Software and Systems Engineering Standards: Verification and Validation of Sy...
CHAPTER 1.pptx
1. Chapter 1 Metrology Basics
C505.1
Understand basics of metrology, standards and calculate
least count of measuring instruments.
2. Selection of instrument
Range of instrument
Scale spacing
Sensitivity
Scale division value
Accuracy of instrument
Repeatability
Effect of environmental condition
Errors generated during measurement
Cost of instrument
Life of instrument & need of calibration
3. Precautions & care while handling
instrument
Avoid mishandling
Surfaces not be touched by hand
Wash hand properly apply petroleum jelly before
handling instrument
4.
5. Line Standards
Line standard is the standard in which distance is
measured between two lines.
Characteristics-
It is Quick and easy
Parallax error can be generated
They are not much accurate
e.g. steel rule.
6. End Standard
End standard- When distance is measured between
two surfaces
Characteristics
Accurate up to 0.005mm
They are costly, difficult to use.
The surfaces are to be protected.
e.g. Slip gauges, end bars.
7. Wavelength Standard
Material standards are subjected to destroy day by day
Concepts leads to generate wavelength standard
Simple light rays are used as source of wavelength
standard.
Cadmium 11,krypton-86 and mercury 198 can be
sources of light wavelengths
It was decided that krypton-86 in a hot cathode
discharge lamp at 68 ̊ K,generates orange radiations
and they can be used as ultimate wavelength standard.
1 meter=1650763.73×wavelength Kr-86
11. Wringing
Wringing –the property of measuring faces of a gauge
block of adhering by sliding or pressing hr gauge
against the measuring faces of other gauge block or
the reference faces of datum surfaces,
It occurs due to molecular adhesion between a liquid
film and mating surfaces
12. Wringing
First keep two slip on
one another and slide
them
Press the faces into
contact ,perpendicular to
each other and give a
small twisting motion.
15. Comparators
Works on relative measurement
Definition-Is a device
Pick up small variation in dimension
Magnifies it
Displays it by indicating devices
16. Requirements of good
comparator
Robust design and construction
Linear scale
High magnification
Versatility
Indicator should be constant in it return to zero
No effect of environmental conditions
Measuring pressure-low & constant
Sensitive As per requirement
Reliable
Easy to handle & compact
Cheaper and easily available in market
17. Use of comparators
In mass production
As laboratory standard
For inspection of newly purchased gauges
In selective assembly of parts
As a working gauge & inspection
19. Dial Gauge Indicator
Working principle-
Conversion of linear movement
into angular movement using
rack and pinion.
Gear train for magnification and
scale pointer as indicating device
20. Construction and working of dial
gauge indicator
R=Rack,A=Pinion
S= spring
A,B,C,D,E,F=Gears
P=plunger
G=Guide way
Po= pointer
Sc=Scale
H=Support with hair coil
spring
21. Construction and working
When plunger P moves up with rack R,gear A rotates
as shown .Linear movement is converted into angular
As A rotates, B also rotates which is in mesh with C, C
is on the same shaft as that of D.
When D rotates pinion E rotates To the center of E Po
is attached.
Pointer Po shows reading on the scale.
22. Sigma Comparator
Principle-
Two rectangular blocks
out of which one is fixed
and other movable are
assembled as shown
The force is applied from
the top side it will give
angular deflection of θ
23.
24. Plunger is mounted on a
slit washer to move up and
down for frictionless
movements
A knief edge pivots on the
groove, whose lower edge
is on the moving block
Y-arm is attached to the
movable block as shown Y
arm is wounded on the
small drum of radius R
with the phoshorous
bronze taps.
25. Working of sigma comparator
When plunger moves in downward direction knief
edge also moves in the same
Knief edge will give force on movable block this will
tend to deflect it by a small angle θ
Y arm causes change in position by rotating drum of
small radius ‘r’ The pointer is attached to the centre of
drum which will rotate and shows some reading on the
scale
The magnification of a comparator depends upon L,l,x
and r
Magnification=L*l/x*r
26. Pneumatic comparator
Working principle-
Back pressure gauge
Air flows with a constant
pressure through two orifices
o1 and o2
P1 is upstream pressure of the
first orifice and P2 is the
pressure between two orifice.
P1 +P2 when O2 is blocked.
Also it tends to zero as O2 is
blocked
Also it tends to zero as O2 is
increased upto ∞
P2 depends upon L
28. Construction & working of
Pneumatic comparator
Constuction
Uses high pressure air from
compressor
High pressure air pipe is
connected to gauging head
High pressure air is passing
through air filter
Manometer is used to measure
backpressure generated in the
system
Orifice is used in pipeline
between dip tube and
manometer for avoiding
backpressure to be discharged in
compressor line.
29. Working
Water is filled in tank and
dip tube is inserted upto
level H
High pressure and excess air
may bubble out in water
tank
Air flows through control
orifice to gauging head
Because of restrictions given
by gauging head back
pressure is exerted on the
air
30. Back pressure
generated is shown by
manometer i.e.by
height difference ∂h
The manometer height
can be calibrated by
using standard
gauging heads and
jobs
31. Electrical Comparator
Principle-
It works on mutual inductance
When core is inserted in a magnetic fields of primary
windings, the voltage induced in secondary is
proportional to the core position.
33. Construction And working
Electrical principle and
mechanical movements of
plunger which is joined to
core
Transformer consisting of
three coils wounded on
insulated bobin
Working
Itf the core is centralized in
the middle position of two
secondary windings, the
voltage induced in
secondary winding gives
net output 0
34. Relative advantages and disadvantages
Comparator Advantages Disadvantages
Mechanical 1. Cheaper
2. No need of electricity
3. Linear scale
1. More moving parts
2. More friction
3. Less accuracy
4.Robustn and compact 4. Sensitive to vibration
5. Easy to handle 5. Range is limited
6.portable 6. Parallax error is possible
Electrical 1.Small moving parts 1.Needs Electric supply
2. Very high magnification
3.High range
4. Not sensitive to vibration
2. Variation in supply affects accuracy
3. Heating coil may cause errors
4. expensive
Pneumatic 1. No contact with job
2. Small moving parts
3. More accuracy
4. High magnification
5. Instrument can be used
placed at remote from job
1. Auxiliary equipment needed
2. Scale not uniform
3. Not portable
4. Different gauging head required
6. Used to check ovality and