justified. For example the metabolic rate of an animal should
not be quoted as 326.18W if it can be measured to only within
about 5%. It should be written as 330W.
 The figures within a number should be grouped in threes (with a
small space between each group) so that they are easier to read.
Commas should be avoided. For example: 21 306.1 not 21,306.1
 Concerning units, the Systeme International (SI) should be used
where possible.
 When incorporating statistical data into the text, the test used (eg
chi squared) should be included.

160.  Common differences in spelling
 AE BE AE BE
 color colour center centre
 organization organisation dialog dialogue
 traveling travelling defence defense
 recognize recognise analyze analyse
 Tenses
 AE BE
 burned/was burned burnt/was burnt
 learned/has learned learnt/has learnt
 (see also: dream, kneel, lean, leap, spell, spill, spoil)

161.  http://www.ag.iastate.edu/aginfo/checklist.ph
p
 Word Usage in Scientific Writing
 The following list includes some of the troublesome
words, terms, and expressions most frequently found in
Experiment Station journal paper and bulletin
manuscripts. In reporting and recording research, try to
be as accurate and precise in describing it as in doing
it. Avoid the ambiguous and "faddish." For the benefit
of international readers, especially, use standard words
in their established meanings.

162.  Above ("the above method," "mentioned above," etc.) -- Often,
you are referring to something preceding, but not necessarily
above; a loose reference, convenient for writers, but not for
readers. Be specific. You know exactly what and where, but your
readers have to search.
 Affect, effect -- Affect is a verb and means to influence. Effect, as
a verb, means to bring about; as a noun, effect means result.
 All of, both of -- Just "all" or "both" will serve in most instances.
 Alternate, alternative -- Be sure which you mean.
 And (to begin a sentence) -- You have been told not to do this in
grade school. But teacher's purpose was to keep you from using
fragmentary sentences; either "and" or "but" may be used to begin
complete sentences. And both are useful transitional words
between related or contrasting statements.

163.  Apparently (apparent) -- means obviously, clearly, plainly evident,
but also means seemingly or ostensibly as well as observably. You
know the meaning that you intend, but readers may not.
Ambiguity results. Use obvious(ly), clear(ly), seeming(ly),
evident(ly), observable or observably, etc., as needed to remove
doubt.
 Appear, appears -- Seem(s)? "He always appears on the scene,
but never seems to know what to do." "Marley's ghost appeared
but seemed harmless.“
 At the present time, at this point in time -- Say "at present" or "now"
if necessary at all.

164.  Below -- See comment about above.
 But (to begin a sentence) -- see "And" and "However".
 By means of -- Most often, just "by" will serve and save words.
 Case -- Can be ambiguous, misleading, or ludicrous because of
different connotations; e.g., "In the case of Scotch whiskey,...."
Case also is a frequent offender in padded, drawn-out sentences.
For "in this case," try "in this instance.“
 Commas and punctuation -- The trend is toward less punctuation
(particularly fewer commas), but that demands careful writing,
without misplaced or dangling elements. Do not omit commas
before the conjunctions in compound sentences. Most journals,
but not all, use final commas before "and" or "or" in series; check
the journal.

165.  Compare with, compare to -- Compare with means to examine
differences and similarities; compare to means to represent as
similar. One may conclude that the music of Brahms compares to
that of Beethoven, but to do that, one must first compare the
music of Brahms with that of Beethoven.
 Comprise -- Before misuse, comprise meant to contain, include, or
encompass (not to constitute or compose) and still does, despite
two now opposite meanings. Use and meanings now are so
confused and mixed that "comprise" is best avoided altogether.
 Correlated with, correlated to -- Although things may be related to
one another, things are correlated with one another.
 Different from, different than -- Different from! Also, one thing differs
from another, although you may differ with your colleagues.

166.  Due to -- Make sure that you don't mean because of. Due is an
adjective modifier and must be directly related to a noun, not to a
concept or series of ideas gleaned from the rest of a statement.
"Due to the fact that..." is an attempt to weasel out.
 During the course of, in the course of -- Just use "during" or "in.“
 Either....or, neither...nor -- Apply to no more than two items or
categories. Similarly, former and latter refer only to the first and
second of only two items or categories.
 Etc. -- Use at least two items or illustrations before "and so forth" or
"etc.“
 Experience(d) -- To experience something is sensory; inanimate,
unsensing things (lakes, soils, enzymes, streambeds, farm fields,
etc.) do not experience anything.

167.  Following -- "After" is more precise if "after" is the meaning
intended. "After [not following] the procession, the leader
announced that the ceremony was over.“
 High(er), low(er) -- Much too often used, frequently ambiguously
or imprecisely, for other words such as greater, lesser, larger,
smaller, more, fewer; e.g., "Occurrences of higher concentrations
were lower at higher levels of effluent outflow." One interpretation
is that greater concentrations were fewer or less frequent as
effluent volume(s) increased, but others also are possible.
 However -- Place it more often within a sentence or major element
rather than at the beginning or end. "But" serves better at the
beginning.

168.  Hyphening of compound or unit modifiers -- Often needed to
clarify what is modifying what; e.g., a small-grain harvest (harvest
of small grain) is different from a small grain harvest (small harvest
of all grain), a batch of (say, 20) 10-liter containers is different from
a batch of 10 [1-] liter containers, and a man eating fish is very
different from a man-eating fish!
 In order to -- For brevity, just use "to"; the full phrase may be used,
however, [in order] to achieve useless padding.
 Irregardless -- No, regardless. But irrespective might do.
 It should be mentioned, noted, pointed out, emphasized, etc. --
Such preambles often add nothing but words. Just go ahead and
say what is to be said.

169.  It was found, determined, decided, felt, etc. -- Are you being
evasive? Why not put it frankly and directly? (And how about that
subjective "felt"?)
 Less(er), few(er) -- "Less" refers to quantity; "fewer" to number.
 Majority, vast majority -- See if most will do as well or better. Look
up "vast.“
 Myself -- Not a substitute for me. "This paper has been reviewed by
Dr. Smith and myself" and "The report enclosed was prepared by
Dr. Jones and myself" are incorrect; me would have been correct
in all instances. (Use of I also would have been wrong in those
examples.) Some correct uses of myself: I found the error myself. I
myself saw it happen. I am not myself today. I cannot convince
myself.

170.  Partially, partly -- Compare the meanings (see also impartially).
Partly is the better, simpler, and more precise word when partly is
meant.
 Percent, percentage -- Not the same; use percent only with a
number.
 Predominate, predominant -- Predominate is a verb. Predominant
is the adjective; as an adverb, predominantly (not
"predominately").
 Prefixes -- (mid, non, pre, pro, re, semi, un, etc.) -- Usually not
hyphened in U.S. usage except before a proper name (pro-Iowa)
or numerals (mid-60s) or when lack of a hyphen makes a word
ambiguous or awkward. Preengineered is better hyphened as pre-engineered,
one of the few exceptions.

171.  Principle, principal -- They're different; make sure which you mean.
 Prior to, previous to -- Use before, preceding, or ahead of. There
are prior and subsequent events that occur before or after
something else, but prior to is the same kind of atrocious use that
attempts to substitute "subsequent to" for "after.“
 Proven -- Although a proven adjective, stick to proved for the past
participle. "A proven guilty person must first have been proved
guilty in court.“
 Provided, providing -- Provided (usually followed by "that") is the
conjunction; providing is the participle.
 Reason why -- Omit why if reason is used as a noun. The reason
is...; or, the reason is that... (i.e., the reason is the why).

172.  Since -- has a time connotation; use "because" or "inasmuch as"
when either is the intended meaning.
 Small in size, rectangular in shape, blue in color, tenuous in nature,
etc. -- Redundant.
 That and which -- Two words that can help, when needed, to
make intended meanings and relationships unmistakable, which is
important in reporting scientific information. If the clause can be
omitted without leaving the modified noun incomplete, use which
and enclose the clause within commas or parentheses; otherwise,
use that. Example: "The lawn mower, which is broken, is in the
garage." But, "The lawn mower that is broken is in the garage; so is
the lawn mower that works."

173.  To be -- Frequently unnecessary. "The differences were [found] [to
be] significant.“
 Varying -- Be careful to distinguish from various or differing. In
saying that you used varying amounts or varying conditions, you
are implying individually changing amounts or conditions rather
than a selection of various or different ones.
 Where -- Use when you mean where, but not for "in which," "for
which," etc.
 Which is, that were, who are, etc. -- Often not needed. For
example, "the data that were related to age were analyzed first"
means that the data related to age were analyzed first. Similarly,
for "the site, which is located near Ames," try "the site, located
near Ames" or "the site, near Ames." Rephrasing sometimes can
help. Instead of "a survey, which was conducted in 1974" or "a
survey conducted in 1974," try "a 1974 survey."

174.  Beware of misplaced or dangling modifiers and pronoun
antecedent problems.
 The difficulty here is that you, as the author, know exactly to which
each has reference even though not explicitly stated. Your
reader, however, doesn't have this advantage, and the result may
be confusing, misleading, or funny.
 EXAMPLES:
 "Using multiple-regression techniques, the animals in Experiment I
were...„
 "In assessing the damage, the plants exhibited numerous lesions."
 "The spiders were inadvertently discovered while repairing a faulty
growth chamber."

175.  Ambiguous pronoun antecedents
 "The flavor was evaluated by an experienced taste panel, and it
was deemed obnoxious.“
 "All samples in Lot II were discarded when the authors found that
they were contaminated with alcohol, rendering them unstable."
[and unable to think clearly?]
 "The guidelines were submitted to the deans, but they
subsequently were ignored."

176.  Language Issues – Summary/Conclusion
• Be more or less specific
• Avoid clichés like the plague. They’re old hat.
• Verbs has to agree with their subjects.
• Prepositions are not words to end sentences with.
• And don’t start a sentence with a conjunction
• It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.
• Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are (usually) unnecessary.
• Also, never, ever use repetitive redundancies.
• No sentence fragments.
• Contractions aren’t good style and shouldn’t be used in formal
writing.
• Do not be redundant; do not use more words than necessary.
• One should never generalize.
• One-word sentences? Eliminate.
• Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary.
• Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice.

177.  Language Issues – Summary/Conclusion
• Kill all exclamation points !!!
• Use words correctly, irregardless how others use them.
• Understatement is always the absolutely best way to put forth
earth-shaking ideas.
• Use the apostrophe in it‘s proper place and omit it when ist not
needed.
• Who needs rhetorical questions?
• Finally:
• Proofread carefully to see if you any words out.

178.  2. Technicalities
 Typesetting
 WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get)
 Microsoft Word - versatile commercial document
composing tool. Nevertheless it does have 1 very
important inherent drawback: equations quality.
 OpenOffice.org - ...
 WYSIWYM (What You See Is What You Mean)
 LaTeX - a macro package around TeX, which is a
typesetting system capable of providing truly high-quality
material of any kind

179.  Reference management software
 Reference management software, citation management
software or personal bibliographic management software is
software for authors to use for recording and utilising
bibliographic citations (references). Once a citation has been
recorded, it can be used time and again in generating
bibliographies, such as lists of references in articles.
 These software packages normally consist of a database in
which full bibliographic references can be entered, plus a
system for generating selective lists or articles in the different
formats required by publishers and learned journals. Modern
reference management packages can usually be integrated
with word processors so that a reference list in the appropriate
format is produced automatically as an article is written,
reducing the risk that a cited source is not included in the
reference list.
 Examples: Endnote, BibTeX ;
 Internet source for literature: ISI/Web of Science

180.  Graphics software
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
 Computer algebra systems
 Numerical software
 Plotting programs (graphing programs)
 Statistical software

181.  Practice of writing research papers
 http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk/elective/WRI
TE%20UP.htm

182.  Writing a research paper
 General points:
 Give yourself enough time to work. Remember that writing is a
process. A good paper doesn't come out perfect first time for
anyone. Even the best scientists have to struggle to organize
their papers and everyone, including you, needs to go through
several revisions before they reach the final product... so don't
feel bad, and don't skimp on revisions!
 The quality of the writing reflects the quality of the research!
Use clear, direct prose. Make every word count. Don't use extra
words, or excessively long words when shorter ones will do.
Write as you would speak.
 Find a good (?) paper from a respected journal and use it as a
model for your own writing.

183.  Start with an outline of the paper sketching out what's going
to go in the introduction etc. Use subtopics and subject
sentences to build your outline.
 Then write a rough draft that includes the main ideas and
fleshes out your topic sentences into paragraphs in rough
form (don't worry about details like exact references, full
sentences etc at this point).
 Use the active voice when possible. There is a trend in
scientific publishing toward writing "I measured 50ml..." rather
than "50ml was measured". The active voice is usually less
wordy and more interesting to read. However, there is a
problem when writing in the active voice as a single author in
that the incessant "I" in the materials and methods can
become a distraction, and should be minimized. Multiple
authored papers can duck this problem with the more
acceptable "we".

184.  Once you have finished with your rough draft, take a break
before rereading your paper. Then start to fiddle with the details
(cleaning up the prose etc)..
 Let a friend or colleague read your draft. Listen to what they
say.
 Write your second draft.
 Spell check and check the grammar carefully. Make sure the
ideas are outlined clearly and flow logically within the text.
 Publish! (better: submit!)

185.  Check before submission that you:
 Numbered the text pages consecutively, beginning with the
first or title page.
 Numbered your tables (typed separately from the text, not
more than one on a page) consecutively in the order in which
you want them to appear.
 Read the title and headings of each table objectively to
determine whether the table can be understood without
reference to the text
 Searched the text for references to tables to make certain
that each table is referred to and that each of the references
is to the appropriate table.

186.  Indicated by a marginal note a place for each table.
 Examined your text, tables and legends to make certain that
each reference cited is accurately represented in the
reference list.
 Examined your reference list to make certain that each work
listed there is accurately referred to in the text, tables or
legends.
 Examined each item in the bibliography section for accuracy
of dates, wording, spelling and other details.
 Prepared adequate legends for all illustrations (double-spaced
on a separate page)

187.  Made certain that illustrations are numbered consecutively in
the order in which you want them to appear in your article,
that each of them is referred to at least once in the text, and
that each reference is to the appropriate illustration.
 Indicated by a marginal note a place for the figure.
 Reconsidered the appropriateness of your title and abstract
and your index terms (if any).
 Reviewed the special requirements of the journal to which
you are submitting your manuscript and made certain that
you have met them.
 Carefully read your final typescript at least twice, the second
time preferably on a different day.

188.  In case of submission by mail: prepared as many copies of your
text, tables and illustrations as are required.
 or
 In case of online submission: prepared the files according to the
instructions for authors, and provided the software you have
used.
 Kept for your files a complete copy of your manuscript and
accompanying material.
 Enclosed copies of releases for material requiring releases.
 Included on the first page of the typescript the address to which
letters, proofs and requests for reprints should be sent.
Note:
nowadays, tables and figures are usually inserted in the
(electronic) manuscript at appropriate positions,
with captions included. Refer to “author instructions“ in case!

189.  Letter to the editor
 Example (AE):
Dear Professor ….:
Please find enclosed our manuscript “Cluster Formation and
Rheology of Photoreactive Nanoparticles”.
We studied the cluster formation of photoreactive nanoparticles
upon irradiation, and the effect of this process on the rheological
behavior of dilute colloidal dispersions.
Since our work should be of interest to many readers of ……….,
we have decided to submit our paper to your journal, hoping you
will find it acceptable for publication.
Sincerely
…………

190.  Ethical Policy
 From:
 “Best Practice Guidelines on Publication Ethics: A
Publisher‘s Perspective“
 Wiley-Blackwell
 see www.BlackwellPublishing.com/PublicationEthics

191.  Authors must disclose all sources of funding for their research
and its publication.
 Authors must disclose relevant competing interests (both
financial and personal)
 Credit for authorship should be based on:
 - substantial contributions to research design, or the
acquisition, analysis or interpretation of the data
 - drafting the paper or revising it critically
 - approval of the submitted and final version
 Authors should meet all three criteria.
 Authors must acknowledge individuals who do not qualify as
authors but who contributed to the research

192.  Authors must acknowledge any assistance they have
received (e.g. provision of writing assistance, literature
searching, data analysis, administrative support, supply of
materials). If/how this assistance was funded should be
described and included with other funding informations.
 The copyright form (see journals webpages)
 Authors must declare that the submitted work is their own and
that copyright has not been breached in seeking its
publication.
 Authors should declare that the submitted work has not
previously been published in full, and is not being considered
for publication elsewhere.

193.  Authors of manuscripts describing experiments involving
human participants must give assurances that appropriate
consent was obtained.
 Authors of manuscripts describing experiments involving
animals must give assurances that appropriate methods were
used to minimize animal suffering.
 For further instructions:
see “guideline for authors“ on journals webpages

194.  Responding to the editor:
 Acceptance without revision
 You need take no further action untile the proofs reach you,
except prehaps write a note thanking the editor.
 Minor revisions requested (“accepted“)
 Consider the suggestions carefully, and if you agree that they
will improve the paper, modify or rewrite sentences or sections
as necessary. Retype any heavily corrected pages before you
return the paper to the editor, but enclose the original
corrected paper as well as the retyped copies. In your
covering letter sent with the revised version, thank the editor
and referees for their help and enclose a list of the substantial
changes made in response to their suggestions; if you have
rejected one or more of the recommendations, explain why.

195.  Major revisions requested (“further consideration“)
 You will have to think hard if the effort is worth while. You may
eventually decide that the paper is better as it is, and
proceed to try another editor (another journal) in the hope
that he will agree with you.
 Rejection
 If the editor says the article is too specialized or outside the
scope of the journal, your best course is to send it to another
journal, first modifying the style to comply with the instructions
of that journal.
 If the article is rejected because is is said to be too long and in
need of changes, consider shortening and modifying it
according to the criticism – and then submit it to a different
journal (if the editor had wanted to see a shorter version he
would have offered to reconsider it after revision!).

196.  Rejection (continued)
 If the editor thinks the findings reported are unsound or that
the evidence is incomplete, put the paper aside until you
have obtained more and better information, unless you are
sure that the editor and his advisers are wrong.
 Consider contesting the decision only if you honestly think,
after considerable reflection and at least one night‘s sleep,
that the editor and referees have made a superficial or wrong
judgement. In this case write a polite letter explaining as
briefly as possible why you think the editor should reconsider
his decision.

197.  Summary: Steps in writing a paper
 Assess your work: decide what, when and where to publish.
Refrain from duplicate publication, and define your purpose in
publishing.
 Obtain and read the Instructions to Authors of the journal chosen
 Decide who the authors will be
 Draft a working title and abstract
 Decide on the basic form of the paper
 Collect the material under the major headings chosen

198.  Steps in writing a paper - continued
 Design tables, including their titles and footnotes; design or select
illustrations and write titles and legends for them
 Write for permission to reproduce any previously published tables,
illustrations or other material that will be used
 Write a topic outline and perhaps a sentence outline
 Write, type or dictate a preliminary draft of the text quickly (!), to
give it unity.
 Check completeness of the references assembled
 Put the manuscript or typescript away for a few days

199.  Steps in writing a paper - continued
 Re-examine the structure of the paper
 Check the illustrations and tables and make the final versions
 Re-read the references you cite and check your own accuracy in
citing them; check for consistency, and reduce the number of
abbreviations and footnotes
 (Re)type the paper (= first draft)
 Correct the grammar and polish the style
 Type several copies of the corrected paper (= second draft)

200.  Steps in writing a paper - continued
 Ask for criticism from co-authors and friends
 Make any necessary alterations
 Compose a now title and abstract suitable for information retrieval,
list the index terms and assemble the manuscript
 Compile the reference list, cross-check references against the text,
and ensure that all bibliographical details are correct
 Retype (= penultimate version) and check typescript
 Obtain a final critical review from a senior colleague
 Make any final corrections (final version)

201.  Steps in writing a paper - continued
 Write a covering letter to the editor, enclosing copies of letters
giving you permission to reproduce any previously published
material or to cite unpublished work
 Check that all parts of the paper are present, and post as many
copies as specified to the editor
 If the editor returns the paper, revise it as necessary, send it
elsewhere, or abandon it
 Correct the proofs

202.  Scientific ranking of journals –
the impact factor
 From:
http://www.sciencegateway.org/rank/index.html

203. Journals Ranked by Impact: Mater.Sci.
Rank 2007 Impact Factor Impact 2003-07 Impact 1981-2007
1 Prog. Mater. Sci.
(20.85)
Nature Materials
(37.04)
Mat. Sci. Eng. R
(69.87)
2 Nature Materials
(19.78)
Mat. Sci. Eng. R
(31.54)
Prog. Mater. Sci.
(65.57)
3 Nature Nanotechnol.
(14.96)
Ann. Rev. Mater. Res.
(18.77)
Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci.
(49.05)
4 Mat. Sci. Eng. R
(14.40)
Prog. Mater. Sci.
(17.76)
Int. Mater. Reviews
(40.38)
5 Nano Letters
(9.63)
Nano Letters
(17.48)
Nature Materials
(37.04)
6 Advanced Materials
(8.19)
Advanced Materials
(16.28)
CR Solid St. Mater. Sci.
(32.83)
7 Adv. Funct. Mater.
(7.50)
CR Solid St. Mater. Sci.
(12.48)
Advanced Materials
(32.36)
8 Small
(6.41)
Adv. Funct. Mater.
(10.53)
Acta Metall. Mater.
(26.54)
9 MRS Bulletin
(5.17)
Curr. Op. Sol. St. Mat.
(9.71)
Ann. Rev. Mater. Res.
(25.61)
10 Chem. Materials
(4.88)
Chem. Materials
(9.63)
J. Mech. Phys. Solids
(23.45)

204. Journals Ranked by Impact: Chemistry
Rank 2002
Impact Factor
Impact
1998-2002
Impact
1981-2002
1 Chemical Reviews
(20.99)
Chemical Reviews
(39.95)
Chemical Reviews
(119.37)
2 Acc. Chemical Res.
(15.90)
Acc. Chemical Res.
(27.70)
Acc. Chemical Res.
(72.84)
3 Chem. Soc. Reviews
(8.72)
Chem. Soc. Reviews
(23.49)
Chem. Soc. Reviews
(39.13)
4 Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
(7.67)
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
(11.98)
J. Am. Chem. Soc.
(36.25)
5 J. Am. Chem. Soc.
(6.20)
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
(10.78)
J. Computat. Chem.
(29.84)
6 J. Combin. Chemistry
(5.19)
Topics Curr. Chem.
(9.13)
Topics Curr. Chem.
(29.14)
7 Nano Letters
(5.03)
Rev. Computat. Chem.
(8.64)
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
(25.90)
8 Topics Curr. Chem.
(5.00)
Chemistry-Europ. J.
(7.83)
J. Chem. Soc.- Chem.
(19.87)
9 Chemistry-Europ. J.
(4.24)
Liebigs Ann.-Recueil
(7.07)
Rev. Computat. Chem.
(19.44)
10 Chem. Communications
(4.04)
Chem. Communications
(6.98)
Marine Chemistry
(18.31)

205. Recent Impact Factors
The Ten Most-Cited Journals of 2006
Ranked by total citations tallied in 2006 (the most recent year covered by
Thomson Scientific Journal Citation Reports) to previously published articles
in each journal.
Rank Journal Citations
in 2006
Rank for
2005
1 Journal of Biological Chemistry 410,903 1
2 Nature 390,690 2
3 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (PNAS) 371,057 3
4 Science 361,389 4
5 J. American Chemical Society 275,769 5
6 Physical Review Letters 268,454 6
7 Physical Review B 212,714 7
8 New England Journal of Medicine 177,505 8
9 Astrophysical Journal 162,136 9
10 Journal of Chemical Physics 157,334 10

206. Science Output – Top Ten Countries
Rank Country Papers
1998-2008
1 United States 2,798,448
2 Japan 757,586
3 Germany 723,804
4 England 641,768
5 France 517,096
6 People's Republic of China 511,216
7 Canada 388,471
8 Italy 370,053
9 Spain 271,753
10 Russia 262,982
SOURCE: Essential Science IndicatorsSM from Thomson Reuters

207. Science Impact – Top Ten Countries
Rank Country Papers
1993-2003
Avg. citations
per paper
1 Switzerland 142,982 13.24
2 United States 2,799,593 12.63
3 Netherlands 202,184 11.33
4 Denmark 79,929 11.14
5 Sweden 158,136 10.85
6 Scotland 96,571 10.75
7 England 619,707 10.74
8 Canada 370,928 10.25
9 Finland 74,106 10.17
10 Belgium 103,181 9.74
SOURCE: Essential Science IndicatorsSM from Thomson Reuters
The top ten countries ranked according to average citations per paper in all fields
(that is, 22 main subject areas, (including general social sciences))

208. The end
 Questions/comments ???
 Next:
 1. Present your own figures (evtl. with legends)
 2. “Write a paper (first draft)“ based on selected sets
of figures with legends/captions
(title, abstract, (introduction), (materials/methods),
(results and discussion), conclusions)