Mechatronics Manual.docx

Name :
Semester :
Section :
Register No. :
P.S.V COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University,
(Inclusion under sections 2(f) and 12(B) of the UGC Act, 1956)
(An ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Institution)
Bangalore –Chennai Highway, (NH-46),
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ME6712-MECHATRONICS LABORATORY
LAB MANUAL-SEVENTH SEMESTER
Anna University-Regulation-2017
2022-2023
Prepared by:
Mr.R.Ravichandran,
Asst.Professor /Department Of Mechanical Engineering.

ME6712 - MECHATRONICS LABORATORY
OBJECTIVES
To know the method of programming the microprocessor and also the design,
modelling & analysis of basic electrical, hydraulic & pneumatic Systems which
enable the students to understand the concept of mechatronics.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Assembly language programming of 8085 – Addition – Subtraction –
Multiplication – Division – Sorting – Code Conversion.
2. Stepper motor interface.
3. Traffic light interface.
4. Speed control of DC motor.
5. Study of various types of transducers.
6. Study of hydraulic, pneumatic and electro-pneumatic circuits.
7. Modelling and analysis of basic hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical circuits
using Software.
8. Study of PLC and its applications.
9. Study of image processing technique.
OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this course, the students can able to design Mechatronics
system with the help of Microprocessor, PLC and other electrical and
Electronics Circuits.
LIST OF EQUIPMENT FOR A BATCH OF 30 STUDENTS
S.NO NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT Qty
1.
Basic Pneumatic Trainer Kit with manual and electrical
controls/ PLC Control.
1
2. Basic Hydraulic Trainer Kit 1
3. Hydraulics and Pneumatics Systems Simulation Software 10
4.
8051 - Microcontroller kit with stepper motor and drive
circuit sets
2
5. Image processing system with hardware & software 1

INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE:
To study about the important features, applications and components of
Mechatronics system.
INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS SYSTEM:
Mechatronics is one of the new and existing fields on the engineering
landscape, subsuming parts of traditional engineering fields and requiring a broader
approach to the design of system that we can formally call as Mechatronics system.
Many industries improving their works through automation which is based on
the inter connection between the electronic control systems and mechanical
engineering.
Such control systems generally use microprocessors as controllers and have
electrical sensors extracting information from mechanical inputs through electrical
actuators to mechanical systems.
This can be considered to be application of computer based digital control
techniques through electronic and electric interfaces to mechanical engineering
problems. Successful design of Mechatronics can lead to products that are extremely
attractive to customer in quality cost-effectiveness.
MECHATRONICS DEFINITION:
Mechatronics may be defined as a multi-disciplinary field of study that implies
the synergistic integration of electronic engineering, electric engineering, control
engineering and computer technology with mechanical engineering for the design,
manufacture, analysis and maintenance of a wide range of engineering products and
processes.
“Mechatronics brings together areas of technology involving sensors and
measurement systems, drive and actuation systems, analysis of the behaviour of
systems microprocessor systems”.
The integration across the traditional boundaries of mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, electronics and control engineering has to occur at the earliest
stages of the design process if cheaper, more reliable; more flexible systems are to be
developed.

 Large scale application
APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING:
Mechatronics engineering finds application in the following fields.
 Electronic home appliances
 Electronic entertainment products
 Engine systems (cars)
Schematic Layout of Hydraulic System

BASIC COMPONENTS OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
Reservoir (or air tank):
A reservoir is an oil supply tank. It is provided to hold the hydraulic liquid
(usually oil).
Pump:
The pump is used to force the liquid into the system.
Prime mover:
A Prime mover, usually an electric motor, is used to drive the pump.
Valves:
Valves are refitted in the system to control liquid direction, pressure, and
flow rate.
Actuator:
An actuator is provided to convert the liquid energy into mechanical force
or torque to do useful work. The actuator is the actual working element of the
system. The actuators can be either cylinders (to provide linear motion) or hydro
motors (to provide rotary motion).
Fluid-transfer piping:
The hydraulic Piping is provided to carry the compressed liquid from one
place to another.
Schematic Layout of Pneumatic System

BASIC COMPONENTS OF A PNEUMATIC SYSTEM:
Reservoir (or air tank):
An air tank is provided to store the compressed air required for the
operations.
Compressor:
The compressor is used to compress the atmospheric air so as to increase
the pressure of the air.
Prime mover:
A Prime mover, usually an electric motor, is used to drive the compressor.
Valves:
Valves are refitted in the system to control air direction, pressure, and
flow rate.
Actuator:
An actuator is provided to convert the air energy into mechanical force or
torque to do useful work.
Fluid-transfer piping:
Piping is provided to carry the compressed air from one place to another.

BASIC SYMBOLS USED IN HYDRAULIS AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEM:

RESULT:
Thus the important feature of Mechatronics system was studied.

Ex No: 1 Date :
ADDITION OF TWO 8-BIT NUMBERS
AIM:
To write an assembly language for adding two 8 bit numbers by using
micro processor kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. 8085 micro processor kit 8085 (0-5V)
2. DC battery
ALGORITHM
Step 1: Start the microprocessor.
Step 2: Initialize the carry as ‘Zero’.
Step 3: Load the first 8 bit data into the accumulator.
Step 4: Copy the contents of accumulator into the register ‘B’.
Step 5: Load the second 8 bit data into the accumulator.
Step 6: Add the 2 - 8 bit data’s and check for carry.
Step 7: Jump on if no carry
Step 8: Increment carry if there is.
Step 9: Store the added request in accumulator.
Step 10: More the carry value to accumulator.
Step 11: Store the carry value in accumulator.
Step 12: Stop the program execution.

With carry
PROGRAM:
Address Label Mnemonics Hex Code Comments
4100 MVI C,00 OE, 00 Initialize the carry as zero
4102 LDA 4300 3A, (00, 43) Load the first 8 bit data
4105 MOV, B,A 47
Copy the value of 8 bit
data into register B
4106 LDA 4301 3A, (01, 43)
Load the second 8 bit data
into the accumulator
4109 ADD B 80 Add the two values
410A JNC D2, 0E, 41 Jump on if no carry
410D INR C OC
If carry is there increment
it by one
410E Loop STA 4302 32 (02, 43)
Stone the added value in
the accumulator
4111 MOV A,C 79
More the value of carry to
the accumulator from
register C
4112 STA 4303 32 (03, 43)
Store the value of carry in
the accumulator
4115 HLT 76 Stop the program
INPUT:
Without carry Input Address Value
4300 04
4301 02
OUTPUT:
Output Address Value
4302 06
4303 00 (carry)

Input Address Value
4300 FF
4301 FF
4302 FE
4303 01 (carry)
Calculation
1111 1111
1111 1111
--------------------
(1)
1111 1110
===========
F E
RESULT
Thus the assembly language program for 8 bit addition of two numbers
was executed successfully by using 8085 micro processing kit.

Ex No : 2 Date :
SUBTRACTION OF TWO 8 BIT NUMBERS
AIM:
To write an assembly language program for subtracting 2 bit (8) numbers
by using-8085 micro processor kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. 8085 micro processor kit (0-5V)
2. DC battery
ALGORITHM:
STEP 1: Start the microprocessor.
STEP 2: Initialize the carry as ‘Zero’.
STEP 3: Load the first 8 bit data into the accumulator.
STEP 4: Copy the contents of contents into the register ‘B’.
STEP 5: Load the second 8 bit data into the accumulator.
STEP 6: Subtract the 2 8 bit data’s and check for borrow.
STEP 7: Jump on if no borrow.
STEP 8: Increment borrow if there is.
STEP 9: 2’s compliment of accumulator is found out.
STEP 10: Store the result in the accumulator.
STEP 11: More the borrow value from ‘c’ to accumulator.
STEP 12: Store the borrow value in the accumulator.
STEP 13: Stop program execution.

OBJECT CODE / PROGRAM:
4100 MVI C,00 OE, 00 Initialize the carry as zero.
4102 LDA 4300 3A, (00, 43) Load the first 8 bit data.
4105 MOV, B,A 47
Copy the value of 8 bit data
into register B.
4106 LDA 4301 3A, (01, 43)
Load the second 8 bit data
into the accumulator.
4109 ADD B 80 Add the hoo values.
410A JNC D2, 0E, 41 Jump on if no carry.
410D INR C OC
If carry is there increment
it by one.
410E Loop STA 4302 32 (02, 43)
Stone the added value in
the accumulator.
4111 MOV A,C 79
More the value of carry to
the accumulator from
register C.
4112 STA 4303 32 (03, 43)
Store the value of carry in
the accumulator.
4115 HLT 76
Stop the program
execution.
Input
Without borrow
Input Address Value
4300 05
4301 07
4302 02
4303 00 (borrow)
With carry
borrow
Input Address Value
4300 07
4301 05

4302 02
Calculation:
05 - 07
07 - 0111
CMA 1000
ADJ
0.1 0001
----------
1001
05 - 0101
---------
1110 (-2)
RESULT
The assembly language program subtraction of two 8 bit numbers was
executed successfully by using 8085 micro processing kit.

Ex No : 3 Date :
MULTIPLICATION OF TWO 8 – BIT NUMBERS
AIM:
To write an assembly language for multiplying two 8 bit numbers by using
8085 microprocessor kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.8085 microprocessor kit (0-5V)
2.DC battery
ALGORITHM:
Step 2: Get the 1st 8 bit numbers.
Step 3: Move the 1st 8it number to register ‘B’.
Step 4: Get the 2nd 8 bit number.
Step 5: Move the 2nd 8 bit number to register ‘C’.
Step 6: Initialize the accumulator as zero.
Step 7: Initialize the carry as zero.
Step 8: Add both register ‘B’ value as accumulator.
Step 9: Jump on if no carry.
Step 10: Increment carry by 1 if there is.
Step 11: Decrement the 2nd value and repeat from step 8, till the 2nd value
becomes zero.
Step 12: Store the multiplied value in accumulator.
Step 13: Move the carry value to accumulator.
Step 14: Store the carry value in accumulator.
Input
Input Address Value
4500 04
4501 02
Output
4502 08
4503 00

4100 LDA 4500 3A, 00, 45 Load the first 8 bit number
4103 MOV B,A 47
Move the first 8 bit data to
register ‘B’
4104 LDA 4501 3A, 01, 45 Load the second 16 bit number
4107 MOV C,A 4F
Move the second 8 bit data to
register ‘C’.
4108 MVI A, 00 3E, 00 Intialise the accumulator as zero
410A MVI D, 00 16, 00 Intialise the carry as zero
410C ADD B 80
Add the contents of ‘B’ and
accumulator
410D INC D2 11, 41 Jump if no carry
4110 INR D 14 Increment carry if there is
4111 DCR C OD Decrement the value ‘C’
4112 JNZ C2 0C, 41 Jump if number zero
4115 STA 4502 32 02, 45
Store the result in
accumulator
4118 MOV A,D 7A
Move the carry into
accumulator
4119 STA 4503 32,03,45
Store the result in
accumulator
411C HLT 76 Stop the program execution
RESULT:
The assembly language program for multiplication of two 8 bit numbers
was executed using 8085 micro processing kit.

Ex No : 4 Date :
DIVISION OF TWO 8 – BIT NUMBERS
AIM:
To write an assembly language for dividing two 8 bit numbers by using
8085 microprocessor kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
2.DC battery.
ALGORITHM:
Step1: Start the microprocessor.
Step2: Initialise the Quotient as zero.
Step3: Load the 1st 8 bit data.
Step4: Copy the contents of accumulator into register ‘B’.
Step5: Load the 2nd 8 bit data.
Step6: Compare both the values.
Step7: Jump if divisor is greater than dividend.
Step8: Subtract the dividend value by divisor value.
Step9: Increment Quotient.
Step10: Jump to step 7, till the dividend becomes zero.
Step11: Store the result (Quotient) value in accumulator.
Step12: Move the remainder value to accumulator.
Step13: Store the result in accumulator
Step14: Stop the program execution

Address Label Mnemonics Hex
Code
Comments
4100 MVI C, 00 0E, 00 Intialise Quotient as zero
4102 LDA, 4500 3A 00, Get the Firstdata
4105 MOV B,A 47 Copy the first data into
register ‘B’
4106 LDA, 4501 3A 01,
45
Get the second data
4109 CMP B B8 Compare the two values
410A JC (LDP) DA Jump if dividend lesser
410D Loop 2 SUB B 90 Subtract the first value by
second value
410E INR C 0C Increment Quotient
410F JMP (LDP, C3, 0D, Jump to Loop 1 till the
4112 Loop 1 STA 4502 32 Store the value in
4115 MOV A,C 79 Move the value of
4116 STA 4503 32
03,45
Store the remainder value
in accumulator
4119 HLT 76 Stop the program
Input:
Input Address Value
4500 09
4501 02
Output:
4502 04 (quotient)
4503 01 (reminder)
RESULT:
The assembly language program for division of two 8 bit numbers
was executed using 8085 micro processing kit.

Ex No : 5(a) Date :
DATA SORTING
(i) ASCENDING ORDER
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to sort given ‘n’ numbers in
ascending order.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
2.DC battery
ALGORITHM:
Step1: Start the microprocessor.
Step2: Accumulator is loaded with number of values to sorted and it is
saved.
Step3: Decrement 8 register (N-1) Repetitions.
Step4: Set ‘HL’ register pair as data array.
Step5: Set ‘C’ register as counter for (N-1) repetitions.
Step6: Load a data of the array in accumulator.
Step7: Compare the data pointed in ‘HL’ pair.
Step8: If the value of accumulator is smaller than memory, then jump to
step 10.
Step9: Otherwise exchange the contents of ‘HL’ pair and accumulator
Step10: Decrement ‘C’ register, if the of ‘C’ is not zero go to step 6
Step11: Decrement ‘B’ register, if value of ‘B’ is not zero, go step 3
Step12: Stop the program execution.
Input:
Input Address Value
4500 04
4501 AB
4502 BC
4503 01
4504 0A

Address Label Mnemonics
Hex
Code
Comments
4100 LDA 4500 3A, 00,45 Load the number of values
4103 MOV B,A 47 Move it ‘B’ register
4104 DCR B 5 For (N-1) comparisons
4105 Loop LXI H, 4500 21, 00,45 Set the pointer for array
4108 MOV C,M 4E Count for (N-1) comparisons
4109 DCR C 0D For (N-1) comparisons
410A INX H 23 Increment pointer
410B Loop MOV A,M 7E Get one data in array ‘A’
410C INX H 23 Increment pointer
410D CMP M BE Compare next with
410E JC DA, 16, If content less memory go
4111 MOV D,M 56 If it is greater than
4112 MOV M,A 77 Memory content
4113 DCX H 2B Exchange the content of
4114 MOV M,D 72
One in by ‘HL’ and previous
location
4115 INX H 23 Increment pointer
4116 Loop DCR C 0D Decrement ‘C’ register
4117 JNZ Loop 1 C2, 0B, Repeat until ‘C’ is zero
411B JNZ Loop 2 C2, 05, Repeat till ‘B’ is zero
411E HLT 76 Stop the program execution
Output Address & Value:
Output
Address
Value
4500 04
4501 01
4502 0A
4503 AB
4504 BC
RESULT:
The assembly language program for sorting numbers in ascending
order was executed by microprocessor kit.

Ex No : 5(b) Date :
DATA SORTING
(ii) DESCENDING ORDER
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to sort given ‘n’ numbers in
descending order.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. 8085 microprocessor kit (0-5V)
2. DC battery
ALGORITHM:
Step 2: Load the number of values into accumulator and save the number
of values in register ‘B’.
Step 3: Decrement register ‘B’ for (N-1) Repetitions.
Step 4: Set ‘HL’ register pair as data array address pointer and load the
data of array in accumulator.
Step 5: Set ‘C’ register as counter for (N-1) repetitions.
Step 6: Increment ‘HL’ pair (data address pointer).
Step 7: Compare the data pointed by ‘HL’ with accumulator.
Step 8: If the value of accumulator is larger than memory, then jump to
step 10, otherwise next step.
Step 9: Exchange the contents of memory pointed by ‘HL’ and
accumulator.
Step 10: Decrement ‘C’ register, if the of ‘C’ is not zero go to step 6,
otherwise next step.
Step 11: Decrement ‘B’ register, if ‘B’ is not zero, go step 3, otherwise next
step.
Step 12: Stop the program execution.

Address Label Mnemonics
Hex
Code
Comments
4100 LDA 4500 3A, 00,45 Load the number of values
4103 MOV B,A 47 Move it to ‘B’ register
4104 DCR B 5 For (N-1) comparisons
4105 Loop LXI H, 4500 21, 00,45 Set the pointer for array
4108 MOV C,M 4E Count for (N-1)
4109 DCR C 0D For (N-1) comparisons
410A INX H 23 Increment pointer
410B Loop MOV A,M 7E Get one data from array
410C INX H 23 Increment pointer
410D CMP M BE Compare next with number
410E ICE, Loop 1 D2, 16,41 If content ‘A’ is greater than
4111 MOV D,M 56 If it is greater than
4112 MOV M,A 77 Accumulator to memory
4113 DCX H 2B Decrement memory pointer
4114 MOV M,D 72 Move the old to ‘HL’ and
4115 INX H 23 Increment pointer
4116 Loop DCR C 0D Decrement ‘C’ register
4117 JNZ Loop 2 C2, 0B, Repeat till ‘C’ is zero
411B JNZ Loop 3 C2, 05, Jump to loop till the value of
411E HLT 76 Stop the program execution
Input:
Input Address Value
4500 04
4501 AB
4502 BC
4503 01
4504 0A

Output Address & Value:
4500 04
4501 BC
4502 AB
4503 0A
4504 01
RESULT:
The assembly language program for sorting ‘4’ numbers in
descending order was executed successfully using microprocessor kit.

Ex No : 6(a) Date :
CODE CONVERSION
1. DECIMAL TO HEX
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to convert a given decimal
number to hexadecimal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
2. DC battery
ALGORITHM:
Step1. Initialize the memory location to the data pointer.
Step2. Increment B register.
Step3. Increment accumulator by 1 and adjust it to decimal every time.
Step4. Compare the given decimal number with accumulator value.
Step5. When both matches, the equivalent hexadecimal value is in B
register.
Step6. Store the resultant in memory location.

ADDRESS LABEL
MNEMO
NICS
OPERAN
D
COMMENTS
8000 LXI H,8100
Initialize HL reg. To 8100H
8001
8002
8003 MVI A,00
Initialize A register.
8004
8005 MVI B,00
Initialize B register..
8006
8007 LOOP INR B Increment B reg.
8008 ADI 1
Increment A reg
8009
800A DAA Decimal Adjust Accumulator
800B CMP M Compare M & A
800C JNZ LOOP
If acc and given number are
not equal, then go to LOOP
800D
800E
800F MOV A,B Transfer B reg to acc.
8010 STA 8101
Store the result in a memory
location.
8011
8012
8013 HLT Stop the program
EXECUTION:
S.No INPUT OUTPUT
Memory address Value (H)
Memory
address
Value (D)
1. 8100 8101
2. 8100 8101
RESULT:
Thus an ALP program for conversion of decimal to hexadecimal was
written and executed.

Ex No : 6(b) Date :
CODE CONVERSION
2. HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL
AIM
To write an assembly language program to convert a given to
hexadecimal number to Decimal number.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
2. DC battery
ALGORITHM
Step1: Initialize the memory location to the data pointer.
Step2: Increment B register.
Step3: Increment accumulator by 1 and adjust it to decimal every time.
Step4: Compare the given hexadecimal number with B register value.
Step5: When both match, the equivalent decimal value is in A register.
Step6: Store the resultant in memory location.

PROGRAM:
ADDRESS LABEL
MNEMO
NICS
OPERAN
D COMMENTS
8000 LXI H 8100
Initialize HL register to
8100H
8001
8002
8003 MVI A,00
Initialize A register.
8004
8005 MVI B,00
Initialize B register.
8006
8007 MVI C,00
Initialize C register for carry.
8008
8009 LOOP INR B Increment B reg.
800A ADI 1 Increment A reg
800C DAA Decimal Adjust Accumulator
800D JNC NEXT
If there is no carry go to
NEXT
800E
800F
8010 INR C Increment c register.
8011 NEXT MOV D,A Transfer A to D
8012 MOV A,B Transfer B to A
8013 CMP M Compare M & A
8014 MOV A,D Transfer D to A
8015 JNZ LOOP
If acc and given number are
not equal, then go to LOOP
8016
8017
8018 STA 8101
Store the result in a memory
location.
8019
801A
801B MOV A,C Transfer C to A
801C STA 8102
Store the carry in another
memory location.
801D
801E
801F HLT Stop the program

EXECUTION:
S.No INPUT OUTPUT
Memory address Value (H)
Memory
address
Value (D)
1. 8100 8101
2. 8100 8101
RESULT:
Thus an ALP program for conversion of hexadecimal to decimal was
written and executed.

Ex No : 6(C) Date :
CODE CONVERSION
3. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to convert a given to
hexadecimal number to Binary number.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
ALGORITHM:

EXAMPLE
Let the data be 5A.
5A(H) = 0101 1010 (B)
Result :
(4150) = 0 (LSB)
(4151) = 1
(4152) = 0
(4153) = 1
(4154) = 1
(4155) = 0
(4156) = 1
(4157) = 0 (MSB)
EXECUTION:
S.No
INPUT
Value (H)
OUTPUT
Memory
address
Value (B)
1.
Value is added in program at
memory address 4105
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
2.
Value is added in program at
memory address 4105 (change the
value)
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
RESULT:
Thus an ALP program for conversion of hexadecimal to binary number
was written and executed.

Ex No :7(a) Date :
STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH 8051
1. STUDY OF 8051 MICROCONTROLLER AND STEPPER MOTOR
AIM:
The study the fundamentals of 8051 microcontrollers and stepper
motor.
MICROCONTROLLER:
A microcontroller is an integration of a microprocessor with memory
and input, output interfaces and other peripherals such as timers on a single
chip.
A microcontroller may take an input from the device it is controlling
and control the device by sending signals to different components in the
device.
A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components may be
chosen to minimize size and to be as inexperience as possible.
Another name for a microcontroller is embedded controller. They can
control features or action of the product.
Register in microcontroller:
A microcontroller contains a group of registers each type of register
having a different functions.
Accumulator:
The accumulator (A) is an 8 bit register where data for an input to the
arithmetic and logic unit is temporarily stored. So the accumulator register
is a temporary handling register for data to be operated on by the arithmetic
and logic unit also after the operation the register for holding the result.
B Register:
In addition to accumulator an 8 bit B-register is available as a general
purpose register when it is not used for the hardware multiply/divide
operation.
Data pointer (DPTR):
The data pointer consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL).
Its function is to hold a 16 bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16 bit data
register. It serves as a base register in direct jumps, lookup table instructions
and external data transfer.

Stack pointer:
The stack refers to an area of internal RAM that is used in conjunction
with certain opcode data to store and retrieve data quickly. The stack
pointer register is used, by the 8051 to hold as internal RAM that is called
top of stock. The stack pointer register is 8 bit wide. It is increased before
data is stored during PUSH and CALL instructions and decremented after
data is restored during POP and RET instruction. The stack pointer is
initialized to 07H after a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location 08H.
Program counter:
The 8051 has 16 bit program counter. It is used to hold the address of
memory location from which the instruction to be fetched. 8051 is a 16 bit
hence it can be address up to 216 byte i.e. 64k of memory. The PC is the only
register that does not have an internal address.
Internal RAM:
The 8051 has 128 bytes internal RAM. It is addressed using RAM
address register
First thirty two bytes from address 00H to 1FH of internal RAM constitute 32
working registers. They organized into four banks of eight registers each.
The four register banks are numbered 0 to 3 and consist of eight registers
named R0 to R7. Each register can be addressed by name or by its RAM
address.
Only one register bank is in use at a time. Bits Rs0 and Rs1 in the PSW
determine which bank of register is currently in use.
Register banks when not selected can be used as general purpose RAM.
PIN diagram of microcontroller:
The 8051 microcontroller is available in a 40 pin dual in-line (DIL)
package arrangement. It is important to note that many pins of 8051 are
used for more than one function.
The function of each of the pins is as follows.
PORT 0 (pins 32-39):
Port 0 pins can be used as I/O pins. The output drives and input
buffers of port 0 are used to access external memory address, time
multiplexed with the data being written or read. Thus port 0 can be used as
multiplexed address data bus.
PORT 1 (pins 1-8):
Port 1 pins can be used only as I/O pins.

The output drives of port 2 are used to access external memory. Port 2
outputs the high order byte of the external memory address when the
address is 16 bits wide otherwise port 2 is used as I/O ports.
All ports pins of port-3 are multifunctional. They have special
functions including two external interrupts two counter two special data
lines and two timing control strobes.
Power supply pins Vcc and ground to pin Vcc with rated power supply
current of 125mA.
Oscillator Pins XTA2 (pin 18) and XTA1 (pin 19):
For generating an internal clock signal the external oscillator is
connected at these two pins.
ALE (address latch enable) Pin 30:
AD0 to AD7 lines are multiplexed. To determine these lines and for
obtaining lower half of an address, an external latch and ALE of 8051 is used.
RST (Reset pin 9):
This pin is used to reset 8051. For proper reset operation, reset signal
must be held high at least for two machine cycles, while oscillator is running.
PSEN (Program Store Enable pin29):
It is the active low output control signal used to activate the enable
signal if the external ROM/EPROM. It is activated every six oscillator periods
while reading the external memory.
Thus this signal acts as the read store to external program memory.
STEPPER MOTOR
A motor in which the rotor is able to assume only discrete stationary
angular position is a stepper motor. The rotary motion occurs in a stepwise
manner from one equilibrium position to the next.
Construction features:
A stepper motor could be either of the reluctance type of or
permanent magnet type. A PM motor consists of multiphase stator and two
part permanent magnet rotor variable reluctance motor has magnetized
rotor. PM stepper motor is the most commonly used type. The basic two
phase stepper motor consists of two pairs of stator poles.

Each of four poles has its own winding.
The excitation of any one winding generates a north pole and a South
Pole gets attracted and the torque induced at the diametrically opposite side.
The rotor magnetic system has two end faces.
The left face is permanently magnetized as south and the right face as
North Pole faces.
The north pole structure is twisted with respect to the south pole
structure so that south pole precisely between two north poles. In an
arrangement where there are four stator poles and three pairs of rotor poles,
there exist 12 possible stable position in which a south pole if the rotor can
lock with a north pole of the stator. From this is can be noted that the step
size is
= 360 (Ns*Nr)
Ns number of stator pole
Nr number of pairs of rotor poles
Generally step size of the stepper motor depends up on rotor poles.
There are three different schemes available for stepping a motor. They are
1. Wave scheme
2. 2 phase scheme
3. Half stepping or missed scheme.
Wa4
v
.e switching scheme:
Two phase switching scheme:
Anticlock wise Clock wise
Step A1 A2 B1 B2 Step A1 A2 B1 B2
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 0
3 0 1 1 0 3 0 1 0 1
4 1 0 1 0 4 1 0 0 1
Anticlock wise Clock wise
Step A1 A2 B1 B2 Step A1 A2 B1 B2
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0
3 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0

REPRESENTATION:
Operational features of stepper motor:
There are many kinds of stepper motor like unipolar type, bipolar type,
single phase type, multiphase type; single phase stepper motor is often used
for quartz watch. In PM type stepper motor, a permanent magnet is used for
motor and coils are put on stator. The stepper motor model which has 4
poles at top, bottom and at either sides. X coil, X¯ coil, r coil and r¯ coil are put
to the upper side and the lower pole. r coil and r¯ coil are rolled up for the
direction of the pole becomes opposite when applying an electric current to
the r¯ coil. It is similar about X and X¯ too. The turn of the motor is controlled
by the electric current which pairs into X, X¯, r, r¯. The rotor rotational speed
and the direction of turn can be controlled by this control.
Speed control of a stepper motor:
The requirement is to use a microcontroller to drive a stepper motor
in both forward and reverse directions of shaft rotation and to implement a
two speed arrangement switches are to be used to produce the two speeds
and a reversal of shaft rotation.
Generally a stepper motor has four sets of coils; one end of each coil
may be connected together and then connected to DC supply. The remaining
four ends may be driven through transistors either separately or in
integrated circuit form. A four bit code sequence continuously applied to the
drive circuit from the microcontroller port causes the motor shaft to rotate
in angular steps. Stepper motor has step angles of 1.8 degree step revolution
and turning force may be improved by using a step down gear box. The
stepping code sequence may be obtained from the motor manufacturer or
distributor. The program in this example was a common four step sequence
of A,9,5,6 that it sent continuously would cause the motor shaft to rotate.
RESULT:
Thus the fundamentals of microcontroller and stepper motor were studied.

Ex No :7(b) Date :
STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH 8051
2. RUN THE STEPPER MOTOR IN CLOCKWISE AND COUNTER
CLOCKWISE DIRECTION
AIM:
To interface a stepper motor with 8051 microcontroller and operate
it in forward and reverse rotations using assembly level language of 8051
microcontroller.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Stepper Motor
Interface Board
8051 Microcontroller
Keyboard interface
Data buses
Power chord
PROCEDU
 RE:
Step 1 : S
witch ON the micro controller
Step 2 : Initialize the starting address
Step 3 : Enter the mnemonics code in the microcontroller
Step 4 : Reset the microcontroller
Step 5 : Execute the program







RESULT:
Thus the program to run the stepper motor at different directions was
derived using 8051 assembles language and was verified.

PROGRAM:
TO RUN A STEPPER AT DIFFRENT SPEED IN BOTH PORTS
Addr
ess
Opcodes Label Mnemonics
4100 ORG 4100H
4100 90 45 00 START : MOV DPTR,
4103 78 04 MOV R0, #04H
4105 E0 J0 : MOVX A, @DPTR
4106 FC MOV R4, A
4107 C0 83 PUSH DPH
4109 C0 82 PUSH DPL
410B 90 FF C0 MOV DPTR,
410E F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
410F 12 41 23 LCALL DELAY
4112 90 FF C8 MOV DPTR,
4115 EC MOV A, R4
4116 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
4117 12 41 23 LCALL DELAY
411A D0 82 POP DPL
411C D0 83 POP DPH
411E A3 INC DPTR
411F D8 E4 DJNZ R0, J0
4121 80 DD SJMP START
4123 DELAY :
4123 7A 04 MOV R2, #04H
4125 L0 :
4125 79 FF MOV R1, #FFH
4127 L1 :
4127 7B FF MOV R3, #FFH
4129 L2 :
4129 DB FE DJNZ R3, L2
412B D9 FA DJNZ R1, L1
412D DA F6 DJNZ R2, L0
412F 22 RET
4130 END
INPUT FOR CLOCKWISE ROTATION
4500 09, 05, 06, 0A DB 09, 05, 06, 0A
INPUT FOR COUNTER CLOCKWISE ROTATION
4500 0A, 06, 05,09 DB 0A, 06, 05,09

Ex No :8 Date :
TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROLLERS WITH 8085
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to simulate the traffic light at an
intersection using a traffic light interface.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
SL.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 Microprocessor kit 4185,Vi Microsystems 1
2 Power supply +5 V DC 1
3
Traffic light
interface Vi Microsystems 1
ALGORITHM:
1. Initialize the ports.
2. Initialize the memory content, with some address to the data.
3.Read data for each sequence from the memory and display it through
the ports.
4. After completing all the sequences, repeat from step2.
A SAMPLE SEQUENCE:
1. (a) Vehicles from south can go to straight or left.
(b) Vehicles from west can cross the road.
(c) Each pedestrian can cross the road.
(d) Vehicles from east no movement.
(e) Vehicles from north can go only straight.
2.All ambers are ON, indicating the change of sequence.
3. (a) Vehicles from east can go straight and left.
(b) Vehicles from south can go only left.
(c) North pedestrian can cross the road.
(d) Vehicles from north, no movement.
(e) Vehicles from west can go only straight.
4.All ambers are ON, indicating the change of sequence.
5. (a) Vehicles from north can go straight and left.
(b) Vehicles from east can go only left.
(c) West pedestrian can cross the road.
(d) Vehicles from west, no movement.
(e) Vehicles from south can go only straight.

6. All ambers are ON, indicating the change of sequence.
7. (a) Vehicles from west can go straight and left.
(b) South pedestrian can cross the road.
(c)Vehicles from south, no movement.
(d) Vehicles from east can go only straight.
8. All ambers are ON, indicating the change of sequence.
9. (a) All vehicles from all directions no movement.
(b) All pedestrian can cross the road.
BIT ALLOCATION:
BIT LED BIT LED BIT LED
PA0 SOUTH LEFT PB0 NORTH LEFT PC0 WEST STRAIGHT
PA1 SOUTH RIGHT PB1 NORTH RIGHT PC1 NORTH STRAIGHT
PA2 SOUTH AMBER PB2 NORTH AMBER PC2 EAST STRAIGHT
PA3 SOUTH RED PB3 NORTH RED PC3 SOUTH STRAIGHT
PA4 EAST LEFT PB4 WEST LEFT PC4 NORTH PD
PA5 EAST RIGHT PB5 WEST RIGHT PC5 WEST PD
PA6 EAST AMBER PB6 WEST AMBER PC6 SOUTH PD
PA7 EAST RED PB7 WEST RED PC7 EAST PD
PATH REPRESENTATION:

CONTROL ------0F (FOR 8255 PPI)
PORT A------ 0C
PORT B------ 0D
PORT C------0E
Flowchart:

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS OPERAND COMMENT
4100 3E MVI A, 41 Move 41H immediately
to accumulator
4102 D3 OUT 0F Output contents
of accumulator to OF port
4104 REPEAT LXI H,DATA_SQ Load address 417B to
HL register
4107 11 LXI D,DATA_E Load address 4187 to
DE
410A CD CALL OUT Call out address 4142
410D EB XCHG Exchange contents of
410E 7E MOV A, M Move M content to
accumulator
410F D3 OUT 0D Load port A into output
4111 CD CALL DELAY1 Call delay address
4114 EB XCHG Exchange content of
HL
4115 13 INX D Increment the content of
4116 23 INX H Increment the content of
4117 CD CALL OUT Call out the address
411A EB XCHG Exchange content of
HL
411B 7E MOV A, M Move M content to
411C D3 OUT 0D Load port B into output
411E CD CALL DELAY1 Call DELAY address
4122 13 INX D Increment D register
4123 23 INX H Increment H register
4124 CD CALL OUT Call specified address
HL
4128 7E MOV A, M Move M content to
accumulator
4129 D3 OUT 0E Load port C into output
412B CD CALL DELAY1 Call DELAY address
412E EB XCHG Exchange content of
HL
412F 13 INX D Increment D register
4131 CD CALL OUT Call specified address
HL

4135 7E MOV A, M Move M content
to accumulator
port
4139 7E MOV A, M Move M content
413A D3 OUT 0C Load port A into output
port
413C CD CALL DELAY1 Call DELAY address
413F C3 JMP REPEAT Jump to specified
4142 7E OUT MOV A, M Move M content to
accumulator
port
4146 7E MOV A, M Move M content to
4147 D3 OUT 0D Load port B into output
port
414B D3 OUT 0C Load port A into output
414D CD CALL DELAY Call DELAY address
4150 C9 RET Return to accumulator
4151 E5 DELAY PUSH H Push the register H
4152 21 LXI H,001F Load 00 1F in HL register
4155 1 LXI B,FFFF Load FFFF in DE register
4158 0B DCX B Decrement B register
4159 78 MOV A, B Move B content
415A B1 ORA C OR content of C with
415B C2 JNZ LOOP Jump to LOOP if no zero
415E 2B DCX H Decrement H register
415F 7D MOV A, L Move L content to
accumulator
RESULT:
Thus an assembly language program to simulate the traffic light at
an intersection using a traffic light interfaces was written and
implemented.

Ex No :9 Date :
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to control the speed of DC
motor using 8085 or 8051 microcontroller.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 DC Motor
 8085 Microprocessor (+5V)
 Interface board
 Data buses & Wires
 Power chord
Procedure:
1. Start the program. Store the 8-bit data into the accumulator.
2. Initialize the counter. Move the content of accumulator to data
pointer.
3. Execute the program.
4. Terminate the program.
Program:
ADDRESS MNEMONICS OPERAND COMMENTS
4500 74 FF MOV A, #FF Move FF into accumulator
4502 90 FF C0
MOV
DPTR,#FF10H
Load the value FF 10H into
the data pointer
4505 F0
MOVX
@DPTR
A Move the data content to
the accumulator
4506 80 FF SIMPL Instruction is executed.
Output:
A Register Speed Accumulator
FF High 5V
7F Medium 3V
55 Low 2V
RESULT
Thus the program to control the speed of DC motor was executed
and verified successfully.

Ex No :10 Date :
STUDY OF PLC AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Objective:
At the end of the lab session, students will have the
acquaintance of history of PLC, operations, symbols, basic components,
and selection and various applications.
HISTORY OF PLC:
Over time control system engineering has evolved
greatly. In the past manual control was the only the form of control. More
recently electrical control based on relays were used. These relays allow
switching of power without a mechanical switch.PLC or a programmable
logic controller is used to check and control a system using digital inputs
which can be programmed for automation. The growth of PLC started in
1970s.The PLCs have become a major component of factory mainly
because of the advantages they offer like
• Cost effective control for complete system
• Flexible and reusable
• Computational abilities
• Analytical power and decision making
“The programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic device
that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic words
to control machines and processes “
PLCs are available in different designs or formats which vary in the type of
their inputs and outputs and the software used for programming. A
Programmable Logic Controller, PLC, or Programmable Controller is an
electronic device used for Automation of industrial processes, such as
control of machinery on factory assembly lines. A programmable
controller is a digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a
programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions for
implementing specific functions, such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting and arithmetic, to control various machines or processes through
digital or analog input/output devices. Unlike general purpose computers,
the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibrations and impacts. Programs to control machine operation are
typically stored in battery backed or non volatile memory.

A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results are
produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time,
otherwise unintended operation results.
Operation of PLC
Checking the Input status
PLC takes a look at each input to determine whether it is on or off
condition.
Execution of the Program
Executes a program by one instruction at a time. If the first input is
on then it should turn on the first output. Since it is already known, it
should be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on
based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution results for
use later during the next step.
Updating the output status
In the end PLC updates the status of the outputs based on which
inputs are on during the first step and the results of executing your
program during the second step.

PLC Program: Programming Languages
• Ladder logic
• FBD LOGIC (functional block diagram)
• STL LOGIC (statement list)
Meanings of symbols used in PLC Program:
This instruction is called as “examine on” or “normally opened” as input
functions or storage bits. If the corresponding memory bit is a “1” then the
respective ‘rung’ will continuously be executed and the corresponding
outputs will be energized. Rung is one of the multiple horizontal
programming lines in a ladder logic diagram.
NOTE: Other factors may also affect rung simultaneously.
If the corresponding bit is “0” then the rung will not be executed
continuously and outputs will be de-energized. If this instruction is used as
input bit, its status should be according to the status of the real world
input devices connected to the input table by identical addresses.
Addressing Sample: I: 3/1
This indicates address of a sample. I indicates input
image table, 3 indicates slot no. 3 of input port and 1 indicates bit three of
3rd slot of input port.
This instruction is called “examine off” or “normally closed” as input
functions or storage bits. If the corresponding memory bit is a “1” then the
respective ‘rung’ will continuously be executed and the corresponding
outputs will be energized.
NOTE: Other factors may also affect this rung simultaneously.
If the corresponding bit is “0” this instruction will not allow rung
continuously and outputs will be energized. If used as input bit, its status
should correspond to the status of the real world input devices tied to the
input table by identical addresses.
This is called as ‘output energize’. This instruction sets the specified bit
when rung continuity is achieved. Under normal operating conditions, if
the set bit corresponds to an output device, output device will be energized
when rung goes true.
Addressing Example O: 3/1
O -- Output image table
3 -- Slot three
1 -- Bit one of slot three

OTL :
This is called as ‘output latch’. This instruction
functions similar to output energize except that once a bit is set with OTL,
it is latched on. Once an OTL bit has been set ON (1 on the memory) it will
remain ON even if the rung condition goes false. The bit must be reset.
(U)
This is called as ‘output unlatch’. This is used to unlatch (reset) a latched
bit. Its address must be same as latched one.
Timer:
This is also called as “TON”. It is used to turn an
output ON or OFF after the timer has been ON for preset time interval. This
output instruction begins timing when rung goes true. It waits the
specified amount of time (As specified in Preset), keeps track of
accumulated intervals which have occurred (ACCUM), and sets DN (Done)
bit when ACCUM time equals preset time.
As long as rung condition remains true, Timer adjusts it’s accumulated
Value to each evaluation until it reaches the preset value. The accumulated
value is reset when rung condition go false, regardless of whether timer
has timed out.
” TIME BASE” is an amount of time after which accumulator increases its
value by 1.
Fig Ladder logic

Fig FBD Logic (Functional Block Diagram)
Fig STL Logic (Statement List)

PLC Program is a Logic that is executed by the CPU. This logic can be
written in the form of Ladder diagram, Instruction List, Sequential
Function Charts, Structured text or Functional block diagram. These are
the languages used for writing logic as per IEC standard. The program is
then downloaded to the PLC. This is usually done by temporarily
connecting the PC or HHT to the PLC. Once the program is downloaded to
the CPU, it is usually not necessary for the PC to remain connected.
Fig PLC used in Industry
Basic Components of PLC:
CPU and Memory module
Power supply
Input and output module
Programming device

CPU and Memory Module:
This is the device where PLC program is stored and processed. The
size and type of CPU determines the programming functions available,
size of the application logic available, amount of memory supported, and
processing speed.
Power Supply:
The power supply provides power for the PLC system. It provides
internal DC current to operate the processor logic circuitry and
input/output assemblies. This can be built into the PLC or an external
unit. Common voltage levels required by the PLC are 24Vdc, 120Vac,
220Vac.
Input and Output Module:
Inputs carry signals from the field (process) to the controller.
Various types of inputs can be switches, pressure sensors, transmitters
etc. The field devices to whom PLC sends the results of logical operations
is the output devices. These are the actuators that adjust or control the
process, motors, lights, relays, pumps, etc.
Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a PLC and they can
be categorized mainly as analog and digital. Digital inputs and outputs
operate on discrete or binary change i.e. on/off, open/ . Analog inputs
and outputs change continuously with reference to time.

U itary PLC
Programming Device:
Used to enter the desired program that will determine the
sequence of operation and control of process equipment or driven
machine.
Selecting a PLC
Number of logical inputs and outputs.
Memory
Number of special I/O modules
Scan Time
Communications
Software
Classification of PLC
Programmable Logic Controllers can be classified in accordance
with the number of I/Os which the PLC can handle. The different types of
PLCs, thus exists due to this classification are as follows:
Unitary PLC
Modular PLC
Rack Style PLC
n

The Unitary PLC is typically the smallest & least expensive. It
contains every feature of a basic system in one box. They are attached to
the machine being controlled. It would be used in a small machine or
fixed application such as overhead door controls or a standalone
parts inspection system. They are not expandable so the application is
limited to on-board I/O. There are, however, some very powerful units
available with built in GSM, colour screens, & web servers. Most have 1 or
2 analog I/O for motion control as shown in the fig.
Modular PLC
The Modular PLCs start with a processor with a few or no on-board I/O.
These use a range of modules that slot together to build up a system. The
basic modules are the power supply, the main module is the CPU, the input
module and the output module. Other modules such as A/D converters
may be added. The main advantage is that the number of input and output
terminals can be expanded to cope with changes to the hardware system.
Modular PLCs are used in applications where a higher I/O count is needed
or when using specialty modules such as quadrature encoders,
thermocouple inputs, etc. They are also useful in small applications that
have “upgrades” available to the end user. Systems can be expanded
(within certain limits) without adding additional rack space

Rack Style PLC
Rack style PLCs are a larger type of PLC that is a collection of I/O cards that
are linked together and stored in a rack. A rack I/O can handle thousands
of inputs and outputs. Rack style PLCs is usually more expensive,
expandable, and powerful than unitary or modular PLCs. This is a similar
concept to the modular design but the modules are on standard cards that
slot into a standard rack inside a cabinet. The rack provides a power and
communication backplane that greatly increases the communication rate
between the processor and the modules as well as allowing some specialty
modules to communicate with each other without the processor. In some
brands, multiple processors can be in the same rack and share the inputs.
Racks also allow for redundant processors for critical systems such as
waste water pumps or fire control systems. The types of modules available
for rack systems are far more extensive than modular systems. The
number of available I/O points is also much higher in the rack systems.
Available I/O points are around 1000 for some modular PLCs versus over
100,000 for the same brand of rack system as shown in fig.

APPLICATIONS
PLC can also be used in automated sorting of objects in industries
based on the physical properties like weight, shape, color, etc of the
objects.
Considering weight, for example, the objects to be sorted are
sensed by a weight sensor like piezoelectric sensors. They are then
diverted to the respective storage area. PLCs are used in a wide range of
applications which may range from automation of manufacturing
processes in a factory to providing safety solutions.
PLCs are used in industrial departments like
Chemical industry,
Automobile industry,
Steel industry and
Electricity industry
Glass industry.
Manufacturing / Machining
Food / Beverage
Metals
Power
Mining
In making of a float glass, PLC itself cannot finish some controlling
tasks because of the complexity of the control system and processing of
huge data. For the production of glass, we make use of bus technology to
construct the control mode of a PLC with a distributed control system.
This control system deals with analog controlling and data recording;
The PLC is also used for digital quality control and position control.
Applications of PLC in Cement Industry
Along with the best quality raw materials, the accurate data
regarding process variables, especially during mixing processes within
the kiln, ensures that the output provided should be of the best possible
quality. Nowadays a DCS with bus technology is used in the production
and management industry. By using this existing DCS control system, the
PLC is in user mode of SCADA. This mode comprises PLC and
configuration software. This SCADA mode comprises the PLC and host
computer. The host computer consists of slave and master station. The
PLC is used for controlling the ball milling, shaft kiln and Kiln of coal.

The programmable logic controller is used not only for industrial
purpose but also in civil applications such as washing machine, elevators
working and traffic signals control.
In large process plants PLCs are being increasingly used for
automatic startup and shutdown of critical equipments. A PLC ensures that
equipment cannot be started unless all the permissive conditions for safe
start have been established. It also monitors the conditions necessary for
safe running of the equipment and trip the equipment whenever any
abnormality in the system is detected. The PLC can be programmed to
function as an energy management system for boiler control for maximum
efficiency and safety. In the burner management system it can be used to
control the process of purging, pilot light off, flame safety checks, main
burner light off and valve switching for changeover of fuels.
BOOELAN OPERATORS
AND OR NAND NOR
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
A B A B A B A B
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
XOR NOT
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
A B
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1
1 1 0

Ex No :11 Date :
DESIGN OF SIMPLE PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT
PROBLEM:
A double acting cylinder is used for clamping and de-clamping work
part in a drilling machine. To actuate the cylinder for clamping and de-
clamping, a manually operated valve to be operated. Design a circuit.
AIM:
To design a simple pneumatic circuit which can clamp and de-clamp
the work part in drilling machine when actuated manually.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Double acting cylinder
Air supply & FRL unit
Manually operated valves
Fittings and Hoses
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
Compressed air supply is given through the FRL unit to the manually
operated directional control valve. The output ports of the DC valve are
connected to the cylinder ports. In normal condition the cylinder is in the
retracted condition (de-clamping).
WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:
When the manually operated valve is pressed, the left side
configuration of the valve is come into operation and the pressurized air
enters into the cover end of the cylinder causing the cylinder to move
forward. This clamps the work part and after completing the drilling
operation, the operator actuates the valve to the other side. This now gives
air to the piston end of the cylinder retracts for de-clamping the work part.

Simple Pneumatic Circuit
RESULT:
A circuit for the given problem is designed, constructed using the
available components and tested successfully.
Ex No :11 Date :

Ex No :12 Date :
CONTROLLING THE SPEED OF THE CYLINDER USING METERING
IN AND METERING OUT VALVE CIRCUIT
PROBLEM:
Design a simple double acting cylinder circuit used for applications
like feed a drill bit and boring machine. The speed control of forward and
return stroke should be possible to get a positive feed control. The cylinder
is actuated by a manually operated valve.
AIM:
To control the speed of double acting cylinder using Metering In
valve circuit in Pneumatic Trainer Kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Connecting tubes
Double Acting Cylinder
Flow Control Valve
4/2 Hand Levered Spring Return DCV
FRL Unit
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the Pneumatic circuit and check the connections connection
carefully.
2. Connect the FRL unit to the main air supply.
3. The various components are connected as per circuit.
4. Block the valve openings if necessary.
5. Check the leakage of air supply and correct it.
6. Open the valve and operate the cylinder.

Controlling the Speed of the Cylinder using Metering In valve circuit
Controlling the speed of the cylinder using Metering out valve circuit
RESULT:
Thus the speed of double acting cylinder was controlled using
Metering In and Metering Out valve circuit in Pneumatic Trainer Kit.

Ex No :13 Date :
OPERATION OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER WITH LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To operate a double acting cylinder using AND/OR logic circuit in
Pneumatic Trainer Kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Connecting tubes
4/2 Pilot Operated DCV
3/2 Hand Levered DCV
Two Pressure Valve
FRL Unit
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the Pneumatic circuit and check the connections carefully.
3. The various components are connected as per circuit.
4. Block the valve openings if necessary.
5. Check the leakage of air supply and correct it.
6. Open the valve and operate the cylinder.

Operation of double acting cylinder with AND logic circuit
Operation of double acting cylinder with OR logic circuit
RESULT:
Thus the double acting cylinder using AND/OR logic circuit was
operated in Pneumatic Trainer Kit.

Ex No :14 Date :
SINGLE CYCLE AUTOMATION OF MULTIPLE CYLINDERS IN SEQUENCE
(A+B+B-A-) USING ELECTROPNEUMATIC KIT
AIM:
To operate single cycle automation of multiple cylinders in
sequences (A+B+B-A-) in Electro Pneumatic Trainer Kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Automation Studio Software
Input / Output Relay Box
4/2 Solenoid Operated DCV
Electrical Switch
FRL Unit
PROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit in Automation Studio software and check the
connections.
3. The various components are connected as per circuit. Block the
4. Valve openings if necessary.
5. Check the leakage of air supply and correct it. Open the valve and
operate the cylinder.

Single cycle automation of multiple cylinders in sequences
(A+B+B-A-) in Electro Pneumatic Trainer Kit.
RESULT:
Thus the single cycle automation of multiple cylinders was operated
sequence (A+B+B-A-) in Electro Pneumatic Trainer Kit.

Ex No :15 Date :
DESIGN OF SIMPLE HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
PROBLEM:
Design a hydraulic circuit for forward and return motion of a
cylinder by manually operating a switch. The return stroke speed to be
controlled.
AIM:
To design a hydraulic circuit to create forward and return motion of a
cylinder.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Double acting cylinder
4/2 direction control
Flow control valve
Hydraulic power pack
Relief valve & Pressure
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
The hydraulic circuit is designed with the components available in the
hydraulic trainer kit. The double acting cylinder is connected to the
direction control valve through hoses. The piston end of the cylinder is
connected through the flow control valve to DC valve. The pump is
connected to the DC valve through a termination block. Required
pressure relief valve and pressure gauge are properly connected in the
circuit.
WORKING OF THE CYLINDER:
Pressurized oil from the pump is given to the DC valve through the relief
valve. If the manually operated valve is pressed, the oil flows to one side
of the cylinder depending on the connection and the cylinder makes its
movement. During return stroke the oil is allowed to come out through
the flow control valve and this controls the speed (like meter out valve)
of the cylinder in the return stroke.

Simple Hydraulic Circuit
RESULT:
The given circuit is designed, constructed with the available
components and checked for working.

Ex No :16 Date :
AIM:
STUDY OF VARIOUS TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS
To study the features and types of transducers.
THEORY:
Sensor
A sensor is a device which is capable of converting any physical
quantity to be measured into a signal which can be read, displayed,
stored or used to control some other quantity. This signal produced by
the sensor is equivalent to the quantity to be measured. Sensors are used
to measure a particular characteristic of any object or device. For
example a thermocouple, a thermocouple will sense heat energy
(temperature) at one of its junction and produce equivalent output
voltage which can be measured by a voltmeter. More the temperature
rise, higher the voltage read by the voltmeter.
All sensors need to be calibrated with respect with some reference
value or standard device for accurate measurement. Below is the figure of
a thermocouple.
Note that a transducer and a sensor are not the same. In the above
given example of thermocouple. The thermocouple acts as a transducer
but the additional circuits or components needed like the voltmeter, a
display etc together from a temperature sensor. Hence the transducer
will just convert the energy from one form to another and all the
remaining work is done by the additional circuits connected. This whole
device forms a sensor. Sensors and transducers are closely related to
each other.
TYPES OF SENSORS

Sensors are classified based on the nature of quantity they measure.
Following are the types of sensors with few examples.
Acoustic and sound sensors e.g.: Microphone, Hydrophone.
Automotive sensors
e.g.: Speedometer, Radar gun, Speedometer, fuel ratio meter.
Chemical Sensors
e.g.: Ph sensor, Sensors to detect presences of different gases or
liquids.
Electric and Magnetic Sensors
e.g.: Galvanometer, Hall sensor (measures flux density), Metal
detector.
Environmental Sensors
e.g.: Rain gauge, snow gauge, moisture sensor.
Optical Sensors
e.g.: Photo diode, Photo transistor, Wave front sensor.
Mechanical Sensors
e.g.: Strain Gauge, Potential meter (measures displacement).
Thermal and Temperature sensors.
e.g.: Calorimeter, Thermocouple, Thermistor, Gardon gauge.
Proximity and Presences sensors
A proximity or presences sensor is the one which is able to detect
the presences of nearby objects without any physical contact. They
usually emit electromagnetic radiations and detect the changes in
reflected signal if any.
e.g.: Doppler radar, Motion detector.
Further classification can be done based on the principle of
operation and nature of output signal (analog or digital).

TY ES OF TRANS UC R
Types of Sensors
TRANSDUCER:
Instrumentation is the heart of industrial applications.
Instrumentation is the art and science of measuring and controlling
different variables such as flow, level, temperature, angle, displacement
etc. A basic instrumentation system consists of various devices. One of
these various devices is a transducer. A transducer plays a very
important role in any instrumentation system.
An electrical transducer is a device which is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity such as
voltage or electric current. Hence it converts any quantity to be measured
into usable electrical signal. This physical quantity which is to be
measured can be pressure, level, temperature, displacement etc. The
output which is obtained from the transducer is in the electrical form and
is equivalent to the measured quantity. For example, a temperature
transducer will convert temperature to an equivalent electrical potential.
This output signal can be used to control the physical quantity or display
it.
Note that any device which is able convert one form of energy into
another form is called as a transducer. For example, even a speaker can
be called as a transducer as it converts electrical signal to pressure waves
(sound).But an electrical transducer will convert a physical quantity to an
electrical one.
P D E

There are of many different types of transducer, they can be
classified based on various criteria as:
Types of Transducer based on Quantity to be Measured
Temperature transducers (e.g. a thermocouple)
Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
Flow transducers
Types of Transducer based on the Principle of Operation
Photovoltaic ( e.g. a solar cell )
Piezoelectric
Chemical
Mutual Induction
Electromagnetic
Hall effect
Photoconductors
Types of Transducer based on Whether an External Power Source is
required or not.
Active Transducer
Active transducers are those which do not require any power source
for their operation. They work on the energy conversion principle. They
produce an electrical signal proportional to the input (physical quantity).
For example, a thermocouple is an active transducer.
Passive Transducers
Transducers which require an external power source for their
operation is called as a passive transducer. They produce an output signal
in the form of some variation in resistance, capacitance or any other
electrical parameter, which than has to be converted to an equivalent
current or voltage signal. For example, a photocell (LDR) is a passive
transducer which will vary the resistance of the cell when light falls on it.
This change in resistance is converted to proportional signal with the help
of a bridge circuit. Hence a photocell can be used to measure the intensity
of light.

Above shown is a figure of a bonded strain gauge which is a passive
transducer used to measure stress or pressure. As the stress on the strain
gauge increases or decreases the strain gauge bends or compresses
causing the resistance of the wire bonded on it to increase or decrease.
The change in resistance which is equivalent to the change in stress is
measured with the help of a bridge. Hence stress is measured.
RESULT:
Thus the various types of sensors/transducers were studied.

Ex No :17 Date :
STUDY OF IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUE
Objective:
At the end of the lab session, students will have the information’s on
image, digital image, and the processing techniques.
Image
An image may be defined as a two dimensional function f(x,y),
where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are spatial coordinates, and the amplitude of ‘f’ at any
pair of coordinates x,y is called intensity or gray level of the image at that
point.
Digital Image
‘x’, ’y’ and the amplitude ‘f’ are all finite and discrete quantities
means then the image is called as digital image.
Digital Image Processing
The field of digital image processing refers to processing of digital
images by a digital computer. Each object has finite number of pixels or
pels or image elements or picture elements.
Image resolution
Image resolution is defined as the number of pixels that
can be accommodated in a unit area. Image resolution depends on
number of values for N and number of bits used in a gray level (m). If N
and ‘m’ is high, then the resolution will be more.
Hue
Hue is an attribute associated with the dominant wavelength in a
mixture of light waves. Thus hue represents dominant color as perceived
by an observer eg., red, yellow.
Saturation
It refers to relative purity or the amount of white light mixed with
the hue. The pure spectrum colors are fully saturated (RGB).Color such as
pink and lavender are less saturated. ie., The degree of saturation being
inversely proportional to the amount of white light added. Hue and
saturation taken together are called chromoticity.

Image Histogram
An image histogram is a type of histogram that acts as a graphical
representation of the tonal distribution in a digital image. It plots the
number of pixels for each tonal value.
Horizontal axis  tonal variations
Vertical axis  represents the number of pixels in that particular tone.
The left side of the horizontal axis represents the black and dark
areas, the middle represents medium grey and the right hand side
represents light and pure white areas. The Vertical axis represents the size
of the area that is captured in each one of these zones.
The histogram for the very dark image will have the majority of its
data points on the left side and centre of the graph.
The histogram for the very bright image with few dark areas is
shadows will have most of its data points on the right side and
the centre of the graphs.
Histogram of differential excitation differential excitation scaled to [0,255]
300
200
100
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
Fig Shows image histogram
FFT Transform
Typically, 2-D-Fourier transform (2-D-FT) is used as the
representation of complex SAR images. However, the energy of the
coefficients of 2-D FT on the complex SAR image distributes in the whole
frequency domain. Generally, the frequency signals are divided into real
and imaginary parts, and quantized with Lloyd-Max quantizer However,
the compression ratios of the frequency domain compression
algorithms are almost limited in 10.4:1o r 9.8:1, which are not very high.
Wavelet transform can locally analyze time and frequency in multiscale
and shows very strong decorrelation ability. As it is particularly suitable
for non- stationary signal processing, wavelet transform has been applied
to complex SAR image compression currently; most compression
algorithms of complex SAR image adopt the traditional wavelet transform.

However, for the complex SAR images, which are rich in edges and
texture, traditional wavelet transform does not show efficient
representation. proposed an algorithm which extracted edges of SAR
image with wedge let transform and encoded the edges and texture
separately. Used 2-D oriented wavelet transform for remote sensing
compression.
The SAR images used in are not complex SAR images. To the best of
our knowledge, directional wavelet transform has not been applied to the
compression of complex SAR images. Directional wavelet transform
achieves the direction extraction while keeping the property of
multiscale analysis of discrete wavelet transform (DWT). Directional
wavelet transform can be divided into two classes: frequency-domain
transform and spatial-domain transform.
The frequency-domain directional wavelet transform, such as
contour let which continuously performs directional filter on the high-
frequency sub bands of wavelet transform, gives an efficient
representation of the edges at the cost of high redundancy. The spatial-
domain directional wavelet, such as directional lifting wavelet transform
(DLWT), employs direction prediction for wavelet decomposition, which
adapts the wavelet transform direction to the image edges. DLWT
integrates spatial direction prediction into the wavelet transform lifting
framework, provides an efficient representation of edges along multiple
directions of images, and thus reduces the energy of high-frequency bands
and achieves more energy clustering.
As the real parts and imaginary parts of complex SAR image as well
as the real image of fast FT (FFT) are rich in edges, two complex SAR
image coding schemes using DLWT are proposed. Fourier Transform (FT)
with its fast algorithms (FFT) is an important tool for analysis and
processing of many natural signals. FT has certain limitations to
characterise many natural signals, which are non- stationary (e.g. speech).
Wavelet compression system consists of several components:1)
filters and algorithms for performing wavelet decomposition and
reconstruction, 2) a bit allocation strategy, and 3) quantizers. In order to
minimize algorithm complexity and to reduce susceptibility to channel
errors, the quantizer output is not encoded with an entropy or arithmetic
coder. Side information concerning normalization and bit allocation can be
coded in only a few bits for an entire image.
The wavelet transform is a relatively new technique for
decomposition of a data set with orthogonal (orthogonal) basis functions
and is becoming widely used in image compression. The orthogonal
wavelet decomposition provides a multi resolution representation of a
signal over an ortho normal basis. It offers several advantages for SAR
data compression:
1. The decomposition of an image into a representation selective
both in frequency and spatial orientation allows allocation of quantization
bits to "important" components.

2. Algorithms for performing a wavelet decomposition and
reconstruction are recursive, computationally efficient, and easily
implemented in hardware. The computation of a wavelet transform, as
described by Mallat, has a computational burden on the order of &V'
. Fast wavelet transform algorithms can reduce the computational
burdentolog -4-
3. The decomposition of an image into a pyramid of detail images results
in a set of coefficients that have reduced dynamic range compared to the
original image. This is particularly important for compression of SAR
imagery due to its very large dynamic range.
4. A wavelet multiscale decomposition of an image is convenient
for progressive image transmission. A coarse resolution image can be
selected from a sensor or database, and then a) browsed at coarse
resolution for data quality, data validation, correct location, etc .and or
processed by algorithms which require only coarse resolution input data,
or b) a subset of the image can be transmitted and displayed at the finest
available resolution.
Complex SAR Image
1-D FFT
Spectrum Moving
1-D IFFT
Real part
extracting
SAR Image
Synthetic aperture radar (S
microwave imaging system, is
in the application field of mi
aperture radar (SAR) develo
resolution, multi polarization
of SAR image data rises steadily
way to alleviate the pressure of
FFT Program
AR), which is
an important tool
crowave remote
ping along the
, multiband, an
. Data compressio
transmission and
an all-time, all-weather
for achieving information
sensing. With synthetic
directions of high
d multimode, the quantity
n technology is a effective
storage on SAR system.

Complex SAR Image
The complex SAR image, which consists of amplitude and phase, is
the first- level image data of the SAR system. The phase information fidelity
in complex SAR image is crucial to some special applications, such as
interferometry and moving target detection. Therefore, complex SAR image
compression requires not only reasonable amplitude fidelity but also high
phase information accuracy, which is different from the ordinary optical
image compression.
Furthermore, compared with optical images, complex SAR images
exhibit significantly higher dynamic range and less spatial correlation.
Thus, common optical image compression algorithms are not suitable for
the compression of complex SAR images. Efficient representation is
important to the compression of complex SAR images.
Reconstructions of the compressed detected imagery were of good to
excellent quality at data rates as low as 0.25 bpp (compression ratio of
32 : 1 when compared to an uncompressed data rate of 8 bpp). Visual
impressions of the imagery were much better than the SNR’s implied. SNR’s
for compressed SAR imagery are lower than those reported for optical
imagery because the high spatial frequency speckle of SAR imagery does
not get accurately reconstructed during the compression process.
However, accurate reconstruction of speckle is of virtually no importance
to human interpretation of SAR imagery. Complex data rates are expressed
as bits per real or imaginary element (bpe), which corresponds to
twice the data rate of detected data since each pixel consists of two
elements. Even when complex data rates are reported in bits per element,
the quality of the reconstructed complex images is poorer than that of the
reconstructed detected images; both shadows and objects are less well
defined in the complex compressed imagery. Reasonable looking images
were obtained at data rates as low as 0.5-1 bpe or 1-2 bpp. On the other
hand, since complex imagery is commonly represented with a two-
byte integer for each real and imaginary part, a compressed data rate of 1
bpp (0.5 bpe) corresponds to a 32:l compression ratio for complex data.
The first scheme directly encodes real parts and imaginary parts of
complex SAR images using the CCSDS algorithm which replaces DWT by
DLWT. The second scheme first converts a complex image into a real
image using FFT, and then encodes the real image in the CCSDS coding
algorithm which also replaces DWT by DLWT.
Compared with the original CCSDS image coding schemes using DWT, the
proposed two coding schemes show significant performance gain not
onlyin amplitude peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) but also in mean phase
error (MPE). the best in terms of PSNR and structure similarity (SSIM)].

However, the coding algorithm based on DLWT achieves better rate-
distortion performance than that of DWT. It is because the rate-
distortion performance of coding algorithm is determined not only
by the number of significant coefficients, but also by the position
distribution of significant coefficients, i.e., the clustering capability of
significant coefficients the coding bits of significant coefficients with CCSDS
algorithm with K-term nonlinear approximation gets less PSNR and SSIM
than DWT, DLWT coefficients need less actual coding bits for the same
number of significant coefficients than DWT.
Therefore, at the same bit rate, we can encode more coefficients with
DLWT than DWT, and then DLWT may outperform DWT in terms of rate-
distortion performance eventually. DLWT consuming less coding bits is due
to the better clustering capability.
In the first approach the complex image data is converted to a real data
format using a FFT scheme without neglecting any phase information.
Shifting the frequency spectrum by the half bandwidth to positive
frequencies, one obtains a negative spectrum equal to zero. After
applying the inverse Fourier transform, the resulting complex signal can be
represented by its real part without loss of any information, since real and
imaginary part of the signal are mutual Hilbert transforms.
The sampling rate are doubled, but because of only using the real part of
the converted signal the data amount is not raised. The particular
advantage of this transformation is, that the wavelet decomposition and
compression schemes can be applied as usual to ordinary intensity data.
The reconstructed complex image data is received by undoing the FIT
transformation scheme in reverse order.
In the second approach the complex image data is divided into
magnitude and phase, applying two different compression techniques to
both parts. The magnitude of the complex image data has the same
properties as intensity SAR data and can be compressed, using the discrete
wavelet transform and a compression scheme described below.
The phase of the data is uniformly distributed and highly decorrelated, so
that a nearly lossless compression technique has to be used. In this paper a
vector quantizer was chosen for that. The codebook of the vector quantizer
is trained, using a typical image area of a similar image. In both schemes a
block adaptive Max quantizer was used with a fixed 5 bit quantization,
either for the magnitudes of the image data in our first approach or for the
real part of the converted complex image data in our second approach.
Additionally, a vector quantizer is used on the Max-quantized data,
grouping neighbouring image pixels to specific vectors. The phase of the
image data in the second approach is always quantized by a vector
quantizer without utilization of a block adaptive Max quantizer.

The complex SAR data set, we used for both compression methods, was
taken in X-Band by the experimental SAR of DLR during a mission in 1996
and shows a part of Mount Etna.
For each approach two numerical examples are given with
different compression ratios Both proposed schemes lead to good visual
image quality as where only one compression example of each approach is
depicted. The histograms of the reconstructed image magnitudes are also
maintained with respect to their originals.
The image quality parameters SNR and PSNR as well as the mean phase
error (MPE) and phase standard deviation (PSD) for all the four examples
are listed in the first table with their resulting compression ratio.
Additionally, the second approach is extended to multi polarization mode.
The magnitudes of four polarization channels are separately quantized
using a block adaptive Max quantizer with a fixed 5 bit quantization as
well. The low-pass component of the final wavelet decomposition
was linearly quantized with maximum quantization.

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