The document discusses the stages of human decomposition after death. It notes there are typically five stages: fresh, bloated, decay, post-decay, and dry/skeletal. Each stage is associated with physical changes to the body over time and influenced by various environmental factors. Understanding the decomposition process can help estimate time of death and factors that affect the rate of decomposition.

1. Obaje Godwin Sunday
Department of Anatomy
Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences
Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu Alike
obaje199@gmail.com, +2348068638121

2. Fresh (1-2), 2-6,

3.  After death, the human body will typically
decompose in a particular predictable fashion,
though inevitably subject to a number of
variables.
 To a degree the extent of decomposition can
be used to estimate time of death.
Death Body Decomposition

4.  Five stages; fresh, bloated, decay, post-decay,
and dry/skeletal.
 Each stage is also associated with a rough time
period during which it is likely to occur, subject
to the factors that can alter these time periods.
 Each of these stages are also associated with
the arrival of different species of insects,

5.  Fresh (1-2 days)
 This stage begins almost instantly from the
moment of death. As the heart stops beating,
the body’s cells are deprived of oxygen and pH
changes occur.
 Cells gradually lose their structural integrity
and begin to break down, releasing cellular
enzymes which break down cells and tissues in
a process known as autolysis, degraded by the
body’s own enzymes.

6.  Internal bacteria within the gastrointestinal
tract begin to digest the soft tissues of the
organs.
 Post-mortem indicators may begin to occur,
such as livor mortis (pooling of blood in the
body), rigor mortis (stiffening of muscles) and
algor mortis (body temperature reduction).

7.  Bloated (2-6 days)
 Visible signs of decay, namely the inflation of
the abdomen due to a build-up of various
gases produced by bacteria inside.
 Visible around the tongue and eyes as the
build-up of gases cause them to protrude.

8.  The skin changes colour, taking on a marbled
appearance due to the transformation of
haemoglobin in the blood into other
pigments.
 Blood bubbles may form at the nostrils and
other orifices.
 At this point an odour of putrefaction may be
noticeable.

9.  Decay (5-11 days)
 The inflated carcass now deflates and putrid
internal gases are released.
 As the tissues break down the corpse will appear
wet and strong odours are very noticeable.
 Compounds contribute to odour as decomposing
body are cadaverine, putrescine, skatole, indole,
and a variety of sulphur-containing compounds.

10.  Although foul-smelling to most, these putrid
compounds will attract a range of insects.
 Fluids begin to drain from the corpse via any
available orifice, particularly the nose and
mouth.
 The internal organs typically decompose in a
particular order, starting with the intestines
and ending with the prostate or uterus.

11.  Decomposition slows, as most of the flesh has
been stripped from the skeleton.
 The strong odours of decay begin to subside,
cheese-like smell may persist caused by
butyric acid.

12.  The remains consisting primarily of bones,
dried skin and cartilage.
 There is typically no odour of decay at this
point.

13.  The core body temperature of a living human
being is approximately 37oC, after death the
body will gradually lose heat until body
temperature matches the environmental
temperature.

14.  Body temperature loss is affected by a range
of factors including the clothing worn by the
victim, the environment, how the body has
been left (uncovered, buried, etc), and the
victim’s body weight.

15. Livor Mortis,

16.  Also referred to as hypostasis or lividity, this
typically occurs relatively soon after death,
generally becoming apparent within an hour
or two.
 As circulation of the blood stops when death
occurs, the blood within the body follows
gravity and settles at the lower parts of the
body.

17.  This results in the visible pooling of blood
and a certain discoloration.
 As livor mortis initially sets in, the
discoloration is still temporary and could be
disturbed if the body was moved.

18.  However after approximately 9 hours or
more, the discoloration will be fixed and
cannot be changed initially
 Any pressure caused by tight-fitting clothing
or ligatures will prevent hypostasis, referred
to as pressure pallor.

19.  R mortis refers to the stiffening of body
muscles due to certain chemical changes.
 After death, the production of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) ceases, a compound which
is necessary for normal muscle function.

20.  Chemical bridges form between myosin and
actin which, without the presence of ATP, are
unable to separate, thus ultimately rendering
the muscle unable to relax.

21.  This state continues until the formed
complex is degraded by enzyme activity.
 This process begins around 2 to 6 hours after
death and typically lasts for 24 to 84 hours,
depending on environmental temperature and
the state of the body.

22.  During the time period in which rigor mortis
has occurred, the stiffening of the muscles
can be broken by physically moving affected
areas of the body.

23.  Referred to as corpse wax or grave wax,
adipocere is a grey or light brown waxy
material primarily composed of saturated
fatty acids, typically formed within
approximately one month of death.

24.  Once formed, this insoluble, waxy material can
remain for decades before breaking down.
 Saponification theory states that, in an ideal
environment, fatty acids can be hydrolysed
from body fat and conjugated with metallic
ions such as calcium and magnesium, resulting
in the formation of adipocere (Takatori, 2001).

25.  The conditions required for the formation of
this substance are relatively specific,
occurring best in warm conditions in the
absence of oxygen.

26.  Factors can influence the formation of
adipocere such as:
 The cause of death, body conditions prior to
death, time passed between death and burial,
pH and other environmental conditions.

27.  The presence of adipocere can provide
certain benefits in establishing time since
death as it can help to preserve certain
features of the body.

28.  Mummification is a process which typically
occurs in warm, arid conditions, ultimately
resulting in the desiccation of the body.
 Similarly, mummified cadavers have also been
found preserved in dry and cold conditions.

29.  The resulting corpse will be fairly preserved
and retaining certain aspects of the
appearance and potentially improving the
likelihood of establishing cause of death.

30. Affecting Factors

31.  Affecting Factors
 The time taken for a body to decompose can
vary greatly due to a wide range of factors
that can affect the process.
 Perhaps the most significant factors in the
rate of decomposition are temperature and
environment.

32.  Warmer temperatures will accelerate the
process of decomposition whereas colder
temperatures will slow the process down and,
if cold enough, stop it altogether.
 The temperature will equally affect insect
succession, which will ultimately affect how
quickly the body is broken down.

33.  Environmental conditions will equally affect
the species of insect present in the area.
 A dry and windy environment can dehydrate a
cadaver, resulting in mummification.

34.  The amount of protection a body has will also
play a role in the rate of decomposition.
 For instance, a body swaddled in blankets or
buried under a few feet of soil will be
significantly less exposed than a naked,
unburied cadaver exposed to the elements.

35.  When a dead body is left exposed, it will
inevitably attract scavengers which may have
an effect on the apparent rate of
decomposition.

36.  For instance, a corpse with gaping open
wounds may introduce insects into areas
easily.

37.  Fire could cause injuries which ultimately
expose the body further, accelerating the
decomposition process.

38. Research and Ethics

39.  The process of human decomposition is still
relatively unknown, thus a great deal of
research is currently being conducted in hopes
of understanding it better.
 Numerous facilities are now focusing on
decomposition research, often referred to as
body farms, perhaps the most famous being
the Anthropology Research Facility at the
University of Tennessee Knoxville.

40.  Human remains, often donated, are allowed to
decay in a variety of conditions which may
simulate real-life scenarios.
 The result of this research can provide
information on the decomposition process,
insect succession, and how different factors
can affect these procedures..

41.  Current research is also examining the
chemicals produced by the body during the
decomposition process.
 A better understanding of the intricacies of the
decomposition process can ultimately help
improve post-mortem interval determination.

42. 
 Lee Goff M. Early post-mortem changes and
stages of decomposition in exposed cadavers.
Exp Appl Acarol. 49 (2009), pp21-36.

 Siegel, J & Mirakovits, K. Forensic Science: The
Basics. Florida: CRC Press.

 Takatori, T. The mechanism of human
adipocere formation. Legal Medicine. 3 (2001),
pp193-204.