A Brief History of Police Technology

Copyright Protected 2005: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Police TechnologyPolice Technology
Chapter SixChapter Six
A Brief History of PoliceA Brief History of Police
TechnologyTechnology

Copyright Protected 2005: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymo
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
 Explore the development of policeExplore the development of police
technology against the backgrounds of thetechnology against the backgrounds of the
policing models –policing models – politicalpolitical,, professionalprofessional,,
andand community based modelscommunity based models
 Expand understanding ofExpand understanding of tacticaltactical andand
strategicstrategic information by looking at howinformation by looking at how
technology changed the nature oftechnology changed the nature of
fingerprint evidencefingerprint evidence

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
 Understand the difference betweenUnderstand the difference between
policypolicy andand procedureprocedure and look at howand look at how
technology may impact policy andtechnology may impact policy and
procedureprocedure
 Further exploreFurther explore fragmentationfragmentation and theand the
market-place.market-place.

IntroductionIntroduction
Look at history of technology two ways:Look at history of technology two ways:
 What happened and consequences of newWhat happened and consequences of new
technologiestechnologies
 Following a specific piece ofFollowing a specific piece of
information that has beeninformation that has been
critical to solving crimes forcritical to solving crimes for
more than one hundred yearsmore than one hundred years
(fingerprinting)(fingerprinting)

Police Technology in TimePolice Technology in Time
Most CJ scholars divide the history ofMost CJ scholars divide the history of
American policing into three eras:American policing into three eras:
 PoliticalPolitical
 ProfessionalProfessional
 Community OrientedCommunity Oriented

Political Policing EraPolitical Policing Era
Most police forcesMost police forces
established in the lateestablished in the late
1919thth
century consisted orcentury consisted or
men who had beenmen who had been
appointed for limited termsappointed for limited terms
by local Politicians.by local Politicians.
 Patronage – an officer’sPatronage – an officer’s
primary source ofprimary source of
information came frominformation came from
the people who lived inthe people who lived in
the community or theirthe community or their
beatbeat
Photograph provided by Cultural Tourism DC.

Professional PolicingProfessional Policing
 Government and policingGovernment and policing
evolved out of theevolved out of the
patronage system into apatronage system into a
civil service system.civil service system.
 Prized hierarchy,Prized hierarchy,
centralization rules, andcentralization rules, and
standards became thestandards became the
professional policingprofessional policing
model.model.
 Control of day-to-dayControl of day-to-day
operations from politics tooperations from politics to
professional policeprofessional police
managers.managers.

Technology impacting the modelTechnology impacting the model
Through the 1950s and 1960s, the idea thatThrough the 1950s and 1960s, the idea that
police supervisors and managers shouldpolice supervisors and managers should
control the production of service began tocontrol the production of service began to
take hold.take hold.
 Supervisors and managers began to countSupervisors and managers began to count
the numbers of calls for service an officerthe numbers of calls for service an officer
handledhandled
 Timed how fast he arrived at the scene ofTimed how fast he arrived at the scene of
a calla call

““You get what you count. . .”You get what you count. . .”
 Officer were not walking the communityOfficer were not walking the community
any longerany longer
 They were evaluated on the number ofThey were evaluated on the number of
calls they handled andcalls they handled and
 How fast they got to the call.How fast they got to the call.

Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing
 Through the 1970s thereThrough the 1970s there
continued to be a reliancecontinued to be a reliance
on what was to be seenon what was to be seen
asas incident-drivenincident-driven
policingpolicing..
 The advent of theThe advent of the
computer made itcomputer made it
possible to organize andpossible to organize and
review this information onreview this information on
incidents and response.incidents and response.
 The development of 9-1-1The development of 9-1-1
only added to the police’sonly added to the police’s
ability to handle incidents.ability to handle incidents.Photograph provided by Gary Allen, 9-1-1 Dispatch Magazine

 As officers judged on theAs officers judged on the
number of calls theynumber of calls they
handled rose through thehandled rose through the
ranks, the concept ofranks, the concept of
professionalismprofessionalism
increased.increased.
 Police managers didPolice managers did notnot
rely on community inputrely on community input
 The idea that the policeThe idea that the police
were the professionalswere the professionals
who knew best,who knew best,
responded quickly, andresponded quickly, and
handled incidentshandled incidents
became organizationallybecame organizationally
entrenched.entrenched.
Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency ServicesPhotograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services

 The professional model and theThe professional model and the
technology changed the relationshiptechnology changed the relationship
between the police and the communitybetween the police and the community
 This introduced a new problem of theThis introduced a new problem of the
growing distance between policegrowing distance between police
officers and the communities theyofficers and the communities they
served.served.

Community Oriented PolicingCommunity Oriented Policing
Founded on two social science theories:Founded on two social science theories:
 Normative Sponsorship TheoryNormative Sponsorship Theory – Most– Most
people are good. People will workpeople are good. People will work
together if the goal is within the normaltogether if the goal is within the normal
standards of the community.standards of the community.
 Critical Social TheoryCritical Social Theory – Looks at the way– Looks at the way
the community comes together to analyzethe community comes together to analyze
a problem that is preventing thea problem that is preventing the
attainment of their goals or needs.attainment of their goals or needs.

Problem Oriented PolicingProblem Oriented Policing
 Shares many of the same characteristicsShares many of the same characteristics
of community-oriented policing.of community-oriented policing.
 Concentrates on situational crimeConcentrates on situational crime
prevention.prevention.
 Looks at the community of the problem.Looks at the community of the problem.
The Definition of “community” would shiftThe Definition of “community” would shift
as problems were solved (versus staticas problems were solved (versus static
geographic communities).geographic communities).

Technology’s Impact on PolicingTechnology’s Impact on Policing
StyleStyle
Political Model
Professional Model
Incident DrivenTechnology

Changing the Value ofChanging the Value of
InformationInformation
 The increasing abilityThe increasing ability
to obtain, organize,to obtain, organize,
analyze and recallanalyze and recall
information hasinformation has
increased its valueincreased its value

 One of the earliest applications of scienceOne of the earliest applications of science
to criminal investigation isto criminal investigation is fingerprintfingerprint
classification.classification.
 Visible – left by touching a substance beforeVisible – left by touching a substance before
touching a surface (e.g., blood on a counter)touching a surface (e.g., blood on a counter)
 LatentLatent – hidden fingerprints left behind by the– hidden fingerprints left behind by the
natural oils from our hands. (Best obtainednatural oils from our hands. (Best obtained
when surface is clean, dry, smooth and non-when surface is clean, dry, smooth and non-
porous.)porous.)

 At the beginning ofAt the beginning of
the 20the 20thth
CenturyCentury
fingerprints werefingerprints were
routinely taken fromroutinely taken from
offenders and theoffenders and the
cards stored.cards stored.
 At this time, for aAt this time, for a
match each print mustmatch each print must
be compared againstbe compared against
millions of cardsmillions of cards

 At first, systems of classification enableAt first, systems of classification enable
fingerprint specialist to narrow the searchfingerprint specialist to narrow the search
from millions of cards to thousands – butfrom millions of cards to thousands – but
still a hand search and analysisstill a hand search and analysis
The computer enabled the automation ofThe computer enabled the automation of
the process.the process.

Automated FingerprintAutomated Fingerprint
Identification SystemIdentification System
 The process of analyzing fingerprints isThe process of analyzing fingerprints is
dactylography.dactylography.
 Software used sophisticated and complexSoftware used sophisticated and complex
algorithms to recognize and comparealgorithms to recognize and compare
minutiaeminutiae.. HoweverHowever;;
 Computer processing speeds were slowComputer processing speeds were slow
 Hardware and software to store theHardware and software to store the
information had not yet been developedinformation had not yet been developed

National Crime InformationNational Crime Information
CenterCenter
 NCICNCIC organized in 1967 by the FBI toorganized in 1967 by the FBI to
handle fingerprints cards and requests forhandle fingerprints cards and requests for
comparison.comparison.
 Began to incorporate criminal historiesBegan to incorporate criminal histories
and correlate them to offender fingerprintand correlate them to offender fingerprint
cards on file.cards on file.
 Medium of transmission was U.S. mail andMedium of transmission was U.S. mail and
eventually fax.eventually fax.

 Local agencies forged ahead developingLocal agencies forged ahead developing
their own applications similar to NCICtheir own applications similar to NCIC
creating fragmentationcreating fragmentation
 AFISAFIS technology began to be usedtechnology began to be used
routinely especially in the investigation ofroutinely especially in the investigation of
cold cases.cold cases.
 1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and made1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and made
available nationwide the fingerprints of 33available nationwide the fingerprints of 33
million criminals.million criminals.

Digital scanning – obtainsDigital scanning – obtains
an image on the fingerprint,an image on the fingerprint,
examines and compares.examines and compares.
 Capacitance scanningCapacitance scanning – uses– uses
a charged coupled devicea charged coupled device
(CCD)(CCD)
 Optical ScanningOptical Scanning – light– light
source illuminates thesource illuminates the
suspect’s fingertipssuspect’s fingertips Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc.

Differences are important for twoDifferences are important for two
reasons:reasons:
 Capacitance scanner does not contain theCapacitance scanner does not contain the
CCD and is more readily miniaturizedCCD and is more readily miniaturized
 Capacitance scanner is actually takingCapacitance scanner is actually taking
measurements and is not easily fooled.measurements and is not easily fooled.

NCIC 200NCIC 200
 NCIC 2000 promisesNCIC 2000 promises
to take fingerprintto take fingerprint
technology into thetechnology into the
fieldfield
Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc.

Policy and ProcedurePolicy and Procedure
 ProceduresProcedures are a set of instructions onare a set of instructions on
how to do something.how to do something.
 PolicyPolicy is a broad statement on howis a broad statement on how
things should be done – how we wantthings should be done – how we want
human beings to exercise judgment.human beings to exercise judgment.

FragmentationFragmentation
The nature of United States
Law enforcement has
caused policies, procedures
and technology to develop
different from agency to
agency.

 17,000 state and local law enforcement17,000 state and local law enforcement
agencies.agencies.
 Different community expectations andDifferent community expectations and
standardsstandards
 Difference equipment acquisitionsDifference equipment acquisitions
according to size of budgetaccording to size of budget
 Expertise develops at different ratesExpertise develops at different rates

 Fragmentation –Fragmentation –
policy, procedure andpolicy, procedure and
technology – causestechnology – causes
problems wheneverproblems whenever
agencies must oragencies must or
should work togethershould work together
Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency ServicesPhotograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services

Copyright Protected 2005: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Police TechnologyPolice Technology
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A Brief History of Police Technology

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