Practical pharmacognosy 1

ph. Othman A. O. Al-shapi
1
Introduction
Microscope parts
Parts of microscope
Eyepiece lens: Thelens at the top that look through.
Tube: Connects the objective lenses.
Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to the base.
Base: The bottom of the microscope, used for support.
Illuminator: A steady light source used in place of a mirror.
Stage: The flat platform where you place your slide.
Revolving Nosepiece (Turret): This is the part that holds two or more
objective lenses and can be rotated to easily change the power.
Objective lenses: Usually you will fined 3 or 4 objective lenses (4x, 10x,
40x, 100x).
Rack stop: This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective
lens can get close to the slide.
Condenser lens: The purpose of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto
the specimen.

2
Pharmacognosy:
Is derived from the Greek words pharmakon means (drug) and gignosco
(gnosis) means (knowledge).
Crude drug:
Is the dried unprepared material used in medicine.
Medical plants:
It is a plant of a medical importance which contain active ingredients that
used in medicine.
The main active ingredient present in the medicinal plant are ( alkaloids,
glycosides, volatile oil, fixed oil, tannins, flavonoids).
There is a huge difference between herbal medicine and traditional medicine
in the scientific background approving.

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The main medicinal part of the plant are ( leaves, fruits, roots, rhizomes,
seeds, flowers, herbs, barks and steams)
Methods of medicinal plant evaluation:
- Organoleptic (macroscopically) by using body organs.
- Physical method by the physical properties as M.P, B.P, … etc.
- Biological method (testing plant activity on living bodies of animals
or by using sensitivity test against microorganisms).
- Microscopic method by examine the microscpoical characters of the
plant under microscope (detection of the key elements).
Practical methods:
How to prepare microscopical slide of the material?
In general the microscopic method is applied under microscope & by using
of mounting.
Mounting = preparing of the slide that is used in any test.
The general procedures for mounting:
1- Take small, clean & dry slide.
2- Place little amount of dry powder of the plant will be tested.
3- Add the suitable stain (reagent) in small amount over the powder &
heat until dryness of the mixture.
4- Add glycerin over them for wetting.
5- Cover the mixture by using of glass cover, the application of glass
cover should be in distinct way as to avoid babbles occurrences that
lead in distribution the slide visibility.
Chloral hydrate:
This dissolves starch, protein, chlorophyll, resins and causes shrunken cells
to expand. Chloral hydrate may be used not only for section but also for
whole leaves, flowers, pollen grain …etc. it does not dissolve calcium
oxalate and is therefore a good reagent for detection of these crystal.

4
Chloral hydrate solution is a solution of:
1- 50g chloral hydrate.
2- 20ml distilled water.
Dissolve using gentle heat if necessary.
Water:
To examine a material (usually in the powdered form) for the presence of
starch granules.
The importance of microscopical examination:
1- To identify of key elements.
2- To detect any adulteration.

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Carbohydrate
Starch
Definition:-
Carbohydrate : natural plant product – organic compound consist of C,H
and O.
Complex polysuccarides: substance with very high molecular weight and
consisit of a large number of monosuccaride units linked togather through
glycosidic linkage.
Starch ( Amylum ):
Natural plant product which is mixtuer of amylose 25% and amylopactin
75% .
Amylose:
- Liner molecules consist of 250-300 glucose units of α-D-glucose units
linked togather through α-1,4 glycosidic linkage.
- More water soluble than amylopactin.
- Amylose + I2blue color.

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Amylobactin:
- Branched molecule consist of more than 1000 units of α-D-glucose
units linked togather through α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic linkage .
- Amylpactin is less water soluble than amylose.
- Amylopactin + I2 violet color.
Plant containing starch:
- Cereal seeds contain 50-65% starch.
- Ginger rhizome contain 50% starch .
- Potato tubers 80-90% starch.
Commerical source of starch:
- Corn starch: isolated from the caryopses of Zea mays.
- Wheat starch: isolated from caryopses of Triticum aestivum.
- Rice starch: isolated from caryopses of Oryza sativa.
- Potato starch: isolated from tubers of Solanum tuberostuma.
Proparties of starch:
1- White mass powder, odorless with starchy taste.
2- Insoluble in water and form colloidal solution with water.
3- Corn and wheat starch have natural PH.
4- Potato starch has slightly acidic PH , when Rice starch has slightly
alkaline PH.
Identification test for starch:
1- Give posative reaction with fehling’s solution test:
Starch + HCl (hydrolysis) + NaOH (neutralization) + Fehling’s
solution red colour
2- Give posative reaction with Molisch’s test:
Starch + H2SO4 + α-naphthol purple ring
3- Starch + H2O + heat gel (jelly form)
4- Starch + I2 deep blue colour disappears with heating
the colour reappears with cooling

General uses:
1- Nutritive.
2- Demulcent.
3- In pharmaceutical prepration as tablet filer and binder.
4- Antipruritic : Baby paste® (vitamed company) used in case of diaper
rash , skin irritation (ZnO
5- Industrial uses: papers and clothes.
6- Antidot in case of poisoning from iodine.
Microscopical examination:
i. Potato starch
 Central and eccentric hilum (dot shape).
 The horse shoe-
unapparent.
 Clear striations (ring are clearly evident).
 Mussel-shaped.
In pharmaceutical prepration as tablet filer and binder.
Antipruritic : Baby paste® (vitamed company) used in case of diaper
rash , skin irritation (ZnO + starch).
Industrial uses: papers and clothes.
Antidot in case of poisoning from iodine.
Central and eccentric hilum (dot shape).
-shaped hila are eccenrically situated, smal and
striations (ring are clearly evident).
shaped.
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Antipruritic : Baby paste® (vitamed company) used in case of diaper
shaped hila are eccenrically situated, smal and

ii. Rice starch
 They are very small, polyhedral and polygonal grains.
 Aggregate from
 Sharp angles.
 Ring and hila can not be detected (striations are absent).
 Very rare we can detect
iii. Wheat starch
 Contain large granules.
 Lenticular.
 Smaller ones globular.
 Hilum is centric.
 Transition size are rare.
They are very small, polyhedral and polygonal grains.
Aggregate from 2-150 component.
Ring and hila can not be detected (striations are absent).
Very rare we can detect the presence of centric hila.
Contain large granules.
Smaller ones globular.
Hilum is centric.
Transition size are rare.
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Ring and hila can not be detected (striations are absent).

iv. Corn starch
 Ring (striations) are usually absent.
 Spheroidal and polygonal.
 Polyhydral.
 They usually stellate hila can often be found.
Ring (striations) are usually absent.
Spheroidal and polygonal.
stellate hila can often be found.
9

LEAVE
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried leaves of
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical constituents:
1- Anthraquinone group (sennoside A & B, and
traces of C&D).
2- Rhein & Aloe emodin anthraquinone (free
anthraquinone).
3- Resins, flavone derivatives.
Pharmacological effect of sennosides:
Stimulant laxative which increase intestinal motality and couses abdominal
cramps (spasm).
Uses:
1- Treatment of constipation.
2- In small doses laxative, but in large doses purgative
Chemical test
Borntrager’s test of anthraquinones
1- Boil 0.5g of powdered drug with
over water bath.
2- Filter on hot. Then cool
funnel.
3- Separate the organic layer
10% ammonia solution
4- Notic the color of the lower (ammonia layer) & record.
Senna leaves
dried leaves of Cassia acutifolia.
Anthraquinone group (sennoside A & B, and
emodin anthraquinone (free
Resins, flavone derivatives.
Pharmacological effect of sennosides:
Treatment of constipation.
laxative, but in large doses purgative.
Borntrager’s test of anthraquinones
g of powdered drug with 10ml dill H2SO4 for two minutes
Then cool & extract with 5ml benzen in separating
organic layer (must be yellow) & shake well with
ammonia solution.
Notic the color of the lower (ammonia layer) & record.
10
for two minutes
ml benzen in separating
shake well with 3ml

Chemical test of flavonoids
1- Boil 1g of powdered drug with
2- To the filter add 1ml of NaOH
3- Notic the appearance of yellow, green or red color.
Microscopical examination
- The leaves hair (b1
- Paracytic stoma (g).
- Calcium oxalate druses (c).
- Sclerenchyma fibers (vascular tissue with crystals) (f).
- Mucilaginous cell (e).
Chemical test of flavonoids
g of powdered drug with 5ml water then filter.
ml of NaOH (KOH or AlCl3).
Notic the appearance of yellow, green or red color.
1,d).
Paracytic stoma (g).
Calcium oxalate druses (c).
Sclerenchyma fibers (vascular tissue with crystals) (f).
Mucilaginous cell (e).
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12
Datura leaves
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried leaves of datura stramonium.
Family: Solanacae
1- Alkaloids.
2- Hyoscine and hyoscyamin.
Uses:
1- Mydriatic.
2- Treatmen of motion skniess.
3- Antispasmodic.
4- Cause suppression of secretion (lachrymal –
slivary and sweat gland).
- Anisocytic stomata (1).
- Calsium oxalate crystals (3).
- Pollen grains (10).
- Fragment of the crystals layer in surface view (4).

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Henna leaves
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried leaves of Lawsonia inermis.
Family: Lythraceae
1- Henna contain matter, Lawson (2-hydroxy 1,4-
naphthoquinone) cumarins, flavonoids including
luteolin
2- Fats, resin and henna-tannin.
Uses:
1- Use as dye for hair and wool.
2- Traditionally used in india for the treatment of jaundice, liver and
spleen enlargment.
3- For various skin diseases (eczema, scabies).
- Epidermis of the lamina in surface view (1).
- Cluster crystals of calcium oxalate (9).
- Smaller, thinner-walled sclereids from the pericarp (7).

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Parsley leaves
Plant infrmation
Botanical origin: dried leaves of Petroselinum crispum.
Family: Umbelliferae.
1- Source of antioxidants (especially luteolin).
2- Apigenin.
3- Folic acid.
4- Vitamin K, C and A
Uses:
1- Antiseptic in the urinary tract.
2- Stimulate uterine muscles.
3- Treatmen of gout, rheumatism, and arthritis.
4- Diuretic.
- Mocytic stomata (2).
- Thin-walled parenchyma (4).
- Fragment of vascular tissue from the petiole (8).

Flowers
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried flower heads of
Family: Compositae.
1- Volatile oil 1% (chamomile oil which has blue
color):
a- Azulene (chamazulene)
b- Bisabolol.
2- Bitter principle (anthemic acid).
3- Flavonoids (apigenin
Uses:
1- Antispasmodic.
2- Antiseptic.
3- Anti-inflamatory (
inflammations as vapor
4- For ophthalmic inflammation.
5- Carminative.
6- Stomachic.
7- Cosmatic (facial cream, skin loation, shampoo)
8- Diuretic.
Chamomile flowers
: dried flower heads of Anthemis nobilis.
chamomile oil which has blue
Azulene (chamazulene) – sesqueterpenes.
Bitter principle (anthemic acid).
Flavonoids (apigenin – a trihydroxy flavone).
inflamatory ( respiratory system
inflammations as vapor inhalations).
For ophthalmic inflammation.
(facial cream, skin loation, shampoo)
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Chmeical test for chamazolene:
1- Take 1g of chamomile flower powder extract by
2- Filter and concntrate the extract, then take the residue.
3- Add to the residue
4- Heating them in procelain dish in water bath.
5- The appearance of a blue color around the dish indicates to the
presence of chamazulene.
- Petal tips from a disk (a).
- Connective of stamen (b).
- Pollen grains (f).
- Side of stigma (j).
- Stone cells from the base of the ovary (g)
Chmeical test for chamazolene:
g of chamomile flower powder extract by 15ml of chloroform
Filter and concntrate the extract, then take the residue.
Add to the residue 2ml phosphoric acid + glacial acetic acid.
Heating them in procelain dish in water bath.
The appearance of a blue color around the dish indicates to the
presence of chamazulene.
Petal tips from a disk (a).
Connective of stamen (b).
Stone cells from the base of the ovary (g)
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ml of chloroform.
acetic acid.
The appearance of a blue color around the dish indicates to the

Plant information
Botanical origin: dried flowering buds of
caryophyllus.
Family: Myrtaceae.
Detection of good clove:
1- Its color is brownish red color.
2- It has a distinct odor.
3- It has heavy weight.
4- Finger nail test: when the clove have been
pressed by the finger the clove oil is suspend in the finger, if not, so
the oil may be extracted previously.
5- Place the clove inside glass filled with water so if the buds flow down
so it is good clove because the density of clove oil is higher then
water.
1- Volatile oil (clove oil
2- Tannin: gallotannic acid
Uses:
1- Condiment.
2- Carminative.
3- Clove oil which contain high precentage of
commercially to produce vanillin.
4- Antiseptic.
5- Flavoring agent.
6- Dental uses: as filling material with ZnO.
7- Local anesthetic (dental analgesic).
Clove flower buds
: dried flowering buds of Eugenia
Detection of good clove:
Its color is brownish red color.
odor.
It has heavy weight.
Finger nail test: when the clove have been
the oil may be extracted previously.
Place the clove inside glass filled with water so if the buds flow down
t is good clove because the density of clove oil is higher then
clove oil 14-20%)&(eugenol 70-90%).
gallotannic acid 10-13%.
Clove oil which contain high precentage of eugenol used
commercially to produce vanillin.
Dental uses: as filling material with ZnO.
Local anesthetic (dental analgesic).
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Place the clove inside glass filled with water so if the buds flow down
t is good clove because the density of clove oil is higher then

Chemical test:
1- Boil 1g of clove + 5ml water
2- Notice the development of deep blue color.
- Sclerenchymatose fiber from the bud (f).
- Secretory glands (b
- Pollen grains (c).
ml water, filter then add to the filter drops of FeCl
the development of deep blue color.
Sclerenchymatose fiber from the bud (f).
b2).
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filter then add to the filter drops of FeCl3.

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Fruits
Fennel fruits
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare.
1- Volatile oil.
2- Fenchone (the main active ingredient in fennel and
responsible for the action).
3- Anethole (responsible for the sweet taste) and
limonene.
Uses:
1- Carminative.
2- Antispasmodic.
3- Flavoring agent.
4- Sedative for the menstrual pain.
5- Treatment of inflammated eye.
Chemical test:
1- Boil 3g of powdered fennel with 10ml water.
2- Filter and divide the filtrate into 3 portion.
3- To the first one add few drops of FeCl3 (give green color), to the
2nd
add few drops of KOH or AlCl3 (give yellow color) and to the 3rd
add 1ml of suddan 3 (give red color develped).

- Reticulate parenchyma of the mesocarp
- Endocarp in surface view
- Fragment of a reticulately thickened vessel
- Thicker-walled cells
Reticulate parenchyma of the mesocarp (1).
Endocarp in surface view (2).
Fragment of a reticulately thickened vessel (4).
walled cells of the endosperm (11a).
23

24
Coriander fruits
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum.
Famiy: Umbelliferae.
1- Volatile oil 2%.
2- Coriandrol (linalool) 65-70%.
3- Pinene and other trace V.O.
Uses:
1- Condiment.
2- Carminative.
3- Flavoring agent.
- Epicarp in surface view showing a stoma and calcium oxalate prisms
in some of the cells (3).
- Testa in surface view (5).
- Fragment of vitta (2).

Plant information
Botanical origin: dried ripe fruits of
annum.
Family: Solanaceae.
1- Phenolic substance
principle) responsible for the burning taste.
2- α & β carotene.
3- Vitamine C.
4- Fixed oil.
5- Flavonoid glycoside (capsanthin) responsible for the
color.
Uses:
1- Internally: stomachic, condiment, carminative.
2- Externally: counter irrotation, as plaster for pain.
- Seed shell epidermis with mesenteric cells (a).
- The inner epidermis of the fruit with marked pitted rosulate cells (b).
- Oil droplets, characterized by red colour (c).
Capsicum fruits
: dried ripe fruits of Capsicum minimum or Capsicum
Phenolic substance : capsaicin 0.02% (pungent
principle) responsible for the burning taste.
Flavonoid glycoside (capsanthin) responsible for the
Internally: stomachic, condiment, carminative.
Externally: counter irrotation, as plaster for pain.
Seed shell epidermis with mesenteric cells (a).
epidermis of the fruit with marked pitted rosulate cells (b).
Oil droplets, characterized by red colour (c).
26
Capsicum
epidermis of the fruit with marked pitted rosulate cells (b).

Plant information
Botanical origin: dried ripe fruts of
Family: zingiberaceae.
1- V.O:
a- Terpenyl acetate.
b- Borneol.
c- Cineole.
d- Limonene.
2- Fixed oil.
3- Starch.
Uses:
1- Flavoring agent.
2- Carminative.
3- Condiment.
4- Antibacterial activity and halitosis treatment.
Chemical test:
1- Boil 1g of powdered car
2- Divid the filtrate into
3- In the first add 1ml suddan
2nd
add drops of iodine solution (give blue color doe to starch).
- Stone cell layer (a1
- Cells from the endosperm with calcium
- Perisperm fragments containing starch (d).
Cardamom fruits
: dried ripe fruts of Elettaria cardamomum.
Terpenyl acetate.
Antibacterial activity and halitosis treatment.
g of powdered cardamom with 5ml water and filter.
the filtrate into 2 portion.
ml suddan 3 (give red color due to V.O), and to the
1).
Cells from the endosperm with calcium oxalate single crystals (c).
Perisperm fragments containing starch (d).
28
and to the
oxalate single crystals (c).

Plant information
Botanical origin: dried ripe fruit of
Chemical constituents
1- Volatile oil:
a. Anethol 90%.
b. Chavicol.
2- Fixed oil and protein
Uses
1- Flavoring agent.
2- Carminative.
3- Popular drink and condiment
4- Antispasmodic.
Chemical test
Powder + suddan 3 red oil droplets
- Seed wall epiderms with hair (a).
- Calcium oxalate rosettes from the endosperm indiction (e).
- Stone cells (d).
- Sclerenchymal fibers (f).
- Droplet of fatty oil (g).
Anise fruit
dried ripe fruit of Pimpinella anisum.
oil and protein.
Popular drink and condiment.
red oil droplets (with heating).
Seed wall epiderms with hair (a).
rosettes from the endosperm indiction (e).
Sclerenchymal fibers (f).
Droplet of fatty oil (g).
30

Herbs
Plant information
Botanical origin: dried herbs of
piperita.
Family:Labiatae
1- Peppermint oil (v.o
green & pungent.
2- Menthol (50-90%)
menthafurane, menthyl acetate and
valeric acid.
3- Resin and Tannins.
Uses:
1- Carminative.
2- Flavoring agent (gum, tooth paste, mouth wash).
3- Antiseptic.
4- Antipruritic.
5- Counter irritant (menthol).
Peppermint herb
: dried herbs of Mentha
o) 1-2% yellowish-
), menthone,
menthafurane, menthyl acetate and
Resin and Tannins.
Flavoring agent (gum, tooth paste, mouth wash).
irritant (menthol).
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- Numerous diacytic stomata
- Vessels and xylem parenchyma from the stem
- Covering trichomes
- Glandular trichomes
Numerous diacytic stomata (2).
Vessels and xylem parenchyma from the stem (10).
Covering trichomes (6).
Glandular trichomes (5).
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Plant information
Botanical origin: dried herbs of
Family: Labiatae.
1- Volatile oil:
a. Thymol.
b. Carvacol.
c. Carvacrol.
Uses
1- Antibacterial.
2- Antifungal.
3- Expectorant (as thyme extract) due to carvacrol.
- Epidermis with short cortical hairs (a).
- Enlongated multicellular hair (c).
- Pollen grains (e)
Thyme herb
dried herbs of Thymus vulgaris.
Expectorant (as thyme extract) due to carvacrol.
Epidermis with short cortical hairs (a).
multicellular hair (c).
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Practical pharmacognosy 1

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