CT1101 - Computer Technology

Computing Foundation Course
Computer
Technology
Subject Code: CT1101
Pratik Man Singh Pradhan

CC1101 – Computer Technology Shepherd College
Pratik Man Singh Pradhan | www.pmspratik.com.np 1 | P a g e
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Concepts..........................................................................................2
Chapter 3 – Software Concepts ..................................................................................................................12
Chapter 4 – Operating System....................................................................................................................14
Chapter 5 - Database Management System ...............................................................................................18
Chapter 6 – Data Communication Systems ................................................................................................21
Chapter 7 – Computer Network..................................................................................................................30
Chapter 8 – Internet....................................................................................................................................33
Chapter 9 – Microsoft Office Package ........................................................................................................35

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Concepts
History of Computers
Famed mathematician Charles Babbage
designed a Victorian-era computer called
the Analytical Engine. This is a portion of
the mill with a printing mechanism.
CREDIT: Science Museum | Science &
Society Picture Library
The computer was born not for
entertainment or email but out of a need
to solve a serious number-crunching crisis.
By 1880, the U.S. population had grown so
large that it took more than seven years to
tabulate the U.S. Census results. The
government sought a faster way to get the
job done, giving rise to punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms.
Today, we carry more computing power on our smartphones than was available in these early models.
The following brief history of computing is a timeline of how computers evolved from their humble
beginnings to the machines of today that surf the Internet, play games and stream multimedia in addition
to crunching numbers.
1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to automatically
weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.
1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine that would
be able to compute tables of numbers. The project, funded by the English government, is a failure. More
than a century later, however, the world’s first computer was actually built.
1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census, accomplishing the task
in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes a company that would ultimately
become IBM.
1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine, capable of
computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer was based on his
ideas.
1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts to build
the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts.
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29 equations
simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on its main memory.
1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, build the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers,
it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.

1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the Census
Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the transistor. They
discovered how to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need for a vacuum.
1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL.
Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM
to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.
1954: The FORTRAN programming language is born.
1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip. Kilby was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.
1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical user
interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized machine for scientists and
mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general public.
1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed compatibility
issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was portable across multiple platforms and became
the operating system of choice among mainframes at large companies and government entities. Due to
the slow nature of the system, it never quite gained traction among home PC users.
1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip.
1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the “floppy disk,” allowing data to be shared
among computers.
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for connecting
multiple computers and other hardware.
1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100,
RadioShack’s TRS-80 —affectionately known as the “Trash 80” — and the Commodore PET.
1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080, described as the
"world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill
Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language. On April 4, after the success
of this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool’s Day and roll out the Apple I,
the first computer with a single-circuit board.
The TRS-80, introduced in 1977, was one of the first machines whose documentation was
intended for non-geeks
Credit: Radioshack
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It
sold like crazy. For the first time, non-geeks could write programs and make
a computer do what they wished.

1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West Coast Computer Faire.
It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage.
1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet program.
1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases WordStar.
The first IBM personal computer, introduced on Aug. 12, 1981, used the MS-DOS operating
system.
Credit: IBM
1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named “Acorn,” is introduced.
It uses Microsoft’s MS-DOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy
disks and an optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck and Computerland sell the machines, marking the
first time a computer is available through outside distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.
1983: Apple’s Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-down menu and icons.
It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The Gavilan SC is the first portable computer with the
familiar flip form factor and the first to be marketed as a “laptop.”
1985: Microsoft announces Windows, its response to Apple’s GUI. Commodore unveils the Amiga 1000,
which features advanced audio and video capabilities.
1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the World Wide Web would
mark the formal beginning of Internet history. The Symbolics Computer Company, a small Massachusetts
computer manufacturer, registers Symbolics.com. More than two years later, only 100 dot-coms had been
registered.
1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as speed comparable to
mainframes.
1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva, develops
HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World Wide Web.
1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.
1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark 2," "Theme Park,"
"Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the market.
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.
1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time, ending Apple’s court case
against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied the “look and feel” of its operating system.
1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin connecting to the Internet
without wires.
2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected memory architecture and
pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not to be outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP,
which has a significantly redesigned GUI.

2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD’s Athlon 64, becomes available to the consumer market.
2004: Mozilla’s Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, the dominant Web browsers.
Facebook, a social networking site, launches.
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a Linux-based mobile phone
operating system.
2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as well as an
Intel-based iMac. Nintendo’s Wii game console hits the market.
2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to the taskbar and
advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features.
2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and jumpstarting the dormant
tablet computer segment.
2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS.
2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.
2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.
Generation of Computers
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great
deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time, and
it could take days or weeks to set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape,
and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-
generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first
commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S.
Census Bureau in 1951.
A UNIVAC computer at the Census Bureau.
Image Source: United States Census Bureau
Recommended Reading: The First Computer, Webopedia's ENIAC
definition. The first computer, ENIAC, was developed by Army

Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. It weighed 30 tons and used 200 kilowatts of
electric power.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors
Transistors replace vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was
invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far
superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was
a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards
for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm
of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from
the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more
and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing
and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and
Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.
Did You Know... ? An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor
material.
Types of computers according to their size and data they can handle
Computer sizes and power
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:
 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it
has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands
of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions
per second.
Supercomputer and Mainframe
Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.
Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main
frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs
in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and
eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a
supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few
programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support
more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.

The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the
manufacturer wants to market its machines.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations.
But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users
simultaneously.
Workstation
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution
graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called
a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations
are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers.
However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also
be used as stand-alone systems.
N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a
workstation or a personal computer.
Personal computer:
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price,
personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are
based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip.
Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal
computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.
Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers
was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new
models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray
with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer
of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal
computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which
remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's
dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but
that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of
running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution
of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or

IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as
Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general,
though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible
microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are several
options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC
Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The
principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on
microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is
common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high
end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by
Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.
Personal Computer Types
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the
metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system
requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for
expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion
chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designs–desktop models
and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable
computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and
subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.
Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are
stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components
are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space
constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.
Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the
computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow
and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass
storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.
Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and
are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook
computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques,
known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of
notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers
are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives.

However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much
as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to
run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.
Laptop computer - A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays,
laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.
Subnotebook computer - A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized
notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are
otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.
Hand-held computer - A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although
extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of
their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically
designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book.
Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an
electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which
are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.
Palmtop - A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are
severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops
that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because
of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA
slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called
PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
PDA - Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and
networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer.
Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This
means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice
input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which
introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered
similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price
tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common
gadgets.
PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization.

Chapter 2 – The Basic Computer Architecture
Building Blocks of PC
By the 1980s, computers were small enough to fit into our homes, but still too expensive and
specialized for the average person to put together. That really changed in the 1990s and 2000s,
and now computers are shockingly easy to assemble with the right parts, a little patience and a
screwdriver.
There are some basic pieces that go into every computer. A case, or tower, holds all the
components, with a large open area that fits a motherboard. Think of the motherboard as the
computer's nervous system: It's a big slab of fiberglass etched with circuitry that connects each
component of a computer together. Every piece of computer hardware will connect to the
motherboard.
Input Unit
An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer, allowing you to interact
with and control the computer. The picture shows a Logitech trackball mouse, an example of an
input device. The most commonly used input devices on a computer are the keyboard and
mouse.
Output Unit
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data
processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which converts the
electronically generated information into human-readable form.
Storage Unit
There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device, such as
RAM, and a secondary storage device, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can be removable,
internal, or external storage.
Central Processing Unit
A central processing unit (CPU) is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the
system.
Types of Memory
Comparison chart
RAM ROM
Volatility
RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost
when the device is powered off.
It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained
even when the device is powered off.
Types
The two main types of RAM are static
RAM and dynamic RAM.
The types of ROM include PROM, EPROM and
EEPROM.

Chapter 3 – Software Concepts
Definition
Computer software also called a program or simply software is a series of instructions that directs a
computer to perform specific tasks or operations. Computer software consists of computer programs,
libraries and related non-executable data (such as online documentation or digital media). Computer
software is non-tangible, contrasted with computer hardware, which is the physical component of
computers. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on
its own.
Relationship between hardware and software
Hardware - Physical components that make up a computer system
Software - Computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling
computer hardware what to do and how to do it
Hardware and Software have a symbiotic relationship, this means that without software
hardware is very limited; and without hardware, software wouldn't be able to run at all. They
need each other to fulfill their potential.
Standard hardware components The
relationship between Hardware and
Software
Hardware of a modern personal computer, can you
name all the components?
A layer structure showing the relationship between various layers of

Different types of PC Software
There are two main types of software: systems software and application software. Systems software
includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer itself, such as the operating system,
file management utilities, and disk operating system (or DOS).
System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's hardware and
application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system software is the
interface between the hardware and user applications.
Application Software
Application software can be divided into two general classes: systems software and applications
software. Applications software (also called end-user programs) include such things as database
programs, word processors, Web browsers and spreadsheets.

Chapter 4 – Operating System
Definition
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources
and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a component of the
system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to
function.
Function of OS
Functions of Operating System
 Booting the computer
 Performs basic computer tasks eg managing the various peripheral devices eg mouse, keyboard
 Provides a user interface, e.g. command line, graphical user interface (GUI)
 Handles system resources such as computer's memory and sharing of the central processing
Evolution of Operating System
The evolution of operating systems is directly dependent to the development of computer
systems and how users use them. Here is a quick tour of computing systems through the past
fifty years in the timeline.
Early Evolution
 1945: ENIAC, Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania.
 1949: EDSAC and EDVAC
 1949 BINAC – a successor to the ENIAC
 1951: UNIVAC by Remington
 1952: IBM 701
 1956: The interrupt
 1954–1957: FORTRAN was developed
Operating Systems by the late 1950s
By the late 1950s Operating systems were well improved and started supporting following
usages:
 It was able to Single stream batch processing
 It could use Common, standardized, input/output routines for device access
 Program transition capabilities to reduce the overhead of starting a new job was added
 Error recovery to clean up after a job terminated abnormally was added.

 Job control languages that allowed users to specify the job definition and resource requirements
were made possible.
Operating Systems In 1960s
 1961: The dawn of minicomputers
 1962 Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) from MIT
 1963 Burroughs Master Control Program (MCP) for the B5000 system
 1964: IBM System/360
 1960s: Disks become mainstream
 1966: Minicomputers get cheaper, more powerful, and really useful
 1967–1968: The mouse
 1964 and onward: Multics
 1969: The UNIX Time-Sharing System from Bell Telephone Laboratories
Supported OS Features by 1970s
 Multi User and Multi tasking was introduced.
 Dynamic address translation hardware and Virtual machines came into picture.
 Modular architectures came into existence.
 Personal, interactive systems came into existence.
Accomplishments after 1970
 1971: Intel announces the microprocessor
 1972: IBM comes out with VM: the Virtual Machine Operating System
 1973: UNIX 4th Edition is published
 1973: Ethernet
 1974 The Personal Computer Age begins
 1974: Gates and Allen wrote BASIC for the Altair
 1976: Apple II
 August 12, 1981: IBM introduces the IBM PC
 1983 Microsoft begins work on MS-Windows
 1984 Apple Macintosh comes out
 1990 Microsoft Windows 3.0 comes out
 1991 GNU/Linux
 1992 The first Windows virus comes out
 1993 Windows NT
 2007: iOS
 2008: Android OS

And the research and development work still goes on, with new operating systems being
developed and existing ones being improved to enhance the overall user experience while
making operating systems fast and efficient like they have never been before.
Batch Processing
Batch processing is the execution of a series of programs on a computer without manual intervention
(non-interactive). Strictly speaking, it is a processing mode: the execution of a series of programs each on
a set or "batch" of inputs, rather than a single input (which would instead be a custom job).
Spooling
Spooling is a process in which data is temporarily held to be used and executed by a device, program or
the system. Data is sent to and stored in memory or other volatile storage until the program or computer
requests it for execution. "Spool" is technically an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations online.
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming is a rudimentary form of parallel processing in which several programs are run at the
same time on a uniprocessor. Since there is only one processor, there can be no true simultaneous
execution of different programs.
In a multiprogramming system there are one or more programs loaded in main memory which are ready
to execute. Only one program at a time is able to get the CPU for executing its instructions (i.e., there is
at most one process running on the system) while all the others are waiting their turn.
Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single computer
system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor and/or the
ability to allocate tasks between them.

Timesharing
A time share is the right to occupy a unit of real
estate property, such as a condominium or vacation
home, during a specified number of separate time
periods. Each time period is for a certain duration,
such as one or two weeks. Time-sharing allows
multiple purchasers to buy interests in the same
real estate.

Chapter 5 - Database Management System
Basic Concepts of Database and Relational Database
A relational database is a digital database whose organization is based on the relational model of data, as
proposed by E.F. Codd in 1970. The various software systems used to maintain relational databases are
known as a relational database management system (RDBMS). Virtually all relational database systems
use SQL (Structured Query Language) as the language for querying and maintaining the database.
The relational database was first defined in June 1970 by Edgar Codd, of IBM's San Jose Research
Laboratory.] Codd's view of what qualifies as an RDBMS is summarized in Codd's 12 rules. A
relational database has become the
predominant type of database. Other
models besides the relational model
include the hierarchical database model
and the network model.
The table below summarizes some of the
most important relational database
terms and the corresponding SQL term:
SQL term
Relational database
term
Description
Row Tuple or record A data set representing a single item
Column Attribute or field
A labeled element of a tuple, e.g. "Address" or "Date of
birth"
Table
Relation or Base
relvar
A set of tuples sharing the same attributes; a set of
columns and rows
View or result
set
Derived relvar
Any set of tuples; a data report from the RDBMS in
response to a query
Advantages and Limitation of Flat File System
A flat file system is a system of files in which every file in the system must have a different name. In
Windows 95 and most other operating system today, files are managed in a hierarchical file system with
a hierarchy of directories and subdirectories, each containing a number of files (or subdirectories).
A flat file database is a database which is stored on its host computer system as an ordinary "flat
file". To access the structure of the data and manipulate it, the file must be read in its entirety
into the computer's memory. Upon completion of the database operations, the file is again
written out in its entirety to the host's file system. In this stored mode the database is "flat",
which means it has no structure for indexing and there are usually no structural relationships
between the records. A flat file can be a plain text file or a binary file.

The term has generally implied a small, simple database. As computer memory has become
cheaper, larger and more sophisticated databases can now be held in memory in their entirety
for faster access, but these would not generally be referred to as flat-file databases.
Plain text files usually contain one
record per line. There are different
conventions for depicting data. In
comma-separated values and
delimiter-separated values files,
fields can be separated by delimiters
such as comma or tab characters. In
other cases, each field may have a
fixed length; short values may be
padded with space characters. Extra
formatting may be needed to avoid
delimiter collision. More complex solutions are markup languages and programming languages.
Using delimiters incurs some overhead in locating them every time they are processed (unlike
fixed-width formatting), which may have performance implications. However, use of character
delimiters (especially commas) is also a crude form of data compression which may assist overall
performance by reducing data volumes — especially for data transmission purposes. Use of
character delimiters which include a length component (Declarative notation) is comparatively
rare but vastly reduces the overhead associated with locating the extent of each field.
Typical examples of flat files are /etc/passwd and /etc/group on Unix-like operating systems. Another
example of a flat file is a name-and-address list with the fields Name, Address, and Phone
Number.
A list of names, addresses, and phone numbers written by hand on a sheet of paper is a flat file
database. This can also be done with any typewriter or word processor. A spreadsheet or text
editor program may be used to implement a flat file database, which may then be printed or used
online for improved search capabilities.

Advantages and Limitation of Relational Database System
RDBMSs are a common choice for the storage of information in new databases used for financial records,
manufacturing and logistical information, personnel data, and other applications since the 1980s.
Relational databases have often replaced legacy hierarchical databases and network databases because
they are easier to understand and use. However, relational databases have received unsuccessful
challenge attempts by object database management systems in the 1980s and 1990s (which were
introduced trying to address the so-called object-relational impedance mismatch between relational
databases and object-oriented application programs) and also by XML database management systems in
the 1990s. Despite such attempts, RDBMSs keep most of the market share, which has also grown over the
years.

Chapter 6 – Data Communication Systems
Basic elements of communication system
This system consists three basic components: transmitter, channel, and receiver. The transmitter's
function is to process the message signal into a form suitable for transmission over the communication
channel. This is called modulation.
Data transmission modes
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections. There
are 3 different transmission modes characterised
according to the direction of the exchanges: A simplex
connection is a connection in which the data flows in only
one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver.
Data transmission speed
The speed with which data can be transmitted from one
device to another. Data rates are often measured in
megabits (million bits) or megabytes (million bytes) per
second. These are usually abbreviated as Mbps and
MBps, respectively. Another term for data transfer rate is throughput.
Transmission media
A transmission medium is a material substance (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) that can propagate energy
waves. For example, the transmission medium for sounds is usually air, but solids and liquids may also
act as transmission media for sound.
Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver. We use
different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through
electrical or electromagnetic signals.

An electrical signal is in the form of current. An electromagnetic signal is series of electromagnetic
energy pulses at various frequencies. These signals can be transmitted through copper wires,
optical fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum Different Medias have different properties like
bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. Transmission media is also
called Communication channel.
Types of Transmission Media
Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.
1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media
2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media
Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission media are the cables
that are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular
bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable.
Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical
appearance, cost etc.
Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound transmission media
are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not bounded by
physical geography. This type of transmission is called Wireless communication. Nowadays
wireless communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are being installed in office and
college campuses. This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infra red are some of popular
unbound transmission media.
The data transmission capabilities of various Medias vary differently depending upon the various
factors. These factors are:
1. Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higher bandwidth
communication channels support higher data rates.

2. Radiation. It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirable electrical
characteristics of the medium.
3. Noise Absorption. It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external electrical noise that
can cause distortion of data signal.
4. Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The amount of energy
lost depends on frequency. Radiations and physical characteristics of media contribute to
attenuation.
Digital and Analog transmission
There are a number of differences between analog and digital transmission, and it is important
to understand how conversions between analog and digital occur. Let's look first at the older
form of transmission, analog.
Analog Transmission
An analog wave form (or signal) is characterized by being continuously variable along amplitude
and frequency. In the case of telephony, for instance, when you speak into a handset, there are
changes in the air pressure around your mouth. Those changes in air pressure fall onto the
handset, where they are amplified and then converted into current, or voltage fluctuations.
Those fluctuations in current are an analog of the actual voice pattern—hence the use of the
term analog to describe these signals
Analog transmission
When it comes to an analog circuit—what we also refer to as a voice-grade line—we need to also
define the frequency band in which it operates. The human voice, for example, can typically
generate frequencies from 100Hz to 10,000Hz, for a bandwidth of 9,900Hz. But the ear does not
require a vast range of frequencies to elicit meaning from ordinary speech; the vast majority of
sounds we make that constitute intelligible speech fall between 250Hz and 3,400Hz. So, the
phone company typically allotted a total bandwidth of 4,000Hz for voice transmission.
Remember that the total frequency spectrum of twisted-pair is 1MHz. To provision a voice-grade
analog circuit, bandwidth-limiting filters are put on that circuit to filter out all frequencies above
4,000Hz. That's why analog circuits can conduct only fairly low-speed data communications. The
maximum data rate over an analog facility is 33.6Kbps when there are analog loops at either end.
elicit meaning from ordinary speech; the vast majority of sounds we make that constitute
intelligible speech fall between 250Hz and 3,400Hz. So, the phone company typically allotted a
total bandwidth of 4,000Hz for voice transmission. Remember that the total frequency spectrum
of twisted-pair is 1MHz. To provision a voice-grade analog circuit, bandwidth-limiting filters are
put on that circuit to filter out all frequencies above 4,000Hz. That's why analog circuits can

conduct only fairly low-speed data communications. The maximum data rate over an analog
facility is 33.6Kbps when there are analog loops at either end.
How 56Kbps Modems Break the 33.6Kbps Barrier
With 56Kbps modems, only one end of the loop can be analog. The other end of the connection
has to be digital. So, in other words, if you're using a 56Kbps modem to access your Internet
service provider (ISP), you have an analog connection from your home to the local exchange. But
the ISP has a digital subscriber line (DSL) or a digital termination facility from its location to its
exchange.
Analog facilities have limited bandwidth, which means they cannot support high-speed data.
Another characteristic of analog is that noise is accumulated as the signal traverses the network.
As the signal moves across the distance, it loses power and becomes impaired by factors such as
moisture in the cable, dirt on a contact, and critters chewing on the cable somewhere in the
network. By the time the signal arrives at the amplifier, it is not only attenuated, it is also impaired
and noisy. One of the problems with a basic amplifier is that it is a dumb device. All it knows how
to do is to add power, so it takes a weak and impaired signal, adds power to it, and brings it back
up to its original power level. But along with an increased signal, the amplifier passes along an
increased noise level. So in an analog network, each time a signal goes through an amplifier, it
accumulates noise. After you mix together coffee and cream, you can no longer separate them.
The same concept applies in analog networks: After you mix the signal and the noise, you can no
longer separate the two, and, as a result, you end up with very high error rates.
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is quite different from analog transmission. For one thing, the signal is much
simpler. Rather than being a continuously variable wave form, it is a series of discrete pulses,
representing one bits and zero bits Each computer uses a coding scheme that defines what
combinations of ones and zeros constitute all the characters in a character set (that is, lowercase
letters, uppercase letters, punctuation marks, digits, keyboard control functions)
Communication Processors
Communications Processor Module (CPM) is a component of Motorola 68000 family (QUICC) or
Motorola/Freescale Semiconductor Power Architecture (PowerQUICC) microprocessors
designed to provide features related to imaging and communications. A microprocessor can
delegate most of the input/output processing (for example sending and receiving data via the
serial interface) to the Communications Processor Module and the microprocessor does not have
to perform those functions itself. Some input/output functions require quick response from the
processor, for example due to precise timing requirements during data transmission. With CPM
performing those operations, the main microprocessor is free to perform other tasks.

The CPM features its own RISC microcontroller (Communication Processor), separate from the
actual Central Processing Unit IP core. The RISC microcontroller communicates with the core
using dual-ported RAM, special command, configuration and event registers as well as via
interrupts.
Motorola 68302 Integrated Multiprotocol Processor featured a RISC processor controlled either
by a microcode in ROM or by downloadable firmware. Various forms of microcode where shipped
for different applications, for example to support Signaling System 7 communications or
Centronics parallel interface. Motorola 68360 QUICC was the first design to feature
Communications Processor Module, offering microcode for SS7 and ISDN applications.
Specifications of the microcontroller programming interface were generally not shipped to
customers.[2][3] It was possible to run 68360 in slave mode and to use only CPM part of the chip,
for example in the M68360QUADS-040 board, where 68040 CPU (master) is coupled with 68360
CPM (slave), with CPU of 68360 processor being disabled.
CPM was used later in the PowerQUICC series of Power Architecture based processors. Early
designs, like MPC860, used virtually the same CPM as the previous 68360 QUICC processors.
Typical features of the CPM include:
 Digital signal processing with multiply accumulate module (MAC),
 Communication interfaces with serial communication controllers (SCC), serial
management controllers (SMC), Universal Serial Bus, I²C and Serial Peripheral Interface
Bus attachment,
 Direct memory access (DMA) circuitry, interrupt controller, time-slot assigner and baud
rate generators.
Asynchronous and Synchronous transmission
Synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are two different methods of transmission
synchronization. Synchronous transmissions are synchronized by an external clock, while asynchronous
transmissions are synchronized by special signals along the transmission medium.
Whenever an electronic device transmits digital (and sometimes analogue) data to another, there must
be a certain rhythm established between the two devices, i.e., the receiving device must have some way
of, within the context of the fluctuating signal that it's receiving, determine where each unit of data begins
and where it ends.
Synchronous transmission
In synchronous communications, the stream of data to be transferred is encoded as fluctuating
voltage levels in one wire (the 'DATA'), and a periodic pulse of voltage on a separate wire (called

the "CLOCK" or "STROBE") which tells the receiver "the current DATA bit is 'valid' at this moment
in time".
Practically all parallel communications protocols use synchronous transmission. For example, in
a computer, address information is transmitted synchronously—the address bits over the
address bus, and the read or write 'strobe's of the control bus.
Single-wire synchronous signalling
Asynchronous transmission
Synchronization can also be embedded into a signal on a single wire. In NRZ Manchester
encoding, each transition from a low to high or high to low represents a logical zero. A logical one
is indicated when there are two transitions in the same time frame as a zero. In the Manchester
coding a transition from low to high indicates a one and a transition from high to low indicates a
zero. When there are successive ones or zeros, an opposite transition is required on the edge of
the time frame to prepare for the next transition.and signal.
Advantages Disadvantages Asynchronous transmission
 Simple, doesn't require synchronization of both communication sides
 Cheap, because asynchronous transmission requires less hardware
 Setup is faster than other transmissions, so well suited for applications where messages
are generated at irregular intervals, for example data entry from the keyboard, and the
speed depends on different applications.
 Large relative overhead, a high proportion of the transmitted bits are uniquely for control
purposes and thus carry no useful information
Synchronous transmission
 Lower overhead and thus, greater throughput
 Slightly more complex
 Hardware is more expensive
Switching Techniques
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes
out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At
broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous
handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.

 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a
need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then
forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future
use or can be turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit switching.There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other
data is permitted.In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the
data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of
circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.

Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough
resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole
path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message
switching has the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message
is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the
header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take
much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.

Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching
enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.

Chapter 7 – Computer Network
Definition
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing resources. The
most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can include a
printer or a file server.
Advantages
File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and easy way to share files directly. Instead of using a disk
or USB key to carry files from one computer or office to another, you can share files directly using
a network.
Software Cost and Management: Many popular software products are available for networks at
a substantial savings in comparison to buying individually licensed copied for all of your
computers. You can also load software on only the file server which saves time compared to
installing and tracking files on independent computers. Upgrades are also easier because changes
only have to be done once on the file server instead of on individual workstations.
Security: Specific directories can be password protected to limit access to authorized users. Also,
files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit" so you don’t have to worry
about the illegal copying of programs.
Resource Sharing: All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax
machines, modems, and scanners.
Communication: Even outside of the internet, those on the network can communicate with each
other via electronic mail over the network system. When connected to the internet, network
users can communicate with people around the world via the network.
Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the
network. This means that a user can begin work on a project on one computer and finish up on
another. Multiple users can also collaborate on the same project through the network.
Workgroup Computing: Workgroup software like Microsoft BackOffice enables many users to
contribute to a document concurrently. This allows for interactive teamwork.
Types of Network
 A network is basically all of the components (hardware and software) involved in
connecting computers across small and large distances. ...
 There are lots of advantages from build up a network, but the three big facts are- ...
 Program Sharing.

Client/Server Network
A client-server network is designed for end-users, called clients, to access resources such as files, songs,
video collections, or some other service from a central computer called a server. A server's sole purpose
is to do what its name implies - serve its clients!
Peer-to-Peer Network
Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks
or work loads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application. They
are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes.
LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a limited area such
as a residence, school, laboratory, or office building.
WAN
A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network or computer network that extends over a
large geographical distance. Wide area networks are often established with leased telecommunication
circuits.
Network elements
Basic elements of a computer network include hardware, software, and protocols. The interrelationship
of these basic elements constitutes the infrastructure of the network. A network infrastructure is the
topology in which the nodes of a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) are connected
to each other.

Network Topologies
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.
Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically or logically.
Communication Protocols
Rules defining transmissions are called protocols. Popular protocols include: File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
TCP/IP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Post Office Protocol (POP3),
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication language or protocol
of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network (either an intranet
or an extranet).

Chapter 8 – Internet
Definition
The Internet is the global system of interconnected mainframe, personal, and wireless computer
networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link billions of devices worldwide. It is a
network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the
inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail,
Usenet newsgroups, telephony, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing.
Internet and Intranet
Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP. Intranet sites are accessible via web
browser in similar way as websites in internet. But only members of Intranet network can access
intranet hosted sites.
Internet
1. Internet is wide network of computers and is open for all.
2. Internet itself contains a large number of intranets.
3. The number of users who use internet is Unlimited.
4. The Visitors traffic is unlimited.
5. Internet contains different source of information and is available for all.
Intranet
1. Intranet is also a network of computers designed for a specific group of users.
2. Intranet can be accessed from Internet but with restrictions.
3. The number of users is limited.
4. The traffic allowed is also limited.
5. Intranet contains only specific group information.
Therefore the Internet is an open, public space, while an intranet is designed to be a private
space. An intranet may be accessible from the Internet, but it is protected by a password and
accessible only to authorized users.

Services of Internet
Email
Electronic mail, most commonly called email or e-mail since around 1993, is a method of exchanging
digital messages from an author to one or more recipients.
FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer computer files between
a client and server on a computer network.
Telnet
Telnet is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote computers. Through
Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone else's computer remotely.
Gopher
The Gopher protocol is a TCP/IP application layer protocol designed for distributing, searching, and
retrieving documents over the Internet.
WWW
The World Wide Web (WWW) is an open source information space where documents and other web
resources are identified by URLs, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet.
The World Wide Web was invented by English scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.

Chapter 9 – Microsoft Office Package
Microsoft Office Package
Microsoft Office is an office suite of applications, servers, and services developed by Microsoft. It was first
announced by Bill Gates on August 1, 1988, at COMDEX in Las Vegas. Initially a marketing term for a
bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and
Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared
features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Visual Basic for Applications scripting
language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under
the Office Business Applications brand.
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft. It was first released in 1983 under the name
Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Subsequent versions were later written for several other platforms
including IBM PCs running DOS (1983), Apple Macintosh running Mac OS (1985), AT&T Unix PC (1985),
Atari ST (1988), OS/2 (1989), Microsoft Windows (1989) and SCO Unix (1994). Commercial versions of
Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft Office, Windows RT or the
discontinued Microsoft Works suite. Microsoft Word Viewer and Office Online are Freeware editions of
Word with limited features.
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet developed by Microsoft for Windows, Mac OS X, and iOS. It features
calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro programming language called Visual Basic for
Applications. It has been a very widely applied spreadsheet for these platforms, especially since version 5
in 1993, and it has replaced Lotus 1-2-3 as the industry standard for spreadsheets. Excel forms part of
Microsoft Office.
Microsoft PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is a slide show presentation program currently developed by Microsoft.
PowerPoint initially named "Presenter", was created by Forethought Inc.. Microsoft's version of
PowerPoint was officially launched on May 22, 1990, as a part of the Microsoft Office suite. PowerPoint
is useful for helping develop the slide-based presentation format, and is currently one of the most
commonly-used presentation programs available.
Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access is a DBMS (also known as Database Management System) from Microsoft that
combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and
software-development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications, included
in the Professional and higher editions or sold separately.
Microsoft Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can
also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.

Software developers and data architects can use Microsoft Access to develop application
software, and "power users" can use it to build software applications. Like other Office
applications, Access is supported by Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), an object-based
programming language that can reference a variety of objects including DAO (Data Access
Objects), ActiveX Data Objects, and many other ActiveX components. Visual objects used in forms
and reports expose their methods and properties in the VBA programming environment, and VBA
code modules may declare and call Windows operating-system functions.

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