SOAPS, ITS USES AND HARD WATER AND SOFT WATER,

2. I Kashish Sharma of class XII- A 3,Of DPSG
Meerut Road, would like to express my
special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.
Chandana Kumar as well as our principal
Mrs. Jyoti Gupta who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on
the topic :Foaming capacity of soap, which
also helped me in doing a lot of Research and I
came to know about so many new things I am
really thankful to them .Secondly, I would
also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in final izing this project
within the limited frame of time .

5. • PREFACE
• INTRODUCTION
• COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF
SOAP
• PREPARTION OF SOAPS
• FATS IN SOAP
• ABOUT THE EXPERIMENT
• COMPARISON
• OBJECTIVES,PROCEDURE
• RESULT

6. • Soaps and detergents remove dirt and grease from skin and
clothes. But all soaps are not equally effective in their
cleaning action. Soaps are the Na and K salts of higher fatty
acids such as Palmitic acid, Stearic acid and Oleic acid. The
cleansing action of soaps depends on the solubility of the
long alkyl chain in grease and that of the -COONa or the -
COOK part in water. Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet
cloth, the non polar alkyl group dissolves in grease while the
polar -COONa part dissolves in water. In this manner, an
emulsion is formed between grease and water which appears
as foam. The washing ability of soap depends on foaming
capacity, as well as the water used in cleaning. The salts of
Ca and Mg disrupt the formation of micelle formation. The
presence of such salts makes the water hard and the water is
called hard water. These salts thus make the soap inefficient
in its cleaning action. Sodium Carbonate when added to hard
water reacts with Ca and Mg and precipitates them out.
Therefore sodium carbonate is used in the treatment of hard
water. This project aims at finding the foaming capacity of
various soaps and the action of Ca and Mg salts on their
foaming capacity.
•

7. • Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction
with water for washing and cleaning, which
historically comes either in solid bars or in the
form of a viscous liquid. Soap consists of sodium
or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained
by reacting common oils or fats with a strong
alkaline in a process known as saponification.
The fats are hydrolyzed by the base, yielding
alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap) and
glycerol.
• The general formula of soap:
• Fatty end water soluble end
• CH3-(CH2)n - COONa
• Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap
molecules have both a hydrophilic end, which
dissolves in water, as well as a hydrophobic end,
which is able to dissolve non polar grease
molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy
water effectively holds particles in colloidal
suspension so it can be rinsed off with clean
water. The hydrophobic portion (made up of a
long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils,
while the ionic end dissolves in water. The
resultant forms a round structure called micelle.
Therefore, it allows water to remove normally-
insoluble matter by emulsification.

8. • The most popular soap making process
today is the cold process method, where
fats such as olive oil react with strong
alkaline solution, while some soapers use
the historical hot process.
• Handmade soap differs from industrial
soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is
sometimes used to consume the alkali
(super fatting), and in that the glycerin is
not removed, leaving a naturally
moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or
Shea butter are added 'at trace' (the point
at which the saponification process is
sufficiently advanced that the soap has
begun to thicken), after most of the oils
have saponified, so that they remain
unreacted in the finished soap.

9. • Soap is derived from either vegetable or
animal fats. Sodium Tallowate, a
common ingredient in much soap, is
derived from rendered beef fat. Soap can
also be made of vegetable oils, such as
palm oil, and the product is typically
softer.
• An array of saponifiable oils and fats are
used in the process such as olive,
coconut, palm, cocoa butter to provide
different qualities. For example, olive oil
provides mildness in soap; coconut oil
provides lots of lather; while coconut and
palm oils provide hardness. Sometimes
castor oil can also be used as an
ebullient.
• Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils
and fats that do not yield soap are
sometimes added for further benefits.

10. • In cold-process and hot-process soap
making, heat may be required for
saponification.
• Cold-process soap making takes place at a
sufficient temperature to ensure the
liquification of the fat being used.
• Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed
soap can be used right away because the
alkali and fat saponify more quickly at the
higher temperatures used in hot-process
soap making. Hot-process soap making was
used when the purity of alkali was
unreliable.
• Cold-process soap making requires exact
measurements of alkali and fat amounts and
computing their ratio, using saponification
charts to ensure that the finished product is
mild and skin-friendly.

11. • Soap samples of various brands are
taken and their foaming capacity is
noticed.
• Various soap samples are taken
separately and their foaming capacity
is observed. The soap with the
maximum foaming capacity is thus,
said to be having the best cleaning
capacity.
• The test requires to be done with
distilled water as well as with tap
water. The test of soap on distilled
water gives the actual strength of the
soaps cleaning capacity. The second
test with tap water tests the effect of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their foaming
capacities.

12. • In the hot-process
method, alkali and
fat are boiled
together at 80–100
°C until
saponification
occurs, which the
soap maker can
determine by taste
or by eye.
• After saponification
has occurred, the
soap is sometimes
precipitated from the
solution by adding
salt, and the excess
liquid drained off.
The hot, soft soap is
then spooned into a
mold.
• A cold-process soap
maker first looks
up the
saponification value
of the fats being
used on a
saponification
chart, which is then
used to calculate
the appropriate
amount of alkali.
Excess unreacted
alkali in the soap
will result in a very
high pH and can
burn or irritate
skin. Not enough
alkali and the soap
are greasy

13. OBJECTIVE:
TO COMPARE THE FOAMING
CAPACITY OF SOAPS
• Theory : The foaming capacity of soap depends
upon the nature of the soap and its
concentration. This may be compared by shaking
equal volumes of solutions of different samples
having the same concentration with same force
for the same amount of time. The solutions are
then allowed to stand when the foam produced
during shaking disappears gradually. The time
taken for the foam to disappear in each sample is
determined. The longer the time taken for the
disappearance of the foam for the given sample of
soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing
action.
Requirements: Five 100ml conical flasks, five test
tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder, test tube stand,
weighing machine, stop watch.
• Chemical Requirements: Five different soap samples,
distilled water, tap water.

14. • Procedure:
• 1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and
number them 1,2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of water in
each flask and add 8 Gm of soap.
• 2. Warm the contents to get a solution.
• 3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap
solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the process
for each soap solution in different test tubes.
• 4. Close the mouth of the test tube and
shake vigorously for a minute. Do the same
for all test tubes and with equal force.
• 5. Start the timer immediately and notice the
rate of disappearance of 2mm of froth.
• Observations:
• The following outcomes were noticed at the
end of the experiment:

15. • Result:
• The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the
order:
• Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux
• From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has
the highest foaming capacity, in other words, highest
cleaning capacity.
• Lux, on the other hand is found to have taken the least
amount of time for the disappearance of foam produced
and thus is said to be having the least foaming capacity
and cleansing capacity.
• Test for hardness in water
• Test for Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in the water supplied
• Test for Ca2+ in water
• H20+NH4Cl + NH4OH+ (NH4)2CO3
• No precipitate
• Test for Mg2+ in water
• H2O +NH4Cl+ NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4
• No precipitate
• The tests show negative results for the presence of the
salts causing hardness in water. The water used does
not contain salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water
provided is soft and thus, the experimental results and
values hold good for distilled water and tap water.

16. Test Tube
no
Vol. of
soap
solution
Vol. of
water
added
Time taken
for
disappearanc
e
Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42”
Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10”
Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”
Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”
Santoor 8ml 16ml 15’32”

17. THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE
CHEMISTRY PROJECT ON FOAMING
CAPACITY OF SOAPS IN CHEMISTRY
HAD BEEN SUBMITTED BY THE
CANDIDATE KASHISH SHARMA TO
MAM CHANDANA KUMAR WITH
ROLLNUMBER____FOR THE CLASS
XII PRACTICAL EXAMINATION OF
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION IN THE YEAR 2020.
IT IS FURTHER CERTIFIED THAT THIS
PROJECT IS THE INDIVIDUAL WORK
OF THE CANDIDATE.

18. • PARTS OF THIS PROJECT
HAVE BEEN REFERRED
FROM FOREIGN SOURCES
AND HAVE BEEN
INCLUDED IN THIS
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
AFTER EDITING .
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