A Report on Preparation of soap

A
Mini Project
Report
On
“Preparation of Soap”
Submitted by
OM A ZAVARE (10303320181152713001)
LAUKIK V PAWAR (10303320191152710044)
PRAFULLA B GOPALE (10303320181152710008)
DEPARTMENT OF PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY, LONERE
2019-20

ii
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the mini-project report entitled “Preparation of Soap” is a bonafide
work carried out by Om A Zavare (10303320181152713001), Laukik V Pawar
(10303320191152710044), Prafulla B Gopale (10303320181152710008) of Second Year
Bachelor of Technology in Petrochemical Engineering of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
Technological University, Lonere in academic year 2019-2020.
Prof. Lubna Rawoot
(Guide)
Examiners:
1.
2.
Place: Lonere
Date:
Prof. V. P. Jawanjal
(Head of Department)
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Lonere 402103, Tal. - Mangaon, Dist. - Raigad, (M.S.)
DEPARTMENT OF PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

iii
ABSTRACT
Soaps and detergents are used frequently in our daily life. There is a significant difference
between them where the soaps are produced from the natural products while the detergents
are synthetic or man-made. The objectives of the experiment is to prepare soap and compare
its properties to that of a synthetics detergent. The soap is prepared by heating the mixture of
mineral oil, ethanol and sodium hydroxide until they become paste-like mixture before being
cooled off in ice bath for 15 minutes and filtered using vacuum filtration apparatus.The pH of
the soap and detergent is 11 and 8, respectively.Soap produce precipitate if in contact with
acidic water or hardness in water such as Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+ ion as in the experiment but
not the case for detergent. The hydrochloric acid needed to change the pH of the soap
solutions to 3 is 10 drops of HCl while for detergent solution is 2 drops of HCl.Detergent
solution is more effective compared to soap solution. The objectives are successfully
obtained, therefore the experiment is successfully done.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our special thanks to our guide Prof. Lubna Rawoot for her
constant guidance and support. My heartfelt gratitude goes out to her for helping us in every
aspect.
We are grateful to Prof. V. P. Jawanjal for giving us an opportunity to study on particular
topic. Also I would like to thank to all other staff members and colleagues who has helped us.

v
CONTENTS
TITLE ......................................................................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATE.......................................................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .....................................................................................................................iv
CONTENTS............................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER 1 ...........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Mechanism of cleansing soaps:...........................................................................................1
1.3 Action of soap:....................................................................................................................1
1.4 Effect of the alkali:..............................................................................................................2
1.5 Effects of fats:.....................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2 ...........................................................................................................................................3
HISTORY .......................................................................................................................................3
2.1 History:................................................................................................................................3
2.2 Ancient Roman era: ............................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 3 ...........................................................................................................................................5
RAW MATERIALS........................................................................................................................5
3.1 For materials House Hold Soap: .........................................................................................5
3.2 For materials Toilet Soap: ...................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 4 ...........................................................................................................................................6
TYPES OF SOAPS.........................................................................................................................6
4.1 Laundry soaps: ....................................................................................................................6
4.2 Cleaning soaps:....................................................................................................................6
4.3 Personal soaps: ....................................................................................................................6
4.4 Novelty soaps:.....................................................................................................................6
4.5 Perfumed soaps: ..................................................................................................................6
4.6 Guest soaps:.........................................................................................................................6
4.7 Beauty soaps:.......................................................................................................................6
4.8 Medicated soaps:.................................................................................................................6
4.9 Glycerin soaps:....................................................................................................................6
4.10 Transparent soap: ................................................................................................................7
4.11 Liquid soaps: .......................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 5 ...........................................................................................................................................8
PROCESS .......................................................................................................................................8
5.1 Hot processes:......................................................................................................................8

vi
5.2 Cold process:.......................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................................11
HOUSEHOLD SOAP ...................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER 7 .........................................................................................................................................12
SAFETY........................................................................................................................................12
CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................................14
REFERENCE........................................................................................................................................15

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6. 1 : Soap from Experiment…………………………………………..…………….. 11
Figure 7. 1 : Jacket...................................................................................................................12
Figure 7. 2: Glove ....................................................................................................................12
Figure 7. 3: Protective Mask....................................................................................................13
Figure 7. 4: Protective Googles ...............................................................................................13

A Report on “Preparation of Soap”
1Dept. of Petrochemical Engg. Dr. BATU. Lonere
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing,
bathing, and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as surfactants, emulsifying oils to
enable them to be carried away by water. In industry they are also used in textile spinning and
are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists'
oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier.
Soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong
base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils
are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids attach to a single molecule of
glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term "lye soap" refers
almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), induces saponification.
In this reaction, the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into free fatty acids, and then the latter
combine with the alkali to form crude soap: an amalgam of various soap salts, excess fat or
alkali, water, and liberated glycerol (glycerin). The glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain
in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses
Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of
calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other metallic soaps are also useful,
including those of aluminum, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as
thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by
the addition of lime to olive oil.
1.2 Mechanism of cleansing soaps
Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the aggregation of soap subunits (such
as sodium stearate): The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the
interior is lipophilic (attracted to oils).
1.3 Action of soap:
When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, so they
can then be rinsed away. For example: oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of
drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat dissolves in the water. The insoluble
oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap
molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a
lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it

soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.
1.4 Effect of the alkali:
The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared
from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium
hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from
the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used
exclusively in greases.
1.5 Effects of fats:
Soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have been made from triglycerides
(oils and fats).Triglyceride is the chemical name for the trimesters of fatty acids and glycerin.
Tallow, i.e., rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Its saponified
product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil,
coconut oil, olive oil, and laurel oil. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content and
hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made
from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap.

CHAPTER 2
HISTORY
2.1 History:
Being extra mild. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of
oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.
Box for Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap from the 20th century, part of the Museo
del Objeto del Objeto collection
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around
2800 BC in ancient Babylon. A formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil
was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.
The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and
combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a soap-like substance.
Egyptian documents mention a soap-like substance was used in the preparation of wool for
weaving.
In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress
[oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".
2.2 Ancient Roman era:
The word sapo, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis, which
discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes, but the only use he mentions for it
is as a pomade for hair; he mentions rather disapprovingly that the men of the Gauls and
Germans were more likely to use it than their female counterparts. Aretaeus of Cappadocia,
writing in the first century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those
alkaline substances that are made into balls called soap". The Romans' preferred method of
cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any
dirt with a strigil. The Gauls used soap made from animal fat.
A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a supposed Mount Sapo, where animal
sacrifices were supposed to have taken place; tallow from these sacrifices would then have
mixed with ashes from fires associated with these sacrifices and with water to produce soap,
but there is no evidence of a Mount Sapo in the Roman world and no evidence for the
apocryphal story. The Latin word sapo simply means "soap"; it was likely borrowed from an
early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum, "tallow", which appears in Pliny
the Elder's account. Roman animal sacrifices usually burned only the bones and inedible

entrails of the sacrificed animals; edible meat and fat from the sacrifices were taken by the
humans rather than the gods.
Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking.[13]
Galen describes
soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and
clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in the 2nd
century A.D. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were
second best. This is a reference to true soap in antiquity.

CHAPTER 3
RAW MATERIALS
3.1 For materials House Hold Soap:
Sodium Hydroxide: 10 gm
Water (20% NaOH): 50ml
Palm Oil: 30 ml
Honey: 10 ml
Fragrance: Heena
3.2 For materials Toilet Soap:
Sodium Hydroxide: 10 gm
Water: 50 ml
Coconut Oil: 30 ml
Honey: 10 ml
Fragrance: Rose Water
Glycerin: 10 ml
Color (food): Orange and Red

CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF SOAPS
4.1 Laundry soaps:
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles and organic compounds
from clothes. They can be found in liquid, powder and gel forms.
4.2 Cleaning soaps:
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and soil. The difference between
cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning soap don't contain harsh abrasives.
4.3 Personal soaps:
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special formulations for specific personal
hygiene needs. One type of the personal soap is the antibacterial soap that is made to prevent
bacteria and viruses from spreading. There are also body and hair soaps that have a mix of
ingredients that cleans both the skin and hair.
4.4 Novelty soaps:
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and include the soaps in the shapes of
various items, such as a rubber ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not only to
clean dirt and grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as well.
4.5 Perfumed soaps:
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional ingredients and perfume.
4.6 Guest soaps:
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into attractive shapes and they are
basically designed for the use by guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest
bathroom. Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and rounds
4.7 Beauty soaps:
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and ingredients for a
variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin, or special oil blends.
4.8 Medicated soaps:
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike original soap,
medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and disinfectants.
4.9 Glycerin soaps:
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap production. Soaps
which include glycerin in them tend to make your skin feel moister.

4.10 Transparent soap:
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually some form of
alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted at higher temperatures. Not
all transparent soaps are glycerin soaps.
4.11 Liquid soaps:
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the commercial
liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.

CHAPTER 5
PROCESS
5.1 Hot processes:
Hot-processed soaps are created by encouraging the saponification reaction by adding heat to
speed up the reaction. In contrast with cold-pour soap which is poured into molds and for the
most part only then saponifies, hot-process soaping for the most part saponifies the oils
completely and only then are poured into molds.
In the hot process, the hydroxide and the fat are heated and mixed together at 80–100 °C, a
little below boiling point, until saponification is complete, which, before modern scientific
equipment, the soap maker determined by taste (the sharp, distinctive taste of the hydroxide
disappears after it is saponified) or by eye; the experienced eye can tell when gel stage and
full saponification has occurred. Beginners can find this information through research and
classes. Tasting soap for readiness is not recommended, as sodium and potassium hydroxides,
when not saponified, are highly caustic.
An advantage of the fully boiled hot process in soapmaking is the exact amount of hydroxide
required need not be known with great accuracy. They originated when the purity of the
alkali hydroxides was unreliable, as these processes can use even naturally found alkalis,
such as wood ashes and potash deposits. In the fully boiled process, the mix is actually boiled
(100+ °C), and, after saponification has occurred, the "neat soap" is precipitated from the
solution by adding common salt, and the excess liquid is drained off. This excess liquid
carries away with it much of the impurities and color compounds in the fat, to leave a purer,
whiter soap, and with practically all the glycerin removed. The hot, soft soap is then pumped
into a mold. The spent hydroxide solution is processed for recovery of glycerin.

5.2 Cold process:
Even in the cold soap making process, some heat is usually required; the temperature is
usually raised to a point sufficient to ensure complete melting of the fat being used. The batch
may also be kept warm for some time after mixing to ensure the alkali (hydroxide) is
completely used up. This soap is safe to use after about 12–48 hours, but is not at its peak
quality for use for several weeks.
Cold-process soapmaking requires exact measurements of lye and fat amounts and computing
their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure the finished product does not contain any
excess hydroxide or too much free unreacted fat. Saponification charts should also be used in
hot processes, but are not necessary for the "fully boiled hot-process" soaping.
Historically, lye used in the cold process was made from scratch using rainwater and ashes.
Soap makers deemed the lye solution ready for use when an egg would float in it. Homemade
lye making for this process was unpredictable and therefore eventually led to the discovery of
sodium hydroxide by English chemist Sir Humphry Davy in the early 1800s.
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification value for each unique fat on an
oil specification sheet. Oil specification sheets contain laboratory test results for each fat,
including the precise saponification value of the fat. The saponification value for a specific
fat will vary by season and by specimen species. This value is used to calculate the exact
amount of sodium hydroxide to react with the fat to form soap. The saponification value must
be converted into an equivalent sodium hydroxide value for use in cold process soapmaking.
Excess unreacted lye in the soap will result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin;
not enough lye leaves the soap greasy. Most soap makers formulate their recipes with a 2–5%
deficit of lye, to account for the unknown deviation of saponification value between their oil
batch and laboratory averages.
The lye is dissolved in water. Then, the oils are heated, or melted if they are solid at room
temperature. Once the oils are liquefied and the lye is fully dissolved in water, they are
combined. This lye-fat mixture is mixed until the two phases (oils and water) are fully
emulsified. Emulsification is most easily identified visually when the soap exhibits some
level of "trace", which is the thickening of the mixture. Many modern-day amateur soap
makers often use a stick blender to speed up this process. There are varying levels of trace.
Depending on how additives will affect trace, they may be added at light trace, medium trace,
or heavy trace. After much stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding.
"Trace" corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential oils and fragrance oils can be added with

the initial soaping oils, but solid additives such as botanicals, herbs, oatmeal, or other
additives are most commonly added at light trace, just as the mixture starts to thicken.
The batch is then poured into molds, kept warm with towels or blankets, and left to continue
saponification for 12 to 48 hours. (Milk soaps or other soaps with sugars added are the
exception. They typically do not require insulation, as the presence of sugar increases the
speed of the reaction and thus the production of heat.) During this time, it is normal for the
soap to go through a "gel phase", wherein the opaque soap will turn somewhat transparent for
several hours, before once again turning opaque.
After the insulation period, the soap is firm enough to be removed from the mold and cut into
bars. At this time, it is safe to use the soap, since saponification is in essence complete.
However, cold-process soaps are typically cured and hardened on a drying rack for 2–6
weeks before use. During this cure period, trace amounts of residual lye are consumed by
saponification and excess water evaporates.
During the curing process, some molecules in the outer layer of the solid soap react with the
carbon dioxide of the air and produce a dusty sheet of sodium carbonate. This reaction is
more intense if the mass is exposed to wind or low temperatures.

CHAPTER 6
HOUSEHOLD SOAP
Household or laundry soap is the best-known domestic hygiene product. Production of the
good quality of soap helps reduce the family expenses. Hand crafted production of household
and laundry soap is based on two main process 1) Semi-boiled process and 2) Cold process.
E.g. Oil Soap
In the cold method, a fat and oil mixture, often containing a high percentage of coconut or
palm-kernel oil, is mixed with the alkali solution. Slightly less alkali is used than theoretically
required in order to leave a small amount of un-saponified fat or oil as a super fatting agent in
the finished soap. The mass is mixed and agitated in an open pan until it begins to thicken.
Then it is poured into frames and left there to saponify and solidify.
In the semi boiled method, the fat is placed in the kettle and alkali solution is added while the
mixture is stirred and heated but not boiled. The mass saponifies in the kettle and is poured
from there into frames, where it solidifies. Because these methods are technically simple and
because they require very little investment for machinery, they are ideal for small factories.
Figure 6.1: (From Experiment)

CHAPTER 7
SAFETY
1. A jacket, an apron or a long-sleeved shirt made of a hard material (denim, velvet, etc.)
must be worn.
2. During the preparation of caustic soda solutions, it is necessary to wear well-fitting plastic
or rubber gloves.
Figure 7. 2: Glove
Figure 7. 1 : Jacket

3. To avoid the inhalation of toxic vapors from the dissolving soda, a protective mask or
material soaked in water must be worn, covering the entire nose and mouth area.
4. A pair of protective goggles must be worn during the soap or detergent production process.
Figure 7. 3: Protective Mask
Figure 7. 4: Protective Googles

CONCLUSION
Soaps is the combination of Potassium and Sodium Salts with the fatty acids. Due to its Foam
forming property it is very important in day to day life. Now a days Soap is very important
part of the life. Soaps are used for the various purposes like cleaning, disinfection and various
use in the domestic purpose. Soaps are mainly soluble in water. The range of the TFM (total
fatty matter) in the soap is in between 50% to 90%. Toilet soaps have highest total fatty
matter contain.

REFERENCES
1. www.soaphistory.net
2. www.britannica.com/science/soap - Written by: A.S. Davidsohn
3. https://chem.libretexts.org
4. www.soap-flakes.com
5. www.soap-making-resource.com

A Report on Preparation of soap

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