CSA

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NAME: FABIAN TERWASE MWAR
TP NUMBER: TP032588
COURSE CODE: CE00215-M-CSA
INTAKE CODE: UCMF1310COM
ASSIGNMENT TITLE: COMPUTER SYSTEMS
ARCHITECTURE.
SUBMISSION DATE: 26TH
MAY, 2014

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TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………3
1.1 Brief history of computers……………………………………4
1.1.1 First generation computers………………………………..5
1.1.2 Second generation computers……………………………5
1.1.3 Third generation computers……………………………….
1.1.4 Fourth generation computers……………………………..
1.1.5 Fifth generation computers………………………………..

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Computer systems are made of both the hardware and software. For a computer
to work as a computer, the hardware and software systems must be integrated.
The neglect of either of the two can lead to massive failures. The PC has much
great success because of the Windows Operating System (Rob Williams 2006).
The information system of a computer is made up of different components. They
include:
 Data element which is the fundamental representation of facts and
observations. Information is gotten from data that is processed by the
computer system.
 Hardware element which is the physical components of a computer
system that process data through the execution of instructions. It accepts
data through the input device and makes information available to users
through the output devices.
 The software element which forms the instructions that are executed by
the hardware element. This controls the workings of the computer.
 The communication element which provides the ability to share processing
operations and data among various computers and to their users. This is
done both locally and remotely.
“The combination of hardware, software, communication and data make up the
architecture of a computer system. The architecture of a computer system is
remarkably similar whether the system is a play station, a personal computer that
sits on your lap while you work, an embedded computer that controls the
functions in your cell phones or in your car, or a large mainframe system that is

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never actually seen by the hundreds of users who access it every day” Irv
Englander, 2010.
The computer systems we use today are built on the concepts of the first
mainframe computers.
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
One cannot talk about computers without its history. How it all started from the
early days where it was basically only just seen as a calculating device, it went
through processes of evolution through the years up to what we have now where
computers are involved in just about every facet of human existence. This is
because what we use today all started just as a calculator and has gone through
about five generations of computers. The generations are important to discuss
here because it shows how we got having embedded chips in washing machines,
microwave ovens just to mention a few. They will be discussed just briefly just to
keep things in perspective.
By generation, it simply means the different stages of changes the computer
went through, the improvements made to it over the years. With every generation
of the computer, the circuit has become smaller and has been made more
advanced than in the previous generation. This has in more ways than one
greatly increased the power, speed and memory of the computer system. The
generations include:
First generation computer – Vacuum tubes
Second generation computer – Transistors
Third generation computer – Integrated circuits
Fourth generation computer – Microprocessors

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Fifth generation computer – Present day computer where focus is on Artificial
Intelligence and also Cloud Computing.
1.1.1 FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER
First generation computers made use of the vacuum tube as their circuit and
used magnetic drums for memory. These were very large computers, they could
take up a whole room or an entire building because they were enormous in size.
Computers in this generation include, ENIAC- Electrical Numerical Integrator And
Calculator which was the first generation purpose computer that was ever built.
EDSAC- Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator, EDVAC- Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer, UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer
and IBM 701. They were mainly used for scientific computations. They consumed
more power but had limited performance and of course were very expensive and
difficult to assemble.
1.1.2 SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS
The second generation computer made use of the transistors. Transistors used
discrete transistors in place of vacuum tubes which helped control the heat that
was the case with the previous generation and it increased reliability and less
bulk. Transistors generally regulate flow of electrical current. They were invented
by Bell Telephone Laboratories. These computers have the same components
as the modern computer, they had printouts, operating systems, were able to
store programs, they were smaller in size, had more speed (milliseconds to
microseconds), they used assembly language for programming. They used
magnetic tapes and disks for secondary storage. They were less expensive
compared to previous generation.

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They were used in businesses, research centers, inventory control, governments,
and universities.
1.1.3 THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS
The second generation computer was a major improvement on the first but they
still could generate much heat that could damage computer internal parts. The
third generation was made to eliminate that via the use of an integrated circuit
where electronic components were combined on a small silicon disk. This was
developed by Jack Kilby who was an engineer.
These landmark achievement means engineers were able to combine more
components on a single chip which was called semiconductor. Computers
became smaller as more components were squeezed onto a single chip. These
changes means more speed and efficiency was attained. The third generation
computers had key boards where users could interact with the computer rather
than through the use of punched cards and printouts. They also had monitors
and the hardware and software was interfaced with an operating system (UNIX)
which enabled the computer to run different applications at the same time.
This also marked the first time computers were accessible to the general public
due to the fact that they were smaller in size and were far less expensive
compared to the first two generations.
1.1.4 FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
The introduction of microprocessors ushered in the fourth generation computers
where thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a microchip. This brought
about the microcomputers. The fourth generation computers used VLSI- Very

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Large Scale Integration circuits where over 5000 transistors and other circuitry
elements were built on a single chip.
This generation of computers was more compact, highly reliable, had more
speed and above all was very affordable. These gave birth to the personal
computer (PC). The introduction of the microprocessors helped as different items
could now be embedded with these chips and they could be used as computers.
The internet also became part of the computer. There was the introduction of the
mouse and other computer handheld devices.
1.1.5 FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
The VLSI technology was turned into ULSI- Ultra Large Scale Integration
technology. This brought about microprocessors which had over tens of million
electronic elements built onto the chip. It is based on Artificial Intelligence which
is still basically in the development stage. It aims to make computers work and
behave like human beings.
1.2 MICROPROCESSORS

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Microprocessor is the core of the technologies that we enjoy today. They help
process information in different computing aspects down to monitoring real time
systems. Without the microprocessors, it will be fair to say to say that,
communication through telephones, online means, etc. both at home, our work
places and even the businesses we undertake daily from our comfort zones
won’t have being easy if not impossible in most cases.
This is because, all of the electronic devices we use for our everyday needs
contain an inbuilt microprocessor embedded in them. Be it the cash registers
used in banks, traffic light control system, the laser jet printers we use in our
homes and offices, automated washing machines, refrigerators, the computers
(desktop and laptop), in our weather stations, the airplanes, televisions and so
many other appliances. All these devices won’t work with much efficiency and
speed if it’s not for these microprocessors.
Since the inception of microprocessors that changed the way computers are
used, a range of microprocessors have being made. In 1965, the co-founder of
Intel, Gordon Moore predicted that, the number of transistors on a chip would
double about every two years. His law has proved right over the years as Intel
has exponentially increased the number of transistors integrated into its
processors which enhances greater performance and energy efficiency. The
processor is usually referred to as the brain of the computer.
1.3 MICROCONTROLLERS

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In embedded systems, what is usually used is called microcontroller. A
microprocessor is a part of this microcontroller. They are a small silicon chip
which is part of the integrated circuit and contains a processor core, memory and
also has a programmable input and output hardware. These microcontrollers are
designed for embedded applications which are used for only for specific
functionality. The application software is copied or burned unto the read only
memory (ROM) of the microcontroller for the one specific task and it does only
that function only. A microcontroller is a compact microcomputer designed to
govern the operation of embedded systems in motor vehicles, robots, office
machines, complex medical devices, mobile radio transceivers, vending
machines, home appliances, and various other devices. A typical microcontroller
includes a processor, memory, and peripherals. Depending on the power and
features that are needed, you might choose a 4, 8, 16, or 32 bit microcontroller.
Standard microprocessors (such as the Motorola 68000 or National 32032) are
some of the most frequently used as powerful embedded microcontrollers.
Here is a brief look at the various Intel microprocessors powering different
computer systems, some of which are also used in embedded systems.
 Intel 4004 microprocessor was introduced in 1971
Initial clock speed 108 KHz, number of transistors 2300

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Initial clock speed 500-800 KHz, number of transistors 3500, this was twice as
powerful as the 4004
Initial clock speed 2 MHz, number of transistors 4500, this very microprocessor
made video games and home computers possible.
Initial clock speed 5 MHz, number of transistors 29000, this was the first 16bit
processor and had ten times the performance of the previous processors.
Initial clock speed 5 MHz, number of transistors 29000, this was important at the
time because it ushered in the IBM personal computer.
Initial clock speed 6 MHz, number of transistors 134,000, this was the first
processor that could run all the software written by its previous predecessors.
Initial clock speed 16 MHz, number of transistors 275,000, first microprocessor to
run multiple software programs at the same time.
Initial clock speed 25 MHz, number of transistors 1,200,000, this microprocessor
introduced the floating point unit.
 Intel Pentium processors was introduced in 1993
Initial clock speed 66 MHz, transistors 3,100,000, this microprocessor could
execute 112million commands per second which allowed computers to easily

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incorporate real word data such as speech recognition, sound, handwriting and
images.
 Intel Pentium Pro microprocessor was introduced in 1995
Initial clock speed 200 MHz, number of transistors 5,500,000, this
microprocessor brought about dynamic execution which made it possible for the
advanced 3D visualization and other interactive capabilities.
 Intel Pentium II and Intel Pentium II Xeon microprocessor was introduced
in 1997
Initial clock speed 300 MHz, number of transistors 7,500,000.
 Intel Pentium III and Intel Pentium III Xeon microprocessor was introduced
in 1999
Initial clock speed 500 MHz, number of transistors 9,000,000, these
microprocessors were able to execute internet streaming and could conserve
power during idle times.
 Intel Pentium 4 was introduced in 2000; Intel Xeon microprocessor was
introduced in 2001
Initial clock speed 1.5 GHz, number of transistors 42,000,000, these
microprocessors ushered in the Nano technology age.
 Intel Pentium M microprocessor was introduced in2002
Initial clock speed 1.7 GHz, number of transistors 55,000,000, these were
designed for portable computing and they brought about the network
connectivity.
 Intel Pentium D microprocessor was introduced in 2005

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Initial clock speed 3.2 GHz, number of transistors 291,000,000. This features first
desktop dual core design with two complete microprocessors and each can run
at the same speed in one physical package.
 Intel Core” 2 Duo processor; Intel Core 2 Extreme processor; Dual-Core
Intel Xeon processor was introduced in 2006
Initial clock speed 2.93 GHz, number of transistors 291,000,000. Intel Core 2
processor optimizes mobile microarchitecture.
Dual Core Intel Itanium 2 processor 9000 series was introduced in 2006
Initial clock speed 1.66 GHz, number of transistors 1,720,000,000. This
processor doubled the performance of previous Itanium processors while also
reducing the average power consumption.
 Quad-Core Intel Xeon processor (penryn);
Dual-Core Intel Xeon processor (penryn);
Quad-Core Intel Core 2 Extreme processor (penryn) was introduced in 2007.
Initial clock speed >3GHz, number of transistors 820,000,000. This improved
video, imaging and 3D content performance and also new power management
features.

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2.0 COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PURPOSE.
Computers are classified based on their purpose. There are two categories
based on purpose.
 General Purpose computers
 Specific or Special Purpose Computers.
2.1 GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS
These computers have wide spread applicability and usage. Because of their
flexibility in usage and applications, one computer can perform multiple functions
such that were never thought about at the time they were being manufactured.
The computer has become such a big part of human interaction mainly because
of the flexibility of the general purpose computers. They are built for a variety of
processing applications. Different software is used to accomplish different tasks.
These different tasks may include, controlling an organizations security system,
home security, it may include word processing, database manipulation. Industries
use general purpose computers to track manufacturing inventories. General
purpose computers are also used in educational institutions to keep track of
students’ records, in hospitals with machines such as respirators performing
different functions to save lives. They are equally used for scientific calculations
and a lot more.
This is mostly made possible because of the microprocessors. When one
watches a 3D movie, it is because the need for speed and capacity needed for
such applications is made possible microprocessors such as the Quad-Core Intel
Xeon processors and Intel Premium Pro processors and so many other
microprocessors that perform so many other functions, most of which I
mentioned earlier on. Smart phones and tablets are embedded with the new Intel
Atom processors which help them perform a variety of tasks which include
texting, listening to music, watching movies, playing of games, sending and
receiving emails and a lot of other functions imaginable.

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Three Examples of General Purpose Computers
 Personal Computers (PC) – Dell Inspiron 5323
 The Tablet PC
 Smart Phones
2.1.1 Personal Computer – Dell Inspiron 5323
Functions:
 The personal computer is used for typing (word processing). It is also
used for browsing the internet, playing music, watching movies.
 It is used for storing data and files and applications.
 It is used for connecting with friends and family through social networks.

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 The computer generally has four basic functions which are input,
processing, output and storage. It does what you command it to do
whenever you want it to all depending on installed programs and software.
How was the task performed by PCs accomplished before its inception?
 In the case of word processing, manual typewriters were used.
 The use of television set which was mostly black and white, radio sets
were used for music.
 For storing files and data, documents were saved in office files in paper
form on the shelves in the office buildings.
 For connecting with family and friends, the use of hand written letters and
then they would be posted out.
Type of microprocessor and operating system
Dell Inspiron PC uses Intel CORE i3 2.6GHz clock speed as its processor and
uses Windows 8.1for its operating system. There are so many other processors
used by desktop and laptop computers most of which I mentioned earlier and a
lot more I did not mention.

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2.1.2 The Tablet
Functions: The functions of the tablet are similar to that of a laptop PC. Some of
the most conspicuous differences are the fact that it uses a pen instead of a
mouse and the fact it can be folded to unlike the desktop or laptop. It is highly
convenient to carry about as it can easily fit into a pocket. Another important
difference is, the tablet can be connected wirelessly to a projector unlike the
other PCs. It also can be used as a notebook in classes and can be used as a
wireless sharing tool for network.
How was the task performed by the Tablet accomplished before its
inception?
Uses of desktop and laptop PCs, mouse are used on the PCs in place of the pen
and wires were used to connect projectors.
Processors and operating system
Intel Core processor, Intel Atom processors, clock speed 1.6GHz are good for
efficient performance of the tablet on Windows 8. Of course they use so many
processors too and other Windows operating systems.

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2.1.3 Smart Phones
Functions:
Smart phones can be used just like a personal computer. And they can be used
to send and receive emails, make and receive calls, used for movies, to play
music, they can be connected to a printer to and documents could be loaded to
the printer for printing just the same way you use the PC system. Smart phones
are equally used to connect through social media; they are used as TV remote
controls. The functions are too numerous to mention. It is a Personal computer in
your pocket.
How was the task performed by Smart phones accomplished before its
inception?
Obviously, these tasks were being done by the desktop and laptop PCs.
Smart phones use different kinds of processors; the HTC one family uses
Qualcomm Snapdragon 600 and Qualcomm Snapdragon 800 2.3GHz clock
speed. The operating system is android. Windows smart phones like the Nokia
Lumia uses various ARM processors and Qualcomm processors but have now
moved to Intel x86 chips. The operating system is Windows 8.

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2.2 SPECIFIC/SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS
These computers are designed for special or specific purposes only. This means,
they can only undertake a single job or operation that it was designed for. They
are designed and assigned their specific task and they perform only that and
nothing else. The problem solving capability is only narrowed to a strictly defined
range and they work with strong efficiency and precision often repeatedly and
reliably. As discussed earlier, these special purpose computers have embedded
processors called microcontrollers which are designed for such dedicated
purposes.
Specific purpose once programmed to do a certain task cannot be
reprogrammed. They can be designed to either carry out only numerical
processing task or data processing only. They mostly have preset keyboard for
the task they are designed for. Most of our home appliances are specific purpose
computers.
These types of computers are useful for traffic light control systems; they are
used in aircrafts for their navigation system, cash registers in banks. They are
used in refrigerators and much more.
Special purpose computers have all the features of general purpose computers
except that, their application to a problem are due to their functionality whereas
general purpose could be due to stored programs.
They are very fast in processing their tasks since they only perform a single one
repeatedly. The amount of memory needed in them is far less. The major
disadvantage of special purpose computers is their lack of versatility. They
cannot be used for other functions other the one they were designed for.

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Examples of Special Purpose Computers
ATM
Automated washing machine
Cash registers
Elevators
Laser jet printers
Microwave oven
Digital cameras
2.2.1 Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
How is it used?
 To check account balance
 To make deposits
 For cash withdrawer
 Cheques can also be deposited through ATM

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 To make funds transfer from one account to another
 Payments are made through them
 To top air time on mobile devices
How was the task performed by ATMs accomplished before its inception?
 Cash was withdrawn at the counters using withdrawer slip or booklet.
 Cash transfer was done by requesting your bank to do so by filling forms.
 Cash deposit was done through filling tellers and still is today.
Type of processors used and operating system.
Intel Pentium IV 2.8GHz embedded processor; Intel Xscale 32bit processor; Intel
Core vPro etc.
95% of ATM machines use Windows XP operating system. [1]
2.2.2 Automated Washing Machine

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Functions: As the name implies, they are used for washing clothes.
Operations: It has an agitator, inner and outer wash, tub, electric motor and has
a drain tube. It has valves, switches and a timer. Valves enable passage of hot
and cold water into washing machine. Timer for timed washing and functioning
and switches for adjustment and control of different functions.
How was the task performed by automated washing machines
accomplished before its inception?
 Through the use of manual washing machines.
 You could use your hands to wash.
Processors and operation system
The LG washing machine uses QuadComm snapdragon processor with 1.7GHz
Quad-Core CPU
2.2.3 Cash Registers

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Functions: A cash register is used in stores to calculate record sales
transactions. It has an attached drawer where cash is stored.
Operations: It is first programmed with date, time and tax. When items are
bought, the user will enter the value of items and it will calculate the total amount
and deduct tax and print out the receipt. It will save the records afterwards and
reset for the next usage.
How was task performed before its inception?
Cash and other sales records were recorded and stored in cash inventories in
books.
Processors and Operating System
Intel 8051 microcontroller (MCS-51 family), 60,000 transistors, CPU 4KB ROM,
128 RAM, 32bit I/O pins, serial port, two 16bit timers.
2.2.4 Laser jet Printers

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Operations: Laser jet printers use laser beams which creates an image on the
drum in the printer. When this happens, there is a change in the electrical charge
in the drum, the drum then rolls to the toner. The toner is then transferred to the
paper by a combination of pressure and heat and it then prints the content that is
sent in.
Functions: Used for printing, photocopying, scanning and some cases used as a
fax machine.
Operating system and processor
They are compatible with almost all operating systems available in the market.
Be it Windows XP, 7, 8, Linux, etc.
Uses most microcontrollers such as PMC-Sierra’s MIPs TM processor 250MHz;
PMC-Sierra’s RISCMark 7000, 64bit Super Scaler microprocessor with
integrated L2 cache; Intel 386 and above works well with these printers.
2.2.5 Elevators

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Functions: They are used to lift people or cargo from one point to another
usually in a vertical direction up and down.
Operations: Two types of elevators exist, the hydraulic and rope elevators. The
hydraulic elevator uses cylinder, piston, fluid reservoir, a rotary pump and
hydraulic fluid. They all combine to push the piston with the help of a
programmed microcontroller up and down depending on the levels the
passengers decide.
Motorolla MC68CH11 A1 microcontroller.
2.2.6 Microwave Oven
Operations: The see through oven door is open, the food or drink that is to be
heated is then placed on the ceramic tray which sits on the roller ring inside the
oven and then the door is closed back. The control panel which has predefined
keys is then used to control the amount of heat to use and time it could take for
the heating process. When the process is done, it goes off automatically and the
door opens.
Functions: Used for heating or warming of drinks and meals
Processor and operating system
They make use of the Intel 8051 microcontroller.

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2.2.7 Digital Camera
Functions: They are used to capture images and moments. Some digital
cameras also can be used as camcorders.
Intel MCR 296 16bits 50MHz clock speed microcontroller is used in most digital
cameras. Intel 80296 SA microcontroller.
3.0 HOW COMPUTER LANGUAGE DECODE FROM HIGHLEVEL LANGUAGE
TO SYMBOLIC AND FINALLY TO BINARY CODE.
Programs are a set of instructions used by the computer to execute applications
in order to solve problems. A programming language is a formal computer
language which provides communication instructions for a computer. The two
main types of programming languages are, low level and high level programming
languages.
Low level languages: These are used by the different computer hardware to
communicate with each other. They are machine oriented and usually require an

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extensive knowledge of the computer configuration. Two low level languages
exists which are the machine and assembly language.
Machine language uses binary codes which are written as a string of 1s and 0s.
This is the language understood by the computer that does not require
translation. Instructions are written in codes such as
11100010101000110100011100011. This is however difficult for humans to
understand, hence the need to use assembly languages.
Assembly language uses letters and symbols. An assembler is used to
translate it into machine understandable codes for the computer to be able to use
them. They use terms like MOVE, ADD, SUB, END, etc. instead of the usual 1s
and 0s.
High level languages: They use real English and mathematical symbols like +,-
,%,*, etc. for communication. Languages such as Java, C++, FORTRAN, etc.
which are programming languages used by programmers. Example, to write
“Hello World” in Java:
Public class MyFirstJavaProgram {
public static void main (Strings [] args) {
System.out.println (“Hello World”);
}
}
These high level languages are easier for humans to understand and use than
the 1s and 0s in binary codes. They are much closer to the logic of human
language. However the computer cannot use them directly and that is where the
use of compilers comes in (Education Portar, 2014).

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COMPILERS
When high level language is translated to machine language, compilers become
handy. Compilers are used by the computer to translate high level human
language and programmers language into machine codes which are the binary
codes understood by the computer before execution of an application. The high
level program is referred to as the source code, (Education Portar, 2014).
INTERPRETERS
The role of an interpreter in conversion of these high level languages is to make
the computer understand the high level languages. They translate high level
source codes during execution of a program, (Education Portar, 2014).
4.0 COMPUTER NETWORKS
How sending and receiving an email works with the analog and digital signal
conversion.
Sending an email from one end to another involves using the sending device
which could be a computer PC or any other capable device like a smart phone or
a tablet. First you need you need network connection to be able to achieve this.
The process works just like when you are sending a letter through the post office,
the difference here is, it uses electronic mailboxes to carry this out.
Before one is able to send an email, one need to have an email address which
you by using what is called Mail User Agent MUA. There are several examples of
MUA in use, such yahoo, Gmail, outlook, Hotmail and a whole lot of them.
Afterwards one needs to be able to compose the email and then can forward it.
The following is done using the Mail Transport Agent MTA or the Mail Delivery
Agent; they serve as the post office for emails. The mail is sent to the receivers

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MTA via the internet. Mail transport agents on both the sender and receivers side
can communicate each other the Simple Mail Transport Protocol SMTP.
Now, when an email is sent from the home computer, it connects wirelessly
through to a DSL modem and it passes onto an internet service provider ISP
through travel channels. The sent data passes through different communications
channels with different signal converters. DSL is Digital Subscriber Line modem;
it is a small physical device which provides digitized subscriber line connectivity
to the Internet and through other additional connections to a computer on the
Internet. Some DSL modem can combine the services of a router and a modem
in one, (Englander 2010, pp. 379).
Different signaling methods exist but the most commonly talked about are the
digital and analog signals. The analog signals carry continuous data of varying
wave forms. The digital carries digital signals using two values of electrical
voltage which is 1 and 0. The DSL modem mentioned above serves as a
converter of these signals usually from the senders end from digital to analog
and when it gets to the receivers end, they are converted back from analog to
digital signals.
Digital to Analog signal conversion and verse versa
Internet
Senders Mail Client
MUA
Senders Mail Server
MTA
Receivers Mail
Client MUA
Receivers Mail Server
MTA
Company
LAN
Router/Modem

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Email sending and receiving process.
The signal conversion takes place in the modem (modulator) from the sender
from digital to analog signals and when it gets to the receiver, its converted
through the LAN (demodulator) back to digital signals before the receiver
retrieves it.
“Although digital transmission is favored for most use these days, analog
transmission methods are required for wireless media, such as radio and sound,
for wireless networking and for other forms of wireless data communication”,
(Englander 2010, pp. 450).
Usually the digital data is the right data but because these data travels wirelessly,
it must be converted for smooth transmission. “Digital data being carried by a
digital communication channel is already in correct format, so theoretically no
conversion is necessary. In practice, the situation is somewhat different. Since
there is no carrier present on the channel, there may be no way to detect a string
of bits at the receiving end of the channel for some signals”, (Englander 2010 pp.
460). Hence the need to convert digital signals to analog signals before they are
fully transmitted.

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Modem which converts digital signals to analog
5.0 CONCLUSION
This work talks about the history of computers as it relates to the current computers we
have in use today. The five generations of computers, this specified their different
circuits. The first generation used vacuum tubes as their circuit, second generation used
transistors, third generation made use of integrated circuits, the fourth generation was
known for the introduction of microprocessors which changed the way computers have
become so important today and also the fifth generation which involves the use of
artificial intelligence and cloud computing.
The core of this work is based of understanding the use of microprocessors in both the
general and special purpose computers and this work has gone on to give some
examples of these different computers and the processors they use with their clock
speed and in most cases the type of operating system they use. Microcontrollers which
are used in embedded systems are also discussed.
The use of compilers and interpreters in translating high level languages to machine
readable low language was also discussed as this is importing in making the computer
work as it should.
Last but not the least, the process of sending and receiving emails is discussed most
especially as it relates to the various signal conversions that usually take place. The
conversion of digital to analog signals which is necessary to enable wireless transfer of
images, sounds, etc.

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Micheal, D., Richard, R., 2003, Data Communications and Computer
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Okoro, u., et al, 2013, Application of microprocessors, International journal
of emerging technology and advanced engineering.
Stallings, W., 2007, Data and Computer Communications. 8th Ed., New
Jersey, USA, Pearson and Prentice Hall
Williams, R., 2006, Computer Systems Architecture-A Networking
Approach. 2nd Ed. Prentice hall.
BILIOGRAPHY
1. Alibaba.com. 2014, Wincor ATM embedded processors [online],
Available from, http://www.alibaba.com/showroom/wincor-atm-
embedded-processor.html, [Accessed 26th May, 2014]
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