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IMMIGRATION REFORM 2 IMMIGRATION REFORM2 Immigration Reform Satyika Rayamajhi West Coast University PHIL341: Critical Reasoning Professor: Michael Cook Date: May 8 Abstract The paper covers immigration reforms and the various aspect it brings to society. The argument that supports immigration and the benefits it brings to society is outlined in the paper also the counterarguments, the fallacies related to immigration, and the way people take these fallacies about immigration. The bias that is related to the cultural and social difference between natives and immigrants is also pointed out in the report. The rhetorical devices that are related to immigration have been used by our leaders to help us understand immigration from a different perspective. Introduction Immigration possesses an ongoing debate where people are concerned if immigration is beneficial or not to society. This paper will be examining the benefits and counterarguments concerning immigration. Immigration can be beneficial in society if it is well accepted within the different communities and ethnic groups in the country. These arguments about immigration have led to the change in policies regarding immigration making it difficult to gain access to certain countries. This is due to fear and the misunderstanding that is brought by people in society. The fallacies related to immigration are the various factors that will be discussed in this report. Those in favor of immigration have the belief that immigration has enriched the culture of the host nation or society and has provided numerous benefits to the overall country. Immigration leads to cross-cultural integration this is through the increase of ethnic variety within a society. The increase in diversity helps in increasing and improving the society as well as improving learning in individuals (Richards, 2018). This also means there is an increase in skill development, this is where there is a learning opportunity for people to interact and get to understand the difference in how things are done in various cultures. This helps one adjust their ways of operation to be able to fit in the society. Immigration can be beneficial because there will be an improvement in tax payment within the country that will lead to an increase in wages increase. Arguments and Counterarguments Being controversial topic immigration has a conflicting opinions from various people across the global scale. People believe that immigration takes away or manipulates the original culture and tradition of a given society this is where the introduction of new ways and behaviors causes an unwanted change in the society that many people do not like. The perspective is that immigration brings a bad influence on society hence, traditions are forgotten and people follow new ways of life (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Traditions have changed in marriage, technology, and many other aspects related to the mode of living in society. They argue that ...

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IMMIGRATION REFORM 2 IMMIGRATION REFORM2 Immigration Reform Satyika Rayamajhi West Coast University PHIL341: Critical Reasoning Professor: Michael Cook Date: May 8 Abstract The paper covers immigration reforms and the various aspect it brings to society. The argument that supports immigration and the benefits it brings to society is outlined in the paper also the counterarguments, the fallacies related to immigration, and the way people take these fallacies about immigration. The bias that is related to the cultural and social difference between natives and immigrants is also pointed out in the report. The rhetorical devices that are related to immigration have been used by our leaders to help us understand immigration from a different perspective.
Introduction Immigration possesses an ongoing debate where people are concerned if immigration is beneficial or not to society. This paper will be examining the benefits and counterarguments concerning immigration. Immigration can be beneficial in society if it is well accepted within the different communities and ethnic groups in the country. These arguments about immigration have led to the change in policies regarding immigration making it difficult to gain access to certain countries. This is due to fear and the misunderstanding that is brought by people in society. The fallacies related to immigration are the various factors that will be discussed in this report. Those in favor of immigration have the belief that immigration has enriched the culture of the host nation or society and has provided numerous benefits to the overall country. Immigration leads to cross-cultural integration this is through the increase of ethnic variety within a society. The increase in diversity helps in increasing and improving the society as well as improving learning in individuals (Richards, 2018). This also means there is an increase in skill development, this is where there is a learning opportunity for people to interact and get to understand the difference in how things are done in various cultures. This helps one adjust their ways of operation to be able to fit in the society. Immigration can be beneficial because there will be an improvement in tax payment within the country that will lead to an increase in wages increase. Arguments and Counterarguments Being controversial topic immigration has a conflicting opinions from various people across the global scale. People
believe that immigration takes away or manipulates the original culture and tradition of a given society this is where the introduction of new ways and behaviors causes an unwanted change in the society that many people do not like. The perspective is that immigration brings a bad influence on society hence, traditions are forgotten and people follow new ways of life (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Traditions have changed in marriage, technology, and many other aspects related to the mode of living in society. They argue that various countries especially the state have cultures that hurt the society that causes a change in behavior within the society. Some say that immigration is the root of crime where they equate the immigrants to having brought terrorism into the county. The argument is based on immigrants posing a unique threat due to terrorist attacks. Terrorism is not the modern means of war various cases of bombing and terrorism attacks have been reported in the early century, most committed by immigrants and socialists. Today attacks from terrorism and death committed by immigrants are greater than in the past (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Overall immigration is not correlated with terrorism and the risk of being killed by a foreign-born terrorist is minimal. An example is an annual chance of being killed in a terror attack that has been planned by a foreigner is about one in a million. Almost 98 percent of people murdered by an immigrant on US soil were murdered and most of these attackers did not enter the country through immigrant visas instead they used tourism or student visas to gain passage into the country. Evaluation of Critical Thinking Cognitive bias is divided into various categories. Ingroup bias is related to the miss understanding and the lack of the ability to speak fluent English which makes them separated from the rest of the group (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). These individuals are tagged as the out-group who are the immigrants as opposed to the in-group who are the native of the host country. The group that appears to be less familiar with the culture and the lack of
assimilation into American culture makes them be taken as the out-group. Cognitive bias is based on the ability to integrate and find your way into the culture of the society that one is associated with. Backfire is another form of confirmation bias where one is too defensive in their opinions and strives to defend regardless of the changes and ideological mix that surrounds the concept (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). Challenging information causes a threat to the learner's sense of identity which makes it harder to understand or try to process the new information that is being relayed to an individual. The fallacies that are related to immigration include; the immigrants are required to do the jobs that the natives will not do. This is taken as the native workers will not be able to do the hard work or the difficult work. That this kind of work is reserved for immigrant employees who come to seek work in their native countries (Kurajian, 2018). These jobs are event distributed regardless of your status on immigration the native will work on construction jobs while the immigrants can also work in offices and perform executive work. These kinds of fallacies are misleading society causing bias among the citizens. For instance, in West Virginia where immigrants the same job description is performed by the American workers. Another fallacy that is related to immigration is that low -skilled immigrants were a benefit in the past they must be beneficial in this current error. The argument is related to technology and the political changes that have occurred in the past bringing changes to society. Technology has taken over and has made work easier by taking care of the heavy work. Slavery was practiced in the past and in current times rules and policies regarding labor have changed. These fallacies should not be misleading individuals anymore. Barack Obama used rhetorical devices such as water and storm to illustrate the process of immigration is a continuous factor in life and it won’t be reduced or changed any time soon (Kjeldsen, 2019). Water in his speech represents the young
generation that will be coming in for learning opportunities to be able to diversify and explore the various opportunities that are available during their learning process. Immigration is a continuous process that will keep happening. It is our responsibility to make the best of it. Conclusion The research explores the various immigration reforms and the misunderstandings that it brings to the people. Immigration is an important factor in a country since it brings more advantages than demerits to the society and economy in general. Diversity is key to the development and growth of a nation. This could be through trading, learning, or supporting others during difficult times. Learn to support one another and coordinate to ensure we work as a team to overcome challenges that we face in our daily encounters. Immigration brings different opportunities that need to be taken to ensure we are successful in all sectors of life. References Gönültaş, S., & Mulvey, K. L. (2020). The Role of Immigration Background, Intergroup Processes, and Social‐ Cognitive Skills in Bystanders’ Responses to Bias‐ Based Bullying Toward Immigrants During Adolescence. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13476 Kjeldsen, J. E. (2019). Royal Interventions in the Public Discourse on Immigration: Rhetorical Topoi on Immigration in the New Year’s Speeches of the Scandinavian Monarchs. Javnost - the Public, 26(2), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2019.1587702 Kurajian, O. A. (2018). Debunking the Narratives of Inclusion: Immigration Policy in Quebec, Canada, and the United States in the Age of Trump. Undergraduate Review, 14(2), 68–75. https://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol14/iss2/11/ Ma, G., & Hofmann, E. T. (2019). Immigration and environment in the U.S.: A spatial study of air quality. The Social Science Journal, 56(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.08.007
Richards, T. J. (2018). Immigration Reform and Farm Labor Markets. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 100(4), 1050–1071. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay027 moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd i 12/10/19 01:23 PM Thirteenth Edition Brooke Noel Moore Richard Parker California State University, Chico with help in Chapter 12 from Nina Rosenstand and Anita Silvers Critical Thinking Final PDF to printer moo7069X_fm_ISE.indd ii 12/24/19 06:04 PM CRITICAL THINKING Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2017, 2015, and 2012.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20 ISBN 978-1-260-57069-4 MHID 1-260-57069-X Cover Image: McGraw-Hill All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered Final PDF to printer
moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd iii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1 Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35 Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73 Chapter 4 Credibility 102 Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141 Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185 Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207 Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257 Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305 Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420 Brief Contents Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd iv 12/10/19 01:23 PM
Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd v 12/10/19 01:23 PM Contents Preface xviii Changes to the 13th Edition xix Acknowledgments xxi About the Authors xxiv Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1 Beliefs and Claims 4 Objective Claims and Subjective Judgments 4 Fact and Opinion 6 Relativism 7 Moral Subjectivism 7 Issues 7 Arguments 8 Cognitive Biases 15 Truth and Knowledge 21 What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t Do 22 A Word About the Exercises 22
Recap 23 Additional Exercises 24 Answers and Tips 33 Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35 Arguments: General Features 35 Conclusions Used as Premises 36 Unstated Premises and Conclusions 36 Two Kinds of Arguments 37 Deductive Arguments 37 Inductive Arguments 38 Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 40 Two Kinds of Deductive Arguments 40 Four Kinds of Inductive Arguments 41 Final PDF to printer vi CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd vi 12/10/19 01:23 PM Telling the Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments 42
Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 44 Balance of Considerations 46 Not Premises, Conclusions, or Arguments 46 Selfies (and Other Pictures) 46 If . . . Then . . . Sentences 47 Lists of Facts 47 “A because B” 48 Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 48 Techniques for Understanding Arguments 53 Clarifying an Argument’s Structure 54 Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 56 Evaluating Arguments 57 Recap 57 Additional Exercises 58 Answers and Tips 68 Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73 Vagueness 74 Ambiguity 76
Semantic Ambiguity 77 Grouping Ambiguity 77 Syntactic Ambiguity 77 Generality 79 Defining Terms 84 Purposes of Definitions 84 Kinds of Definitions 85 Tips on Definitions 85 Writing Argumentative Essays 87 Good Writing Practices 89 Essay Types to Avoid 89 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS vii moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd vii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Persuasive Writing 90 Writing in a Diverse Society 91 Recap 92
Additional Exercises 92 Answers and Tips 100 Chapter 4 Credibility 102 The Believability of Claims 103 Does the Claim Conflict with Personal Observation? 104 Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 107 Might the Claim Reinforce Our Biases? 108 The Credibility of Sources 111 Interested Parties 111 Physical and Other Characteristics 112 Expertise 113 The News 118 Mainstream News Media 118 Advertising 126 Three Kinds of Ads 126 Recap 129 Additional Exercises 130 Answers and Tips 139
Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141 Rhetorical Force 142 Rhetorical Devices I 143 Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 143 Weaselers 144 Downplayers 144 Rhetorical Devices II 146 Stereotypes 147 Innuendo 148 Loaded Questions 149 Final PDF to printer viii CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd viii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Rhetorical Devices III 150 Ridicule/Sarcasm 150 Hyperbole 151 Rhetorical Devices IV 151
Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 152 Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 153 Proof Surrogates and Repetition 157 Proof Surrogates 157 Repetition 157 Persuasion Through Visual Imagery 161 The Extreme Rhetoric of Demagoguery 162 Recap 166 Additional Exercises 167 Answers and Tips 183 Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185 Argumentum Ad Hominem 186 Poisoning the Well 187 Guilt by Association 187 Genetic Fallacy 187 Straw Man 188 False Dilemma (Ignoring Other Alternatives) 189 The Perfectionist Fallacy 190 The Line-Drawing Fallacy 190
Misplacing the Burden of Proof 191 Begging the Question (Assuming What You Are Trying to Prove) 193 Appeal to Emotion 194 Argument from Outrage 194 Scare Tactics 195 Appeal to Pity 196 Other Appeals to Emotion 197 Irrelevant Conclusion 198 Recap 200 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS ix moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd ix 12/10/19 01:23 PM Exercises 200 Answers and Tips 206 Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207 Generalizations 207 Generalizing from Too Few Cases (Hasty Generalization) 208
Generalizing from Exceptional Cases 210 Accident 211 Weak Analogy 212 Mistaken Appeal to Authority 213 Mistaken Appeal to Popularity (Mistaken Appeal to Common Belief) 214 Mistaken Appeal to Common Practice 215 Bandwagon Fallacy 216 Fallacies Related to Cause and Effect 217 Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 217 Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 221 Slippery Slope 223 Untestable Explanation 224 Line-Drawing Again 225 Recap 225 Exercises 225 Answers and Tips 232 Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233
Three Formal Fallacies: Affirming the Consequent, Denying the Antecedent, and Undistributed Middle 233 Affirming the Consequent 233 Denying the Antecedent 234 The Undistributed Middle 235 The Fallacies of Equivocation and Amphiboly 237 The Fallacies of Composition and Division 239 Final PDF to printer x CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd x 12/10/19 01:23 PM Confusing Explanations with Excuses 240 Confusing Contraries and Contradictories 242 Consistency and Inconsistency 244 Miscalculating Probabilities 244 Incorrectly Combining the Probability of Independent Events 245 Gambler’s Fallacy 246 Overlooking Prior Probabilities 247
Faulty Inductive Conversion 247 Recap 249 Additional Exercises 250 Answers and Tips 256 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257 Categorical Claims 259 Venn Diagrams 260 Translation into Standard Form (Introduction) 261 Translating Claims in Which the Word “Only” or the Phrase “The Only” Occurs 262 Translating Claims About Times and Places 263 Translating Claims About Specific Individuals 264 Translating Claims that Use Mass Nouns 265 The Square of Opposition 268 Existential Assumption and the Square of Opposition 268 Inferences Across the Square 268 Three Categorical Relations 269 Conversion 269 Obversion 270
Contraposition 270 Categorical Syllogisms 278 The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 279 Existential Assumption in Categorical Syllogisms 282 Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 284 Real-Life Syllogisms 285 The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 289 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS xi moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xi 12/10/19 01:23 PM Recap 291 Additional Exercises 291 Answers and Tips 301 Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305 Truth Tables and Logical Symbols 306 Claim Variables 306
Truth Tables 306 Symbolizing Compound Claims 312 “If” and “Only If” 312 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 314 “Unless” 316 “Either . . . Or” 316 Truth-Functional Argument Patterns (Brief Version) 318 Three Common Valid Argument Patterns 319 Three Mistakes: Invalid Argument Forms 322 Truth-Functional Arguments (Full Version) 325 The Truth-Table Method 326 The Short Truth-Table Method 328 Deductions 334 Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 334 Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 339 Conditional Proof 347 Recap 350 Additional Exercises 351
Answers and Tips 358 Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362 Argument from Analogy 362 Evaluation of Arguments from Analogy 363 Three Arguments from Analogy 365 Other Uses of Analogy 366 Final PDF to printer xii CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Generalizing from a Sample 371 Evaluation of Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372 Three Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372 Scientific Generalizing from a Sample 373 De-generalizing (Reverse Generalizing; the Statistical Syllogism) 375 Causal Statements and Their Support 382 Forming Causal Hypotheses 382 Weighing Evidence 384
Confirming Causal Hypotheses 395 Inference to the Best Explanation 399 Reasoning from Cause to Effect 401 Calculating Statistical Probabilities 402 Joint Occurrence of Independent Events 402 Alternative Occurrences 403 Expectation Value 403 Calculating Conditional Probabilities 404 Causation in the Law 406 Recap 407 Additional Exercises 408 Answers and Tips 416 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420 Value Judgments 421 Moral Versus Nonmoral 422 Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 422 Moral Principles 424 Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 424 Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 427
Consequentialism 427 Duty Theory/Deontologism 429 Moral Relativism 430 Religious Relativism 432 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS xiii moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Religious Absolutism 432 Virtue Ethics 432 Moral Deliberation 435 Legal Reasoning 439 Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 441 Aesthetic Reasoning 444 Eight Aesthetic Principles 444 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 447 Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 448 Why Reason Aesthetically? 450
Recap 452 Additional Exercises 453 Answers and Tips 455 Appendix: Selected Exercises from Previous Editions 457 Glossary 480 Index 488 Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiv 12/10/19 01:23 PM You’re in the driver’s seat. Want to build your own course? No problem. Prefer to use our turnkey, prebuilt course? Easy. Want to make changes throughout the semester? Sure. And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too. Make it simple, make it affordable. Connect makes it easy with seamless integration using any of the major Learning Management Systems— Blackboard®, Canvas, and D2L, among others—to let you organize your course in one convenient location. Give your students access to digital materials at
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moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xvi 12/10/19 01:23 PM More Engaging Moore & Parker are known for fresh and lively writing. They rely on their own classroom experience and on feedback from instructors in getting the correct balance between explication and example. ■ ■ Examples and exercises are drawn from today’s headlines. ■ ■ Students learn to apply critical thinking skills to situ- ations in a wide variety of areas: advertising, poli - tics, the media, popular culture. Critical Thinking . . . Skills for First Pages
Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 19 moo41025_ch01_001-032.indd 19 09/06/19 12:33 PM impossible to think that good judgment or rational thought would lead them to such excess.* Yet another possible source of psychological distortion is the overconfidence effect, one of several self-deception biases that may be found in a variety of contexts.** If a person estimates the percentage of his or her correct answers on a subject, the esti- mate will likely err on the high side—at least if the questions are difficult or the subject matter is unfa- miliar.† Perhaps some manifestation of the overcon- fidence effect explains why, in the early stages of the American Idol competition, many contestants appear totally convinced they will be crowned the next American Idol—and are speechless when the judges inform them they cannot so much as carry a tune.†† Closely related to the overconfidence effect is the better-than-average illusion. The illusion crops up when most of a group rate themselves as better than most of the group relative to some desirable charac-
teristics, such as resourcefulness or driving ability. The classic illustration is the 1976 survey of SAT tak- ers, in which well over 50 percent of the respondents rated themselves as better than 50 percent of other SAT takers with respect to such qualities as leader- ship ability.‡ The same effect has been observed when people estimate how their intelligence, memory, or job performance stacks up with the intelligence, memory, and job performances of other members of their profession or workplace. In our own informal surveys, more than 80 percent of our students rate themselves in the top 10 percent of their class with respect to their ability to think critically. Unfortunately, evidence indicates that even when they are informed about the better-than-average illusion, people may still rate themselves as better than most in their ability to not be subject to it.‡‡ ‡‡http://weblamp.princeton.edu/ psych/f ACUl TY/Articles/Pronin/The%20Bias%20Blind.PDf . The better- than-average bias has not been found to hold for all positive traits. In some things, people underestimate their abilities. The moral is that for many
abilities, we are probably not the best judges of how we compare to others. And this includes our ability to avoid being subject to biasing influences. ‡See Mark D. Alicke and other authors in “The Better-Than- Average Effect,” in Mark D. Alicke and others, The Self in Social Judgment: Studies in Self and Identity (new York: Psychology Press, 2005), 85–106. The better-than-average illusion is sometimes called the l ake Wobegon effect, in reference to Garrison Keillor’s story about the fictitious Minnesota town “where all the children are above average.” ††This possibility was proposed by Gad Saad, Psychology Today, www.psychologytoday.com/blog/homo- consumericus/200901/ self-deception-american-idol-is-it-adaptive. †See Sarah lichtenstein and other authors, “ Calibration of Probabilities: The State of the Art to 1980, ” in Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic, and Amos Tversky, Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press, 1982), 306–34. **However, a universal tendency among humans to irrationally exaggerate their own competencies hasn’t been established. for an online quiz purportedly showing the overconfidence effect, see www.tim-richardson.net/joomla15/finance-articles- profmenu- 70/73-over-confidence-test.html. *Jamey Keaton, Associated Press. Reported in The Sacramento Bee, Thursday, March 18, 2010. Did the subjects suspect the shocks weren’t real? Their statements afterward don’t rule out the possibility but certainly seem to suggest they believed they truly were administering painful electrical shocks to the actor. ■ Does Kim Kardashian wear too much makeup? The issue is subjective, or, as some people say, “a matter of opinion.” Stephen l ovekin/WWD/ Shutterstock
Confirming Pages moo41025_ch07_207-232.indd 216 11/05/19 06:15 PM 216 CHAPTER 7 : InduCTIon FAllA CIES Bandwagon Fallacy Sometimes a speaker or writer will try to get us to do something by suggesting that every- one or most people are doing it. The idea is not to cite what people believe as evidence of the truth of a claim. Rather, the attempt is made to induce us to do something by mak- ing us feel out of step with things if we don’t. This is the infamous Bandwagon Fallacy, illustrated by this example: Appealing to Tradition According to Representative Steve King of Iowa (pictured here), “Equal protection [under the Constitution] is not equal protection for same sex couples to marry. Equal protection has always been for a man and a woman to be able to get married to each other.”
YuRI GRIPAS/uPI/newscom Pete Marovich/ZuMAPRESS. com/newscom I am the most popular candidate by far. Only a minority support my opponent. The speaker wants us to jump on the bandwagon. He or she has not said anything that is relevant to who we should support or how we should vote. Here is one more example: Let’s get a spa. They are very popular these days. The speaker hasn’t really shown that we need a spa. He wants us to get on the bandwagon. More Relevant Moore & Parker spark student interest in skills that will serve them throughout their lives,
making the study of critical thinking a meaning- ful endeavor. ■ ■ Boxes show students how critical thinking skills are relevant to their day-to-day lives. ■ ■ Striking visuals in every chapter show stu- dents how images affect our judgment and shape our thinking. Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xvii 12/10/19 01:23 PM More Student Success Moore & Parker provide a path to student suc- cess, making students active participants in their own learning while teaching skills they can apply in all their courses. ■ ■ Learning objectives link to chapter sections and in turn to print and online activities, so
that students can immediately assess their mastery of the learning objective. ■ ■ Exercises are dispersed throughout most chapters, so that they link tightly with the concepts as they are presented. ■ ■ Students have access to over 2,000 exer- cises that provide practice in applying their skills. the course. Skills for life. First Pages moo41025_ch08_223-246.indd 240 09/19/19 02:23 PM 240 CHAPTER 8: FoRMAl FAllA CIEs ANd FAllA CIEs o F lANG u AGE Exercise 8-4 Here are 107 examples of the fallacies discussed in this chapter. Match each item to one or more of the following categories or otherwise answer as indicated:
a. affirming the consequent b. denying the antecedent c. undistributed middle fallacy d. confusing explanations with excuses e. equivocation f. composition g. division h. miscalculating probabilities Note Your instructor may or may not ask you to further assign miscalculating probabilities into the following subcategories: Incorrectly combining the probabilities of indepen- dent events, the gambler’s fallacy, overlooking prior probabilities, and faulty inductive conversion. 1. Professor Parker can tell you if you are sick; after all, he is a doctor. 2. If this man is the president, then he believes in immigration reform. If this man is vice president, then he believes in immigration reform.
Therefore, if this man is president, then he is vice president. 3. If global warming is for real, then the mean global temperature will have risen over the past ten years. And that is what happened. Therefore, global warming is for real. 4. My chance of being born on December 25 was the same as yours. So the chances we were both born on December 25 have to be twice as good. 5. Sodium is deadly poisonous, and so is chlorine. Salt consists of sodium and chlo- rine, which must be why we’re told not to eat too much of it. 6. The Bible commands you to leave life having made the world a better place. And therefore it commands you to make the world a better place each and every day. 7. A dialogue: JILL: Helen has her mother’s eyes. BILL: Good lord! Can the woman still see?
8. Is an explanation clearly being offered as an excuse/justification? I didn’t buy tick- ets to see Chris Angel’s show because I heard that he spends half his act with his shirt off strutting around in front of the ladies in the audience. 9. If Congress changes marijuana from a Class 1 drug to something lesser, next year the penalties for possession will be much less than they are now. But Congress is not going to declassify marijuana this year. So we’ll have to live with the drastic penalties for at least another year. 10. If you are rich, then your car is something like a Mercedes or a Bentley. Oh! Is that your Bentley, you rich old thing, you? 11. Man! Three sons in a row? Your next kid is bound to be a girl. ▲ ▲
▲ Additional Exercises Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xviii 12/10/19 01:23 PM I t is remarkable how much university students have changed over the decades since we first began teaching in our 20s. Back then they called us by our first names or even “Dude.” Nowadays they call us “Sir,” as in, “Sir, do you need help?” They are also better informed. Thanks to Instagram and Snapchat and other sources of breaking news, they know what friends are doing and thinking at any given moment. Educators seem not to agree on what exactly critical thinking is, though they do
agree that, whatever it is, we can use more of it. They also agree that being informed is important, though what they think is important to be informed about doesn’t necessar- ily include how Emily did her nails or what Jacob thinks about the new Starbucks cups. You have to wonder. How can teachers compete with such stimulating infor- mation? Critical thinking instruction is fairly abstract. It doesn’t deal with topics. In this book, we don’t discuss whether someone’s a good president or if global climate is changing. Rather, we offer instruction on good and bad reasoning. We try to help read- ers develop facility in spotting irrelevancies, emotional appeals, empty rhetoric, and weak evidence. To compete with distractions, we offer examples and exercises we hope first-year university students can understand and relate to, and we try to be as concise and readable as possible. What, by the way, is our definition of critical thinking? This is something we go
into more in Chapter 1; for now, let’s just point out that critical thinking is aimed at mak- ing wise decisions about what to think and do. This book is not about critical thinking as much as it is a book in critical thinking. We try to provide guided practice in what we think are the most important critical thinking skill sets. Although as authors we dif- fer somewhat in our emphasis, we both agree (as do many instructors) that drill-and- practice is useful in improving students’ critical thinking ability. Online technology can be helpful when it comes to drill-and-practice, as well as in enabling students to learn at their own pace. (Details coming up shortly). But if you don’t use online assignment, practice, and assessment platforms such as ours, this text contains hundreds and hun- dreds of exercises of the sort that (we think) can be applied directly to the world at large. Exercise questions are all answered in the answer sections at the end of each chapter. If you use this text or the online peripherals, we would appreciate hearing
from you. We can both be contacted through McGraw-Hill Education or by way of the philosophy department at Chico State. Preface Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xix 12/10/19 01:23 PM A friend recently asked us which critical thinking skills we worry about people not having. At this point in time, we admit we are especially concerned about information- acquisition skills, the skills people use to acquire veridical information and to weed out bogus news sources, misinformation, flimflam, and snake oil. There is much talk these days about people lacking these skills, and everyone seems to assume the problem lies with the people on the other side of the political aisle. Maybe both sides are right. So, important revisions in this edition are aimed at improving
information- acquisition skills, and these revisions are found in Chapter 4 (Credibility). This chapter is about recognizing dubious claims and sources. In it you will find our long-standing analysis of credibility as having two parts, the believability of claims and the credibility of sources. In this edition, we have expanded on the credi bility of mainstream news, social media, and other internet sources of information. A society could become mis- or ill-informed through indifference or overt censor- ship, to name two possibilities. But it could also get that way if enough people obtain information primarily from sources assumed to be accurate and comprehensive, but which in fact are not. Nobody wants to be misled, but most of us do like information that fits with our view of the world, especially if it reinforces our pre-existing opinions (or riles us up about people who don’t share our views). Motivated information-seeking (seeking information for the purpose of confirming opinions we already hold) can lead
people to news sources that tailor the news for their audience. If enough people get tailored news, society may become divided not only as to which sources are regarded as authoritative but also as to what are and are not facts. Some of the reasons for thinking such divisions exist today are discussed in Chapter 4. In that chapter, we also put forth what we think is a non-partisan recommendation for obtaining legitimate news. Another important batch of changes in this edition relates to inductive reasoning, which is introduced in Chapter 2 and examined in more detail in Chapter 11. We now divide inductive reasoning into four fundamental kinds: generalizing, de-generalizing (which is the opposite of generalizing), analogical reasoning, and cause-effect reason- ing. Other forms of inductive reasoning commonly discussed in texts such as this, including notably sign arguments, arguments from examples, and inferences to the best explanation, can be treated as one or another of the four basic kinds of inductive rea-
soning (as we explain). Our reasoning-hierarchy is this: Changes to the 13th Edition People convince themselves or remain convinced of what they want to believe—they seek out agreeable information and learn it more easily; and they avoid, ignore, devalue, forget, or argue against information that contra- dicts their beliefs. —Julie Beck, “This article won’t change your mind,” The Atlantic REASONING DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE CATEGORICAL TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL ANALOGICAL GENERALIZING DE-GENERALIZING CAUSE/EFFECT (including hypothesis
formation and confirmation, and IBEs) Final PDF to printer xx CHANGES TO THE 13TH EDITION moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xx 12/10/19 01:23 PM We have also expanded the section on how to tell the difference between deductive and inductive arguments, including the fact that if an argument has a subjective judgement as its conclusion, then (for reasons we explain) it is unlikely to be inductive. In Chapter 1, we have revised and expanded our treatment of the distinction between sub- jective judgments and objective claims. As usual, most of our revisions result from questions and
difficulties that have actually arisen in our own teaching experience, as well as from feedback from readers. And as always, we have updated the social, political, and cultural backdrop for the book and have revised exercises to keep them relevant. Nowadays students stare blankly if you men- tion a carburetor or refer to TV sets that don’t have remotes; we try to make the book about the world they know. Or rather the world we think they know. ■ World leaders celebrate worldwide rise in critical thinking. Edgar Su/Reuters Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxi 12/10/19 01:23 PM Acknowledgments Y ou may find mistakes in this book. Who made them? It
depends on whom you ask. Moore blames Parker, and Parker blames Moore. We certainly don’t blame the people who we are about to list, who have helped us enormously in our effort to improve. In a previous edition, we tried to blame everything on Terry McGraw, but someone said we couldn’t do that. For thanks, we begin with our caring brand manager Alex Preiss and our astute and amazing production manager, Sarah Paratore. Alex provided the broad picture of what this edition should be; Sarah worked out the details. We also want to thank our entire McGraw Hill Education team, including Traci Vaske, Danielle Clement, Nancy Baudean, Deb Hash, and David Hash. The guidance of our reviewers over the editions has been indispensable to us. These reviewers include Keith Abney, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo James Anderson, San Diego State University Benjamin Arah, Bowie State University
Sheldon Bachus Patricia Baldwin, Pitt Community College Monique Bindra Tim Black, California State University, Northridge Charles Blatz, University of Toledo Christian Blum, Bryant & Stratton, Buffalo K. D. Borcoman, Coastline College/CSUDH Keith Brown, California State University, East Bay Rosalie Brown Lee Carter, Glendale Community College Jennifer Caseldine-Bracht, Indiana University-Purdue University, Fort Wayne Lynne Chandler-Garcia, Pikes Peak Community College David Connelly, Cayuga Community College Anne D’Arcy, California State University, Chico Michelle Darnelle, Fayetteville State University Ray Darr, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville William J. Devlin, Bridgewater State University Paul Dickey, Metropolitan Community College Sandra Dwyer, Georgia State University Jeffrey Easlick, Saginaw Valley State University Aaron Edlin, University of California, Berkeley Dorothy Edlin Noel Edlin Ellery Eells, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Ben Eggleston, University of Kansas Geoffrey B. Frasz, Community College of Southern Nevada Josh Fulcher Angela Gearhart, University of Chile, Santiago Rory Goggins Geoffrey Gorham, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire Final PDF to printer xxii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Joseph Graves, North Carolina A&T University Dabney Gray, Stillman College Patricia Hammer, Delta College Anthony Hanson, De Anza College Rebecca Hendricks Judith M. Hill, Saginaw Valley State University Steven Hoeltzel, James Madison University Steven R. Huizenga, Central Ohio Technical College J. F. Humphrey, North Carolina A&T University Amro Jayousi
Gary John, Richland College Sunghyun Jung Allyn Kahn, Champlain College David Kelsey, Coastline Community College David Keyt, University of Washington Paulina Kohan William Krieger, California State University–Pomona Michael LaBossiere, Florida A&M University Sunita Lanka, Hartnell College Bill Lawson Marisha Lecea, Western Michigan University Marion Ledwig, University of Nevada–Las Vegas Vern Lee, University of Phoenix Terrance MacMullon, Eastern Washington University Andrew Magrath, Kent State University Alistair Moles, Sierra College Ralph J. Moore, Jr. Jeffry Norby, Northcentral Technical College Eric Parkinson, Syracuse University Steven Patterson, Marygrove College Carmel Phelan, College of Southern Nevada Jamie L. Phillips, Clarion University Domenick Pinto, Sacred Heart University Ayaz Pirani, Hartnell College Ed Pluth, California State University, Chico
Scott Rappold, Our Lady of Holy Cross College N. Mark Rauls, College of Southern Nevada Victor Reppert, Glendale Community College Matthew E. Roberts, Patrick Henry College Greg Sadler, Fayetteville State University Matt Schulte, Montgomery College Richard Scott, Glendale Community College Laurel Severino, Santa Fe Community College Mehul Shah, Bergen Community College Robert Shanab, University of Nevada at Las Vegas Steven Silveria Robert Skipper, St. Mary’s University Aeon J. Skoble, Bridgewater State University Taggart Smith, Purdue University–Calumet Richard Sneed, University of Central Oklahoma Final PDF to printer ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxiii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Alan Soble, Drexel University
Chris Soutter James Stump, Bethel College Lou Suarez Susan Vineberg, Wayne State University Michael Ventimiglia, Sacred Heart University Helmut Wautischer, Sonoma State University Dennis Weiss, York College of Pennsylvania Linda L. Williams, Kent State University Amy Goodman Wilson, Webster University Christine Wolf Wayne Yuen, Ohlone College; and Marie G. Zaccaria, Georgia Perimeter College Over the years, our Chico State colleague Anne Morrissey has given us more usable material than anybody else. She’s also given us more unusable material, but never mind. We’ve also had fine suggestions and examples from Curtis Peldo of Chico State and Butte College; Dan Barnett, also of Butte College, has helped in many ways over the years. We thank colleagues at Chico State, who are ever ready with a suggestion, idea,
or constructive criticism; in particular, Marcel Daguerre, Randy Larsen, Becky White, Wai-hung Wong, Zanja Yudell, and Greg Tropea, whose death in 2010 left us saddened beyond words. We are also grateful to Bangs Tapscott, Linda Kaye Bomstad, Ann Bykerk-Kauffman, Sue Patterson, and Jeffrey Ridenour for contributions both archival and recent. David Connelly, from Cayuga Community College, helped us rethink the objective/subjective distinction; we appreciate that. Last, and especially, we give thanks to two people who put up with us with patience, encouragement, and grace, Leah Blum and Marianne Moore. Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxiv 12/10/19 01:23 PM About the Authors
B rooke Moore and Richard Parker have taught phi-losophy at California State University, Chico, for a long time, since 1970 in Moore’s case and since 1972 in Parker’s. Moore has a bachelor’s degree in music from Antioch College and a PhD in philosophy from the University of Cincinnati; Parker received his undergradu- ate degree from the University of Arkansas and his PhD from the University of Washington, both in philosophy. After all this time and all the collaboration, Moore and Parker are still on speaking terms. In fact, they are close friends.Courtesy of Brooke Moore Courtesy of Richard Parker Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxv 12/10/19 01:23 PM To: Sherry and Bill; and Sydney, Darby, Alexander and Levi Peyton Elizabeth, and Griffin From Richard From Brooke Final PDF to printer
moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxvi 12/10/19 01:23 PM This is not entirely a work of nonfiction. Final PDF to printer 1 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 1 11/27/19 06:53 AM 1 Driving Blindfolded Students will learn to . . . 1. Define critical thinking 2. Explain the role of beliefs and claims in critical thinking 3. Identify issues in real-world situations
4. Recognize an argument 5. Define and identify the common cogni- tive biases that affect critical thinking 6. Understand the terms “truth” and “knowledge” as used in this book F or a while there, the Bird Box challenge was providing lots of great examples of poor critical thinking. In case you forgot (or never knew in the first place), the Bird Box challenge came from the movie Bird Box, in which Sandra Bullock and others must wear blindfolds when outside, to protect them from a force that makes people kill themselves. The challenge went viral and people had friends video them doing all sorts of things while blind- folded. One teenager in Utah attempted to drive blindfolded and crashed into another vehicle. Police reminded people not to wear a blindfold when they were driving.* This book is about critical thinking. We are going out on a limb here, but we bet you don’t need this book to avoid driving blindfolded. If you do drive that way, the book may not help
you. So what is critical thinking? Almost everyone would agree, driving blindfolded is not thinking critically—but what exactly is critical thinking? Why do people say it is so important? Yes, critical thinking involves considering the possible out- comes of an action, such as what might happen if you drive down this street blindfolded. But it involves more. Speaking generally, just thinking and doing stuff doesn’t amount to thinking critically. Critical thinking kicks in when we evaluate beliefs and actions—when “What gets us into trouble is not what we don’t know. It’s what we know for sure that just ain’t so.” —Not by Mark Twain, apparently *https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/utah-teen-crash-bird- box-challenge_us_5c3908cae4b01
c93e009e011 Cavan Images/Getty Images Final PDF to printer 2 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 2 11/27/19 06:53 AM we critique them. Critical thinking is thinking that critiques. To critique something is to evaluate it according to standards of some sort. So you can think critically about any- thing it makes sense to evaluate according to standards. Among the most important things you can critique—and what we are concerned with in this book—is reasoning, the thinking that comes into play when we form opinions, make judgments, arrive at deci- sions, develop plans, come to conclusions, offer hypotheses, and the like. So for our pur- poses, critical thinking is reasoning evaluation. We engage in it
when we consider whether reasoning, broadly construed, passes muster by the standards of logic and good sense. If you are a student at a college or university, chances are your instructor will think critically about the work you turn in. He or she will offer critical commentary on what you submit. If you want to think critically, you have to do this yourself to your own work. Try to leave your instructor with nothing to say except, “Good job!” It can be the same in the workplace or in the military. You might perhaps be asked to solve a problem or troubleshoot a situation or come up with a recommendation, or any number of other things that involve arriving at conclusions. Your colleagues or friends or supervisors may give you feedback or commentary. They are thinking criti- cally about your reasoning. Of course, if you are so brilliant that you never err in your thinking, then you may not
need feedback from others. Unfortunately, there is evidence that people who think they are experts are more likely to believe they know things they don’t really know.* Anyway, almost everyone makes mistakes. We overlook important considerations, ignore viewpoints that conflict with our own, or in other ways don’t think as clearly as we might. Most of us benefit from a little critical commentary, and this includes commentary that comes from ourselves. The chances of reaching defensible conclusions improve if we don’t simply con- clude willy-nilly, but reflect on our reasoning and try to make certain it is sound. Being able to think critically can be useful in another way. Others try to influence what we think and do. There is much to be said for being able to critically evaluate a sales pitch, whether it comes from a stranger or a friend, or is about kitchen gadgets or for whom to vote for president. Critical thinking helps us recognize a scam when we see it. Some educators equate critical thinking with problem solving or
innovative think- ing (“thinking outside the box”). This is fine, though at a certain point proposed solu- tions and possible innovations have to be tested. That’s where critical thinking comes in. This is a book in critical thinki ng because it offers guidance about critiquing think- ing. The book and the course you are using it in, if you are, explain the minimum criteria of good reasoning—the requirements a piece of reasoning must meet if it is worth paying attention to, no matter what the context. Along the way we will explore the most common and important obstacles to good reasoning, as well as some of the most common mistakes people make when coming to conclusions. Other courses you take offer refinements. In them you will learn what considerations are important from the perspective of individual disciplines. But in no course anywhere, at least in no course that involves arriving at con- clusions, will thinking that violates the standards set forth in this book be accepted.
If it does nothing else, what you read here and learn in your critical thinking course should help you avoid at least a few of the more egregious common errors peo- ple make when they reason. If you would have otherwise made these mistakes, you will *Scientific American Mind, January/f ebruary 2016, p . 13. Critical thinking is thinking that critiques. In this book we critique reasoning, broadly construed—the thinking used in arriving at decisions, developing plans, coming to conclusions, offering hypotheses, coming up with solutions, and so forth. Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 3 11/27/19 06:53 AM DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED 3 have become smarter. Not smarter in some particular subject,
mind you, but smarter in general. The things you learn from this book (and from the course you may be reading it for) apply to nearly any subject people can talk or think or write about. To a certain extent, questions we should ask when critiquing our own—or some- one else’s—thinking depend on what is at issue. Deciding whom to vote for, whether to buy a house, whether a mathematical proof is sound, which toothpaste to buy, or what kind of dog to get involve different considerations. In all cases, however, we should want to avoid making or accepting weak and invalid arguments. We should also avoid being distracted by irrelevancies or ruled by emotion, succumbing to fallacies or bias, and being influenced by dubious authority or half-baked speculation. These are not the only criteria by which reasoning might be evaluated, but they are central and important, and they provide the main focus of this book. Critical Thinking, the Long Version
The Collegiate l earning Assessment (Cl A) Project of the Council for Aid to Education has come up with a list of skills that covers almost everything your authors believe is important in critical thinking. If you achieve mastery over all these or even a significant majority of them, you’ll be well ahead of most of your peers—and your fellow citizens. In question form, here is what the council came up with: How well does the student ■ determine what information is or is not pertinent; ■ distinguish between rational claims and emotional ones; ■ separate fact from opinion; ■ recognize the ways in which evidence might be limited or compromised; ■ spot deception and holes in the arguments of others; ■ present his/her own analysis of the data or information; ■ recognize logical flaws in arguments; ■ draw connections between discrete sources of data and information; ■ attend to contradictory, inadequate, or ambiguous information; ■ construct cogent arguments rooted in data rather than
opinion; ■ select the strongest set of supporting data; ■ avoid overstated conclusions; ■ identify holes in the evidence and suggest additional information to collect; ■ recognize that a problem may have no clear answer or single solution; ■ propose other options and weigh them in the decision; ■ consider all stakeholders or affected parties in suggesting a course of action; ■ articulate the argument and the context for that argument; ■ correctly and precisely use evidence to defend the argument; ■ logically and cohesively organize the argument; ■ avoid extraneous elements in an argument’s development; ■ present evidence in an order that contributes to a persuasive argument? www.aacu.org/peerreview/pr_sp07_analysis1. cfm. Final PDF to printer 4 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED
moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 4 11/27/19 06:53 AM BELIEFS AND CLAIMS Why bother thinking critically? The ultimate objective in thinking critically is to come to conclusions that are correct and to make decisions that are wise. Because our decisions reflect our conclusions, we can simplify things by saying that the purpose of thinking critically is to come to correct conclusions. The method used to achieve this objective is to evaluate our thinking by the standards of rationality. Of course, we can also evaluate someone else’s thinking, though the objective there might simply be to help the person. When we come to a conclusion, we have a belief. Concluding involves believing. If you conclude that the battery is dead, you believe that the battery is dead. Keeping this in mind, let’s define a few key terms. A belief is, obviously, something you believe. It is important to understand that a belief is propositional, which means it can be expressed in a
declarative sentence—a sen- tence that is either true or false. A good bit of muddleheaded thinking can be avoided if you understand that beliefs are propositional entities, but more on this later. As we use these words, beliefs are the same as judgments and opinions. When we express a belief (or judgment or opinion) in a declarative sentence, the result is a statement or claim or assertion, and for our purposes these are the same thing. Claims can be used for other purposes than to state beliefs, but this is the use we’re primarily concerned with. Beliefs and claims are propositional: they can be expressed in true-or-false declarative sentences. ■ Judges on So You Think You Can Dance critique the singers on the show, but this book is mainly about how to critique
reasoning. fo X Image Collection/Getty Images Objective Claims and Subjective Judgments Before we say something more about conclusions, we should make a distinction between objective claims and subjective judgments. An objective claim has this characteristic: Final PDF to printer BEl IEf S An D Cl AIMS 5 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 5 11/27/19 06:53 AM Whether it is true or false is independent of whether you or anyone else thinks it is true or false. “There is life on Mars” is thus an objec- tive claim, because whether or not life exists there doesn’t depend on whether you (or any- one else) thinks it does. If you (or anyone else)
suddenly believes there is life on Mars, that doesn’t mean that suddenly there would be life on Mars. Likewise, “God exists” is an objec- tive claim because whether it is true doesn’t depend on what you (or anyone else) thinks. Although objective claims are either true or false, we may not know which a given claim is. “Portland, Oregon, is closer to the North Pole than to the equator” is true. “Portland, Oregon, is closer to the equator than to the North Pole” is false. “More stamp collectors live in Portland, Oregon, than in Portland, Maine” is an objective claim whose truth or falsity is not known, at least not by us. Not every declarative sentence expresses an objective claim, of course. “Bruno Mars has swag” is not objective, for it lacks the characteristic mentioned previously. That is, whether or not someone has swag does depend on whether you think he does. If nobody thinks Bruno Mars has swag, then he doesn’t. If Parker thinks he does and Moore doesn’t, you will say that Parker and Moore are each
entitled to their opinions. Whether someone has swag is in the eyes of the beholder. Judgments like “Bruno Mars has swag” are subjective. Whether a subjective judg- ment is true or false is not independent of whether you think it is true or false. On the contrary, a subjective judgment about something is true if you think it is true. Examples of subjective claims would be judgments of taste, such as “Rice vinegar is too sweet.” Is rice vinegar too sweet? It depends on what you think. Some kinds of comparisons also are subjective. Is snowboarding more fun than skiing? Again, it depends on what you think, and there is no further “truth” to consider. However, many statements contain both objective and nonobjective elements, as in “Somebody stole our nifty concrete lawn duck.” Whether the lawn duck is concrete is an objective question; whether it is our lawn duck is an objective question; and whether it was stolen is an objective question. But whether the stolen concrete lawn duck is nifty is a subjective question.
Here is an important point. If you think a subjective judgment is true, you can’t be mistaken. If Parker thinks that the tomato he is eating tastes great, his judgment “this tastes great,” as made by him, cannot be incorrect. If Parker says, “this tomato tastes great but I might be wrong about that,” we wouldn’t understand him. Let’s take an extreme case. Parker peels a lemon, takes a bite, and says, “This tastes sweet.” Let’s assume for the moment that nobody else on the planet would agree that this lemon tastes sweet. Would that mean that Parker’s judgment is incorrect? Not at all. It would just mean that what Parker finds sweet is very odd, not that Parker is mistaken. Because a subjective judgment cannot be mistaken, it makes no sense to think of it as probable or likely, or improbable or unlikely. If Parker says of the tomato he is eating, “this probably tastes great,” or “this tastes great but there is a chance I am mistaken,” or
“it isn’t very likely that this tastes great,” we wouldn’t know what to make of his remark. Finally, because a subjective judgment cannot be viewed as probably true or as probably false, it isn’t the sort of thing that can be thought of as supportable by evi- dence. Evidence is something that raises the probability a claim is true. Subjective judg- ments are not susceptible to varying degrees of probability. If it makes no sense to think ■ Maybe he should have read this book? Brilliant Eagle/Alamy Stock Photo Final PDF to printer 6 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 6 11/27/19 06:53 AM
of a remark as probable to a greater or lesser extent, then it makes no sense to think of it as something for which evidence as to its probable truth might be produced. If Parker says that the tomato he is eating tastes great, we might ask him what makes him think that, but if we press him for evidence he wouldn’t know how to respond. He might have reasons for thinking that the tomato he is eating tastes great. He might say, for example, that it tastes great because it isn’t bitter. But that is not evidence that it tastes great. It is an explanation of why he thinks it tastes great. Parker is telling us what causes him to think that the tomato tastes great. Of course, as a practical matter, many objective claims also cannot be supported by evidence. Is there life beneath the surface of the rocky planet that circles Proxima Centauri? We currently cannot obtain evidence that bears on the question. But when it comes to Parker’s judgment that the tomato he is eating tastes great, it’s not that he
cannot presently provide evidence of its truth, it’s that it makes no sense to even think of providing evidence of its truth. However—and this is worth highlighting—the fact that subjective judgments cannot be mistaken, are not subject to probability quantifications, and are not the sort of thing for which evidence could be given, should not be invoked to dismiss any particular statement as unworthy of discussion. In the first place, it isn’t always clear whether a given remark actually is a subjective judgment. As we shall see, for example, moral judgments might not be subjective despite widespread belief and initial appearances that they are. Further, even if someone’s judgment about something unquestionably is subjective, we might learn something from hearing why the individual thinks as he or she does. We might find our own opinion about The Simpsons improved by listening to a friend explain her reasons for thinking it is a great TV series. If somebody tells you a certain outfit you are wearing doesn’t look good on you, you might benefit from hearing his or
her explanation why he or she thinks that.* Is the case before the Supreme Court analogous to the case the Solicitor General cites as a precedent? Members of the Court and other legal scholars may disagree, but it would be ridiculous to brush off the question as “just subjective.” In our opinion, few claims fall into the category of automatically not worth discussing. Offhand, the only claims we can think of that might qualify are nonsense claims, like “weirdness is fattening.” The point is not to employ the objective/subjective distinction to stifle inquiry or discussion. Fact and Opinion Sometimes people talk about the difference between “fact” and “opinion,” having in mind the notion that all opinions are subjective judgments. But some opinions are not subjective judgments, because their truth or falsity is independent of what people think. Again, in this book “opinion” is just another word for “belief.” If you believe that
Portland, Oregon, is closer to the North Pole than to the equator, that opinion happens to be true, and would continue to be true even if you change your mind. You can refer to objective opinions as factual opinions or beliefs, if you want— but that doesn’t mean fac- tual opinions are all true. “Portland, Oregon, is closer to the equator than to the North Pole” is a factual opinion that is false. A factual opinion/belief/claim = an objective opinion/belief/claim = an opinion/ belief/claim whose truth is independent of whether anyone thinks it is true. *The claim “o ther people won’t think that outfit looks good on you” is an objective claim about what other people will think. It is the sort of thing about which the speaker might be mistaken, and it could be supported with evidence. Final PDF to printer
ISSUES 7 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 7 11/27/19 06:53 AM Thinking About Thinking Remember, an objective statement is not made true by someone thinking it is true. “Wait a minute,” you might say. “Isn’t the statement ‘Joanie is thinking about f rank’ made true by her thinking that it is true?” The answer is no! It is made true by her thinking about Frank. Relativism Relativism is the idea that truth is relative to the standards of a given culture. More precisely, relativism holds that if your culture and some other culture have different standards of truth or evidence, there is no independent “God’s- eye view” by which one culture’s standards can be seen to be more correct than the others. Whatever may be said of this as an abstract philosophical doctrine, it cannot pos- sibly mean that an objective statement could be made true by a
culture’s thinking that it is true. If it is universally believed in some culture that “water” is not H2O, then either the people in that culture are mistaken or their word “water” does not refer to water. Moral Subjectivism Moral subjectivism is the idea that moral opinions, such as “Bullfighting is morally wrong” or “Jason shouldn’t lie to his parents,” are subjective judgments. It is the idea, in other words, that if you think bullfighting is morally wrong, then it is morally wrong for you and you don’t need to consider any further truth. It is the idea expressed by Hamlet in the famous passage, “There is nothing either good or bad, but that thinking makes it so.” You should be wary of Hamlet’s dictum. Ask yourself this: If someone actually believes there is nothing wrong with torturing donkeys or stoning women to death for adultery, would you say, well, if that’s what he thinks, then it’s fine for him to torture
donkeys or stone women to death? Of course you wouldn’t. Those ideas can’t be made true by thinking they are true anymore than drinking battery acid can be made good for you by thinking it is. ISSUES An issue, as we employ that concept in this book, is simply a question. Is Moore taller than Parker? When we ask that question, we raise the issue as to whether Moore is taller than Parker. To put it differently, we are considering whether the claim “Moore is taller than Parker” is true. Let us note in passing that as with claims, some issues are objective. Is Moore taller than Parker? Whether he is or isn’t doesn’t depend on whether we think he is, so this is an objective issue (question). Other issues, such as whether P. Diddy dresses well, are subjective, in the sense explained previously. The first order of business when it comes to thinking critically about an issue is
to determine what, exactly, the issue is. Unfortunately, in many real-life situations, it is difficult to identify exactly what the issue is—meaning it is difficult to identify exactly what claim is in question. This happens for lots of reasons, from purposeful obfuscation to ambiguous terminology to plain muddleheaded thinking. In his inaugural address, President Warren G. Harding said, Final PDF to printer 8 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 8 11/27/19 06:53 AM This is formidable. Do you understand what issue Harding is addressing? Neither does anyone else, because his statement is perfectly meaningless. (American satirist H. L. Mencken described it as a “sonorous nonsense driven home with gestures.”*) Understanding what is meant by a claim has so many aspects
that we’ll devote a large part of Chapter 3 to the subject. However, if you have absolutely no clue as to what an issue actually is, there isn’t much point in considering it further—you don’t know what “it” is. There also isn’t much point in considering it further if you have no idea as to what would count toward settling it. For example, suppose someone asks, “Is there an identical you in a differ- ent dimension?” What sort of evidence would support saying either there is or isn’t? Nobody has any idea. (Almost any question about different “dimensions” or “planes” or “universes” would be apt to suffer from the same problem unless, possibly, it were to be raised from someone well educated in physics who used those concepts in a techni- cal way.) “Is everything really one?” would also qualify as something you couldn’t begin to settle, as would wondering if “the entire universe was created instantly five minutes ago with all false memories and fictitious records.”**
Obscure issues aren’t always as metaphysical as the preceding examples. Listen carefully and you may hear more than one politician say something like, “It is human nature to desire freedom.” Oh, really? This sounds good, but if you look at it closely it’s hard to know exactly what sort of data would support the remark. This isn’t to imply that only issues that can be settled through scientific test or via the experimental method are worth considering. Moral issues cannot be settled in that way, for example. Mathematical and historical questions are not answered by experi- ment, and neither are important philosophical questions. Does God exist? Is there free will? What difference does it make if he does or doesn’t or there is or isn’t? Legal ques- tions, questions of aesthetics—the list of important questions not subject to purely sci- entific resolution is very long. The point here is merely that if a question is to be taken seriously, or if you want others to take it seriously, or if you want others who can think
critically to take it seriously, you must have some idea as to what considerations bear on the answer. ARGUMENTS In our experience, lots of college students seriously contemplate getting a dog or cat. But they are conflicted. On the one hand, it would be sweet to have a nice pet; but on the other, it would be extra work and cost money, and they aren’t sure what to do with the animal if they take a trip. If you are such a student, you weigh the arguments pro and con. An argument presents a consideration for accepting a claim. For example, this is an argument: We have mistaken unpreparedness to embrace it to be a challenge of the reality and due concern for making all citizens fit for participation will give added strength of citizenship and magnify our achievement. A dog would keep me company; so I should get one.
**This famous example comes from philosopher Bertrand Russell. *Reported on n BC n ews, Meet the Press, January 16, 2005. Final PDF to printer ARGUMEn TS 9 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 9 11/27/19 06:53 AM And so is this: Are You Good at Reasoning? Are you the kind of person who reasons well? Some people are. Unfortunately, maybe people who aren’t very good at reasoning are the most likely to overestimate their reasoning ability.* *See Justin Kruger and David Dunning, “Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing o ne’s o wn Incompetence
l ead to Inflated Self-Assessments,” Psychology 1 (2009): 30– 46. My landlord will raise my rent; so I shouldn’t get one. The first example is an argument for getting a dog. The second is an argument for not getting one. As you can see from these two examples, an argument consists of two parts. One part gives a reason for accepting the other part. The part that provides the reason is called the premise of the argument,* though an argument may have more than one premise. The other part is called the conclusion. The conclusion of an argument is what the premise supposedly supports or demonstrates. You should always think of the conclusion of an argument as stating a position on an issue, and of the premise or premises as giving reasons for taking that position. Want an example? Look at the two arguments previously shown.
They both address the issue of whether I should get a dog. The premise of the first example (“A dog would keep me company”) gives a reason for saying I should get a dog. The premise of the second example (“My landlord will raise my rent”) gives a reason for saying I should not get a dog. What does this have to do with critical thinking? Everything. You want to make the best decision on an important issue—in this case, whether to get a dog. You evaluate the arguments pro and con. Being able to do this intelligently may not be the sum total of critical thinking, but it is an essential part of it. A large part of this book is devoted to understanding how to evaluate arguments, and all this will begin in Chapter 2. However, right now, tw o minor points about argu- ments are worth noticing: 1. The two arguments given as examples are not very long or complicated. Some
arguments can be very long and complicated. Einstein’s revolutionary theory that E = mc2 was based on complex mathematical reasoning, and that reasoning was his argument for saying that E = mc2. 2. Not every issue requires an argument for resolution. Is your throat sore? You can just tell directly, and no argument is necessary. We will now offer you a few exercises to help you understand these fundamen- tal concepts. In the next section we will look at psychological factors that impede clear thought. *Unfortunately, sometimes people use the word “argument” to refer only to the premise or premises of an argument. Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 10 11/27/19 06:53 AM
10 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED Answer the questions based on your reading to this point, including the boxes. ▲ —See the answers section at the end of this chater. 1. What is an argument? 2. T or F: A claim is what you use to state an opinion or a belief. 3. T or F: Critical thinking consists in attacking other people’s ideas. 4. T or F: A long passage is more likely to contain an argument than a short one. 5. T or F: When a question has been asked, an issue has been raised. 6. T or F: All arguments have a premise. 7. T or F: All arguments have a conclusion.
8. T or F: You can reach a conclusion without believing it is true. 9. T or F: Beliefs, judgments, and opinions are the same thing. 10. T or F: All opinions are subjective. 11. T or F: All factual claims are true. 12. “There is nothing either good or bad but that thinking makes it so” expresses a doctrine known as . 13. The first order of business when it comes to thinking critically about an issue is (a) to determine whether the issue is subjective or objective, (b) to determine whether the issue can be resolved, or (c) to determine what exactly the issue is. 14. T or F: The conclusion of an argument states a position on an issue. 15. T or F: Issues can be resolved only through scientific testing.
16. T or F: Statements, claims, and assertions are the same thing. 17. T or F: The claim “Death Valley is an eyesore” expresses a subjective judgment. 18. T or F: Every issue requires an argument for a resolution. 19. T or F: Relativism is the idea that if the standards of evidence or truth are different for two cultures, there is no independent way of saying which standards are the correct ones. 20. T or F: It is not possible to reason correctly if you do not think critically. ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
▲ ▲ ▲ On the basis of a distinction covered so far, divide these items into two groups of five items each such that all the items in one group have a feature that none of the items in the second group have. Describe the feature on which you based your classifications. The items that belong in one group are listed at the end of this chapter. Hint: the feature is not that five items are subjective and five are objective. 1. You shouldn’t buy that car because it is ugly. 2. That car is ugly, and it costs more than $25,000, too. 3. Rainbows have seven colors, although it’s not always easy to see them all. 4. Walking is the best exercise. It places the least stress on
your joints. 5. The ocean on the central coast is the most beautiful shade of sky blue, but it gets greener as you go north. 6. Her favorite color is yellow because it is the color of the sun. ▲ ▲ Exercise 1-1 Exercise 1-2 Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 11 11/27/19 06:53 AM ARGUMEn TS 11
7. Pooh is my favorite cartoon character because he has lots of personality. 8. You must turn off the lights when you leave the room. They cost a lot of money to run, and you don’t need them during the day. 9. Television programs depict too much violence and immoral behavior. Hundreds of killings are portrayed every month. 10. You’ll be able to find a calendar on sale after the first of the year, so it is a good idea to wait until then to buy one. ▲ ▲ ■ Can bears and other animals think critically? f ind out by checking the answers section at the end of the chapter.
M G Therin Weise/Getty Images Which of the following claims are objective? 1. Nicki Minaj can fake a great English accent. 2. On a baseball field, the center of the pitcher’s mound is 59 feet from home plate. 3. Staring at the sun will damage your eyes. 4. Green is the most pleasant color to look at. 5. Yellow is Jennifer’s favorite color. 6. With enough experience, a person who doesn’t like opera can come to appreciate it. 7. Opera would be easier to listen to if they’d leave out the singing. 8. Sailing is much more soothing than sputtering about in a motorboat. 9. Driving while drowsy is dangerous.
10. Pit vipers can strike a warm-blooded animal even when it is pitch dark. 11. P. Diddy is totally bink. 12. P. Diddy is totally bink to me. ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ Exercise 1-3 Which of the following are subjective judgments? 1. Fallon tells better jokes than Colbert. 2. In 2013 Miguel Cabrera hit the most home runs on a 3–0 count.
3. Your teacher will complain if you text in class. 4. Your teacher would be crazy not to complain if you text in class. 5. There is life on Mars. 6. Golf wastes time. 7. Warcraft scared the you-know-what out of my sister. 8. Warcraft is lousy. A total letdown. 9. Movies like Warcraft lack redeeming social value. [Hint: An assertion might have more than one subjective element.] 10. Donald Trump has beautiful hair. ▲ ▲ ▲
▲ Exercise 1-4 Some of these items are arguments, and some are not. Which are which? 1. Tipsarevic is unlikely to win the U.S. Open this year. He has a nagging leg injury, plus he doesn’t have the drive he once had. ▲ Exercise 1-5 Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 12 11/27/19 06:53 AM 12 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED 2. Hey there, Marco! Don’t go giving that cat top sirloin. What’s the matter with
you? You got no brains? 3. If you’ve ever met a pet bird, you know they are busy creatures. 4. Everybody is saying the president earned the Nobel Prize. What a stupid idea! She hasn’t earned it at all. There’s not a lick of truth in that notion. 5. “Is the author really entitled to assert that there is a degree of unity among these essays which makes this a book rather than a congeries? I am inclined to say that he is justified in this claim, but articulating this justification is a somewhat complex task.” —From a book review by Stanley Bates 6. As a long-time customer, you’re already taking advantage of our money management expertise and variety of investment choices. That’s a good reason for consolidating your other eligible assets into an IRA with us.
7. PROFESSOR X: Well, I see where the new chancellor wants to increase class sizes. PROFESSOR Y: Yeah, another of his bright ideas. PROFESSOR X: Actually, I don’t think it hurts to have one or two extra people in class. PROFESSOR Y: What? Of course it hurts. Whatever are you thinking? PROFESSOR X: Well, I just think there are good reasons for increasing the class size a bit. 8. Yes, I charge a little more than other dentists. But I feel I give better service. So my billing practices are justified. 9. Since you want to purchase the house, you should exercise your option before June 30, 2018. Otherwise, you will forfeit the option price.
10. John Montgomery has been the Eastern Baseball League’s best closer this season. Unfortunately, when a closer gets shelled, as Montgomery did last night, it takes him a while to recover. Nobody will say he is the best closer after that performance. ▲ ▲ ▲ Determine which of the following passages contain arguments. For any that do, identify the argument’s conclusion. There aren’t hard-and-fast rules for identifying arguments, so you’ll have to read closely and think carefully about some of these. 1. The Directory of Intentional Communities lists more than 200 groups across the country organized around a variety of purposes, including environmentally aware
living. 2. Carl would like to help out, but he won’t be in town. We’ll have to find someone else who owns a truck. 3. Once upon a time Washington, DC, passed an ordinance prohibiting private ownership of firearms. After that, Washington’s murder rate shot up 121 percent. Bans on firearms are clearly counterproductive. 4. Computers will never be able to converse intelligently through speech. A simple example proves this. The sentences “How do you recognize speech?” and “How do you wreck a nice beach?” have different meanings, but they sound similar enough that a computer could not distinguish between the two. ▲ ▲ Exercise 1-6
Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 13 11/27/19 06:53 AM ARGUMEn TS 13 5. The Carrie Diaries isn’t very good. It’s just a repackage of Sex and the City. 6. “Like short-term memory, long-term memory retains information that is encoded in terms of sense modality and in terms of links with information that was learned earlier (that is, meaning).” —Neil R. Carlson 7. Fears that chemicals in teething rings and soft plastic toys may
cause cancer may be justified. Last week, the Consumer Product Safety Commission issued a report confirming that low amounts of DEHP, known to cause liver cancer in lab animals, may be absorbed from certain infant products. 8. “It may be true that people, not guns, kill people. But people with guns kill more people than people without guns. As long as the number of lethal weapons in the hands of the American people continues to grow, so will the murder rate.” —Susan Mish’alani 9. Then: A Miami man gets thirty days in the stockade for wearing a flag patch on the seat of his trousers. Now: Miami department stores sell boxer trunks made up to look like an American flag. Times have changed. 10. Dockers are still in style, but skinny legs are no longer
trending. ▲ ▲ ■ What does critical thinking tell you about this sign? Peter Turnley/Corbis Historical/ Getty Images For each numbered passage, identify which lettered item best states the primary issue discussed in the passage. Be prepared to say why you think your choice is the correct one. 1. Let me tell you why Hank ought not to take that math course. First, it’s too hard, and he’ll probably flunk it. Second, he’s going to spend the whole term in a state of frustration. Third, he’ll probably get depressed and jump out the window.
a. whether Hank ought to take the math course b. whether Hank would flunk the math course c. whether Hank will spend the whole term in a state of frustration d. whether Hank will get depressed and jump out the window. 2. The county has cut the library budget for salaried library workers, and there will not be enough volunteers to make up for the lack of paid workers. Therefore, the library will have to be open fewer hours next year. a. whether the library will have to be open fewer hours next year b. whether there will be enough volunteers to make up for the lack of paid workers ▲ Exercise 1-7 Final PDF to printer
moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 14 11/27/19 06:53 AM 14 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED 3. Pollution of the waters of the Everglades and of Florida Bay is due to multiple causes. These include cattle farming, dairy farming, industry, tourism, and urban development. So it is simply not true that the sugar industry is completely responsible for the pollution of these waters. a. whether pollution of the waters of the Everglades and Florida Bay is due to multiple causes b. whether pollution is caused by cattle farming, dairy farming, industry, tourism, and urban development c. whether the sugar industry is partly responsible for the pollution of these waters
d. whether the sugar industry is completely responsible for the pollution of these waters 4. It’s clear that the mainstream media have lost interest in classical music. For example, the NBC network used to have its own classical orchestra conducted by Arturo Toscanini, but no such orchestra exists now. One newspaper, the no-longer-existent Washington Star, used to have thirteen classical music reviewers; that’s more than twice as many as The New York Times has now. H. L. Mencken and other columnists used to devote considerable space to classical music; nowadays, you almost never see it mentioned in a major column. a. whether popular taste has turned away from classical music b. whether newspapers are employing fewer writers on classical music c. whether the mainstream media have lost interest in classical music
5. This year’s National Football League draft lists a large number of quarterbacks among its highest-ranking candidates. Furthermore, quite a number of teams do not have first-class quarterbacks. It’s therefore likely that an unusually large number of quarterbacks will be drafted early in this year’s draft. a. whether teams without first-class quarterbacks will choose quarterbacks in the draft b. whether this year’s NFL draft includes a large number of quarterbacks c. whether an unusually large number of quarterbacks will be drafted early in this year’s draft 6. An animal that will walk out into a rainstorm and stare up at the clouds until water runs into its nostrils and it drowns—well, that’s what I call the world’s
dumbest animal. And that’s exactly what young domestic turkeys do. a. whether young domestic turkeys will drown themselves in the rain b. whether any animal is dumb enough to drown itself in the rain c. whether young domestic turkeys are the world’s dumbest animal 7. The defeat of the school voucher initiative was a bad thing for the country because now public schools won’t have any incentive to clean up their act. Furthermore, the defeat perpetuates the private-school-for- the-rich, public-school-for-the-poor syndrome. a. whether public schools now have any incentive to clean up their act b. whether the defeat of the school voucher initiative was bad for the country c. whether public schools now have any incentive to clean up their act and
whether the private-school-for-the-rich, public-school-for-the- poor syndrome will be perpetuated (issues are equally stressed) 8. From an editorial in a newspaper outside California: “The people in California who lost a fortune in the wildfires last year could have bought insurance that ▲ ▲ Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 15 11/27/19 06:53 AM Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 15 would have covered their houses and practically everything in them. And anybody with any foresight would have made sure there were no brush and no trees near
the houses so that there would be a buffer zone between the house and any fire, as the Forest Service recommends. Finally, anybody living in a fire danger zone ought to know enough to have a fireproof or fire-resistant roof on the house. So, you see, most of the losses those people suffered were simply their own fault.” a. whether fire victims could have done anything to prevent their losses b. whether insurance, fire buffer zones, and fire-resistant roofs could have pre- vented much of the loss c. whether the losses people suffered in the fires were their own fault 9. “Whatever we believe, we think agreeable to reason, and, on that account, yield our assent to it. Whatever we disbelieve, we think contrary to reason, and, on that account, dissent from it. Reason, therefore, is allowed to be the principle by which our belief and opinions ought to be regulated.”
—Thomas Reid, Essays on the Active Powers of Man a. whether reason is the principle by which our beliefs and opinions ought to be regulated b. whether what we believe is agreeable to reason c. whether what we disbelieve is contrary to reason d. both b and c 10. Most people you find on university faculties are people who are interested in ideas. And the most interesting ideas are usually new ideas. So most people you find on university faculties are interested in new ideas. Therefore, you are not going to find many conservatives on university faculties, because conservatives are not usually interested in new ideas. a. whether conservatives are interested in new ideas b. whether you’ll find many conservatives on university faculties c. whether people on university faculties are interested more in
new ideas than in older ideas d. whether most people are correct ▲ COGNITIVE BIASES Unconscious features of psychology can affect human mental processes, sometimes in unexpected ways. Recent research suggests that donning formal business attire or a physician’s white lab coat might improve a person’s performance on a cognitive test.* Seeing a fast food logo (e.g., McDonald’s golden arches) may make some individuals attempt to process information more hastily.** In one experiment, subjects being told that the expensive sunglasses they were asked to wear were fake increased their pro- pensity to cheat on tests that involved cash payments for correct answers.† In another experiment, male subjects, if dressed in sweats, made less profitable deals in simulated negotiations than did subjects dressed in suits.
When a poll is really, really out of whack with what I want to happen, I do have a tendency to disregard it. —Rush l imbaugh, recognizing his own confirmation bias *Referenced in Scientific American Mind, January/f ebruary 2016, p . 13. **Referenced in a posting dated April 13, 2010, by Christopher P eterson in Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ blog/the-good-life/201004/fast-food-and-impatience . †This and the experiment cited in the next sentence also are referenced in Scientific American Mind, January/f ebruary 2016, p . 13. Final PDF to printer 16 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED
moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 16 11/27/19 06:53 AM Were we entirely rational, our conclusions would be grounded in logic and based on evidence objectively weighed. The unconscious features of human psychology affect- ing belief formation that have been reasonably well established include several that are widely referred to as cognitive biases.* They skew our apprehension of reality and interfere with our ability to think clearly, process information accurately, and reason objectively. For example, we tend to evaluate an argument based on whether we agree with it rather than on the criteria of logic. Is the follow ing specimen good reasoning?People will generally accept facts as truth only if the facts agree with what they already believe. —Andy Rooney, nicely explaining belief bias All Golden retrievers are dogs.
Some dogs are gentle. Therefore some Golden retrievers are gentle. It isn’t. You might as well conclude some Golden retrievers are Basset hounds. After all, all Golden retrievers are dogs and some dogs are Basset hounds. If it took you a moment to see that the first argument is illogical, it’s because you know it’s conclu- sion, that some Golden retrievers are gentle, is true. The tendency to evaluate reasoning by the believability of its conclusion is known as belief bias. A closely related cognitive bias is confirmation bias, which refers to the tendency to attach more weight to evidence that supports our viewpoint. If you are a Democrat, you may view evidence that Fox News is biased as overwhelming; if you are a Republican you may regard the same evidence as weak and unconvincing. In science, good experiments are designed to ensure that experimenters can’t “cherry-pick” evi- dence, that is, search for evidence that supports the hypothesis they think is true while
ignoring evidence to the contrary. There isn’t any hard-and-fast difference between confirmation bias and belief bias; they are both unconscious expressions of the human tendency to think our side of an issue must be the correct side. Thinking critically means being especially critical of arguments that support our own points of view. Some cognitive biases involve heuristics, general rules we unconsciously follow in estimating probabilities. An example is the availability heuristic, which involves unconsciously assigning a probability to a type of event on the basis of how often one thinks of events of that type. After watch- ing multiple news reports of an earthquake or an airplane crash or a case of child abuse, thoughts of earthquakes and airplane crashes and child abuse will be in the front of one’s mind. Accordingly, one may overestimate their probability. True, if the probability of airplane crashes were to increase, then one
might well think about airplane crashes more often; but it does not follow that if one thinks about them more often, their probability has increased. The availability heuristic may explain how easy it is to make the mistake known as generalizing from anecdote, a logical fallacy we discuss later in the book. Generalizing ■ Bad-mouthing someone is not the same as thinking critically about what he or she says. f rederic l egrand – Co MEo / Shutterstock *The concept of cognitive biases, as such, originated with Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. See “Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases” (1974), in Science, 185 (4157): 1124–1131 Final PDF to printer
Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 17 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 17 11/27/19 06:53 AM from anecdote happens when one accepts a sweeping generalization based on a single vivid report. The availability heuristic is also probably relate d to the false consensus effect, which refers to the inclination we may have to assume that our attitudes and those held by people around us are shared by society at large.* Another source of skewed belief is the bandwagon effect, which refers to an unconscious tendency to align one’s thinking with that of other people. The bandwagon effect is potentially a powerful source of cognitive distortion. In famous experiments, psychologist Solomon Asch found that what other people say they see may actually alter what we think we see.** We—the authors—have students take tests and quizzes using smartphones and clickers, with software that instantly displays
the opinion of the class in a bar graph projected on a screen. Not infrequently it happens that, if opinion begins to build for one answer, almost everyone switches to that option—even if it is incorrect or illogical. If you have wondered why consumer products are routinely advertised as best- sellers, you now know the answer. Marketers understand the bandwagon effect. They know that getting people to believe that a product is popular generates further sales. Political propagandists also know we have an unconscious need to align our beliefs with the opinions of other people. Thus, they try to increase support for a mea- sure by asserting that everyone likes it, or—and this is even more effective—by asserting that nobody likes whatever the opposition has proposed. Given alternative measures X and Y, “Nobody wants X!” is even more likely to generate support for Y than is “Everyone wants Y!” This is because of negativity bias, the
tendency people have to weight negative information more heavily than positive information when evaluating things. Negativity bias is hard-wired into us: the brain displays more neural activity in response to negative information than to positive information.† A corollary to negativ- ity bias from economics is that people generally are more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain, a bias known as loss aversion. It also should come as no surprise that we find it easier to form negative opin- ions of people who don’t belong to our club, church, party, nationality, or other group. This is a part of in-group bias, another cognitive factor that may color per- ception and distort judgment. We may well perceive the members of our own group as exhibiting more variety and individuality than the members of this or that out- group, who we may view as indistinguishable from one another and as conforming to stereotypes. We may attribute the achievements of members of our own group
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IMMIGRATION REFORM 2IMMIGRATION REFORM2I
IMMIGRATION REFORM 2IMMIGRATION REFORM2I
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IMMIGRATION REFORM 2IMMIGRATION REFORM2I

  • 1. IMMIGRATION REFORM 2 IMMIGRATION REFORM2 Immigration Reform Satyika Rayamajhi West Coast University PHIL341: Critical Reasoning Professor: Michael Cook Date: May 8 Abstract The paper covers immigration reforms and the various aspect it brings to society. The argument that supports immigration and the benefits it brings to society is outlined in the paper also the counterarguments, the fallacies related to immigration, and the way people take these fallacies about immigration. The bias that is related to the cultural and social difference between natives and immigrants is also pointed out in the report. The rhetorical devices that are related to immigration have been used by our leaders to help us understand immigration from a different perspective.
  • 2. Introduction Immigration possesses an ongoing debate where people are concerned if immigration is beneficial or not to society. This paper will be examining the benefits and counterarguments concerning immigration. Immigration can be beneficial in society if it is well accepted within the different communities and ethnic groups in the country. These arguments about immigration have led to the change in policies regarding immigration making it difficult to gain access to certain countries. This is due to fear and the misunderstanding that is brought by people in society. The fallacies related to immigration are the various factors that will be discussed in this report. Those in favor of immigration have the belief that immigration has enriched the culture of the host nation or society and has provided numerous benefits to the overall country. Immigration leads to cross-cultural integration this is through the increase of ethnic variety within a society. The increase in diversity helps in increasing and improving the society as well as improving learning in individuals (Richards, 2018). This also means there is an increase in skill development, this is where there is a learning opportunity for people to interact and get to understand the difference in how things are done in various cultures. This helps one adjust their ways of operation to be able to fit in the society. Immigration can be beneficial because there will be an improvement in tax payment within the country that will lead to an increase in wages increase. Arguments and Counterarguments Being controversial topic immigration has a conflicting opinions from various people across the global scale. People
  • 3. believe that immigration takes away or manipulates the original culture and tradition of a given society this is where the introduction of new ways and behaviors causes an unwanted change in the society that many people do not like. The perspective is that immigration brings a bad influence on society hence, traditions are forgotten and people follow new ways of life (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Traditions have changed in marriage, technology, and many other aspects related to the mode of living in society. They argue that various countries especially the state have cultures that hurt the society that causes a change in behavior within the society. Some say that immigration is the root of crime where they equate the immigrants to having brought terrorism into the county. The argument is based on immigrants posing a unique threat due to terrorist attacks. Terrorism is not the modern means of war various cases of bombing and terrorism attacks have been reported in the early century, most committed by immigrants and socialists. Today attacks from terrorism and death committed by immigrants are greater than in the past (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Overall immigration is not correlated with terrorism and the risk of being killed by a foreign-born terrorist is minimal. An example is an annual chance of being killed in a terror attack that has been planned by a foreigner is about one in a million. Almost 98 percent of people murdered by an immigrant on US soil were murdered and most of these attackers did not enter the country through immigrant visas instead they used tourism or student visas to gain passage into the country. Evaluation of Critical Thinking Cognitive bias is divided into various categories. Ingroup bias is related to the miss understanding and the lack of the ability to speak fluent English which makes them separated from the rest of the group (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). These individuals are tagged as the out-group who are the immigrants as opposed to the in-group who are the native of the host country. The group that appears to be less familiar with the culture and the lack of
  • 4. assimilation into American culture makes them be taken as the out-group. Cognitive bias is based on the ability to integrate and find your way into the culture of the society that one is associated with. Backfire is another form of confirmation bias where one is too defensive in their opinions and strives to defend regardless of the changes and ideological mix that surrounds the concept (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). Challenging information causes a threat to the learner's sense of identity which makes it harder to understand or try to process the new information that is being relayed to an individual. The fallacies that are related to immigration include; the immigrants are required to do the jobs that the natives will not do. This is taken as the native workers will not be able to do the hard work or the difficult work. That this kind of work is reserved for immigrant employees who come to seek work in their native countries (Kurajian, 2018). These jobs are event distributed regardless of your status on immigration the native will work on construction jobs while the immigrants can also work in offices and perform executive work. These kinds of fallacies are misleading society causing bias among the citizens. For instance, in West Virginia where immigrants the same job description is performed by the American workers. Another fallacy that is related to immigration is that low -skilled immigrants were a benefit in the past they must be beneficial in this current error. The argument is related to technology and the political changes that have occurred in the past bringing changes to society. Technology has taken over and has made work easier by taking care of the heavy work. Slavery was practiced in the past and in current times rules and policies regarding labor have changed. These fallacies should not be misleading individuals anymore. Barack Obama used rhetorical devices such as water and storm to illustrate the process of immigration is a continuous factor in life and it won’t be reduced or changed any time soon (Kjeldsen, 2019). Water in his speech represents the young
  • 5. generation that will be coming in for learning opportunities to be able to diversify and explore the various opportunities that are available during their learning process. Immigration is a continuous process that will keep happening. It is our responsibility to make the best of it. Conclusion The research explores the various immigration reforms and the misunderstandings that it brings to the people. Immigration is an important factor in a country since it brings more advantages than demerits to the society and economy in general. Diversity is key to the development and growth of a nation. This could be through trading, learning, or supporting others during difficult times. Learn to support one another and coordinate to ensure we work as a team to overcome challenges that we face in our daily encounters. Immigration brings different opportunities that need to be taken to ensure we are successful in all sectors of life. References Gönültaş, S., & Mulvey, K. L. (2020). The Role of Immigration Background, Intergroup Processes, and Social‐ Cognitive Skills in Bystanders’ Responses to Bias‐ Based Bullying Toward Immigrants During Adolescence. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13476 Kjeldsen, J. E. (2019). Royal Interventions in the Public Discourse on Immigration: Rhetorical Topoi on Immigration in the New Year’s Speeches of the Scandinavian Monarchs. Javnost - the Public, 26(2), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2019.1587702 Kurajian, O. A. (2018). Debunking the Narratives of Inclusion: Immigration Policy in Quebec, Canada, and the United States in the Age of Trump. Undergraduate Review, 14(2), 68–75. https://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol14/iss2/11/ Ma, G., & Hofmann, E. T. (2019). Immigration and environment in the U.S.: A spatial study of air quality. The Social Science Journal, 56(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.08.007
  • 6. Richards, T. J. (2018). Immigration Reform and Farm Labor Markets. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 100(4), 1050–1071. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay027 moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd i 12/10/19 01:23 PM Thirteenth Edition Brooke Noel Moore Richard Parker California State University, Chico with help in Chapter 12 from Nina Rosenstand and Anita Silvers Critical Thinking Final PDF to printer moo7069X_fm_ISE.indd ii 12/24/19 06:04 PM CRITICAL THINKING Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2017, 2015, and 2012.
  • 7. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20 ISBN 978-1-260-57069-4 MHID 1-260-57069-X Cover Image: McGraw-Hill All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered Final PDF to printer
  • 8. moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd iii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1 Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35 Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73 Chapter 4 Credibility 102 Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141 Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185 Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207 Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257 Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305 Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420 Brief Contents Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd iv 12/10/19 01:23 PM
  • 9. Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd v 12/10/19 01:23 PM Contents Preface xviii Changes to the 13th Edition xix Acknowledgments xxi About the Authors xxiv Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1 Beliefs and Claims 4 Objective Claims and Subjective Judgments 4 Fact and Opinion 6 Relativism 7 Moral Subjectivism 7 Issues 7 Arguments 8 Cognitive Biases 15 Truth and Knowledge 21 What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t Do 22 A Word About the Exercises 22
  • 10. Recap 23 Additional Exercises 24 Answers and Tips 33 Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35 Arguments: General Features 35 Conclusions Used as Premises 36 Unstated Premises and Conclusions 36 Two Kinds of Arguments 37 Deductive Arguments 37 Inductive Arguments 38 Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 40 Two Kinds of Deductive Arguments 40 Four Kinds of Inductive Arguments 41 Final PDF to printer vi CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd vi 12/10/19 01:23 PM Telling the Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments 42
  • 11. Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 44 Balance of Considerations 46 Not Premises, Conclusions, or Arguments 46 Selfies (and Other Pictures) 46 If . . . Then . . . Sentences 47 Lists of Facts 47 “A because B” 48 Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 48 Techniques for Understanding Arguments 53 Clarifying an Argument’s Structure 54 Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 56 Evaluating Arguments 57 Recap 57 Additional Exercises 58 Answers and Tips 68 Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73 Vagueness 74 Ambiguity 76
  • 12. Semantic Ambiguity 77 Grouping Ambiguity 77 Syntactic Ambiguity 77 Generality 79 Defining Terms 84 Purposes of Definitions 84 Kinds of Definitions 85 Tips on Definitions 85 Writing Argumentative Essays 87 Good Writing Practices 89 Essay Types to Avoid 89 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS vii moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd vii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Persuasive Writing 90 Writing in a Diverse Society 91 Recap 92
  • 13. Additional Exercises 92 Answers and Tips 100 Chapter 4 Credibility 102 The Believability of Claims 103 Does the Claim Conflict with Personal Observation? 104 Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 107 Might the Claim Reinforce Our Biases? 108 The Credibility of Sources 111 Interested Parties 111 Physical and Other Characteristics 112 Expertise 113 The News 118 Mainstream News Media 118 Advertising 126 Three Kinds of Ads 126 Recap 129 Additional Exercises 130 Answers and Tips 139
  • 14. Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141 Rhetorical Force 142 Rhetorical Devices I 143 Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 143 Weaselers 144 Downplayers 144 Rhetorical Devices II 146 Stereotypes 147 Innuendo 148 Loaded Questions 149 Final PDF to printer viii CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd viii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Rhetorical Devices III 150 Ridicule/Sarcasm 150 Hyperbole 151 Rhetorical Devices IV 151
  • 15. Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 152 Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 153 Proof Surrogates and Repetition 157 Proof Surrogates 157 Repetition 157 Persuasion Through Visual Imagery 161 The Extreme Rhetoric of Demagoguery 162 Recap 166 Additional Exercises 167 Answers and Tips 183 Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185 Argumentum Ad Hominem 186 Poisoning the Well 187 Guilt by Association 187 Genetic Fallacy 187 Straw Man 188 False Dilemma (Ignoring Other Alternatives) 189 The Perfectionist Fallacy 190 The Line-Drawing Fallacy 190
  • 16. Misplacing the Burden of Proof 191 Begging the Question (Assuming What You Are Trying to Prove) 193 Appeal to Emotion 194 Argument from Outrage 194 Scare Tactics 195 Appeal to Pity 196 Other Appeals to Emotion 197 Irrelevant Conclusion 198 Recap 200 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS ix moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd ix 12/10/19 01:23 PM Exercises 200 Answers and Tips 206 Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207 Generalizations 207 Generalizing from Too Few Cases (Hasty Generalization) 208
  • 17. Generalizing from Exceptional Cases 210 Accident 211 Weak Analogy 212 Mistaken Appeal to Authority 213 Mistaken Appeal to Popularity (Mistaken Appeal to Common Belief) 214 Mistaken Appeal to Common Practice 215 Bandwagon Fallacy 216 Fallacies Related to Cause and Effect 217 Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 217 Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 221 Slippery Slope 223 Untestable Explanation 224 Line-Drawing Again 225 Recap 225 Exercises 225 Answers and Tips 232 Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233
  • 18. Three Formal Fallacies: Affirming the Consequent, Denying the Antecedent, and Undistributed Middle 233 Affirming the Consequent 233 Denying the Antecedent 234 The Undistributed Middle 235 The Fallacies of Equivocation and Amphiboly 237 The Fallacies of Composition and Division 239 Final PDF to printer x CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd x 12/10/19 01:23 PM Confusing Explanations with Excuses 240 Confusing Contraries and Contradictories 242 Consistency and Inconsistency 244 Miscalculating Probabilities 244 Incorrectly Combining the Probability of Independent Events 245 Gambler’s Fallacy 246 Overlooking Prior Probabilities 247
  • 19. Faulty Inductive Conversion 247 Recap 249 Additional Exercises 250 Answers and Tips 256 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257 Categorical Claims 259 Venn Diagrams 260 Translation into Standard Form (Introduction) 261 Translating Claims in Which the Word “Only” or the Phrase “The Only” Occurs 262 Translating Claims About Times and Places 263 Translating Claims About Specific Individuals 264 Translating Claims that Use Mass Nouns 265 The Square of Opposition 268 Existential Assumption and the Square of Opposition 268 Inferences Across the Square 268 Three Categorical Relations 269 Conversion 269 Obversion 270
  • 20. Contraposition 270 Categorical Syllogisms 278 The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 279 Existential Assumption in Categorical Syllogisms 282 Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 284 Real-Life Syllogisms 285 The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 289 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS xi moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xi 12/10/19 01:23 PM Recap 291 Additional Exercises 291 Answers and Tips 301 Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305 Truth Tables and Logical Symbols 306 Claim Variables 306
  • 21. Truth Tables 306 Symbolizing Compound Claims 312 “If” and “Only If” 312 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 314 “Unless” 316 “Either . . . Or” 316 Truth-Functional Argument Patterns (Brief Version) 318 Three Common Valid Argument Patterns 319 Three Mistakes: Invalid Argument Forms 322 Truth-Functional Arguments (Full Version) 325 The Truth-Table Method 326 The Short Truth-Table Method 328 Deductions 334 Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 334 Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 339 Conditional Proof 347 Recap 350 Additional Exercises 351
  • 22. Answers and Tips 358 Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362 Argument from Analogy 362 Evaluation of Arguments from Analogy 363 Three Arguments from Analogy 365 Other Uses of Analogy 366 Final PDF to printer xii CONTENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Generalizing from a Sample 371 Evaluation of Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372 Three Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372 Scientific Generalizing from a Sample 373 De-generalizing (Reverse Generalizing; the Statistical Syllogism) 375 Causal Statements and Their Support 382 Forming Causal Hypotheses 382 Weighing Evidence 384
  • 23. Confirming Causal Hypotheses 395 Inference to the Best Explanation 399 Reasoning from Cause to Effect 401 Calculating Statistical Probabilities 402 Joint Occurrence of Independent Events 402 Alternative Occurrences 403 Expectation Value 403 Calculating Conditional Probabilities 404 Causation in the Law 406 Recap 407 Additional Exercises 408 Answers and Tips 416 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420 Value Judgments 421 Moral Versus Nonmoral 422 Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 422 Moral Principles 424 Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 424 Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 427
  • 24. Consequentialism 427 Duty Theory/Deontologism 429 Moral Relativism 430 Religious Relativism 432 Final PDF to printer CONTENTS xiii moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Religious Absolutism 432 Virtue Ethics 432 Moral Deliberation 435 Legal Reasoning 439 Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 441 Aesthetic Reasoning 444 Eight Aesthetic Principles 444 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 447 Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 448 Why Reason Aesthetically? 450
  • 25. Recap 452 Additional Exercises 453 Answers and Tips 455 Appendix: Selected Exercises from Previous Editions 457 Glossary 480 Index 488 Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiv 12/10/19 01:23 PM You’re in the driver’s seat. Want to build your own course? No problem. Prefer to use our turnkey, prebuilt course? Easy. Want to make changes throughout the semester? Sure. And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too. Make it simple, make it affordable. Connect makes it easy with seamless integration using any of the major Learning Management Systems— Blackboard®, Canvas, and D2L, among others—to let you organize your course in one convenient location. Give your students access to digital materials at
  • 26. a discount with our inclusive access program. Ask your McGraw-Hill representative for more information. Solution s for your challenges. A product isn’t a solution. Real solutions are affordable, reliable, and come with training and ongoing support when you need it and how you want it. Our Customer Experience Group can also help you troubleshoot tech problems— although Connect’s 99% uptime means you might not need to call them. See for yourself at status. mheducation.com 65% Less Time Grading
  • 27. FOR INSTRUCTORS They’ll thank you for it. Adaptive study resources like SmartBook® 2.0 help your students be better prepared in less time. You can transform your class time from dull definitions to dynamic debates. Find out more about the powerful personalized learning experience available in SmartBook 2.0 at www.mheducation.com/highered/ connect/smartbook Checkmark: Jobalou/Getty ImagesPadlock: Jobalou/Getty Images ® Laptop: McGraw-Hill; Woman/dog: George Doyle/Getty Images Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xv 12/10/19 01:23 PM
  • 28. Effective, efficient studying. Connect helps you be more productive with your study time and get better grades using tools like SmartBook 2.0, which highlights key concepts and creates a personalized study plan. Connect sets you up for success, so you walk into class with confidence and walk out with better grades. No surprises. The Connect Calendar and Reports tools keep you on track w ith the work you need to get done and your assignment scores. Life gets busy; Connect tools help you keep learning through it all. Learning for everyone. McGraw-Hill works directly with Accessibility Services Departments and faculty to meet the learning needs of all students. Please contact your Accessibility Services office and ask them to email [email protected], or visit www.mheducation.com/about/accessibility for more information. “I really liked this
  • 29. app—it made it easy to study when you don't have your text- book in front of you.” FOR STUDENTS - Jordan Cunningham, Eastern Washington University Study anytime, anywhere. Download the free ReadAnywhere app and access your online eBook or SmartBook 2.0 assignments when it’s convenient, even if you’re offline. And since the app automatically syncs with your eBook and SmartBook 2.0 assignments in Connect, all of your work is available every time you open it. Find out more at www.mheducation.com/readanywhere Top: Jenner Images/Getty Images, Left: Hero Images/Getty Images, Right: Hero Images/Getty Images Calendar: owattaphotos/Getty Images Final PDF to printer
  • 30. moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xvi 12/10/19 01:23 PM More Engaging Moore & Parker are known for fresh and lively writing. They rely on their own classroom experience and on feedback from instructors in getting the correct balance between explication and example. ■ ■ Examples and exercises are drawn from today’s headlines. ■ ■ Students learn to apply critical thinking skills to situ- ations in a wide variety of areas: advertising, poli - tics, the media, popular culture. Critical Thinking . . . Skills for First Pages
  • 31. Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 19 moo41025_ch01_001-032.indd 19 09/06/19 12:33 PM impossible to think that good judgment or rational thought would lead them to such excess.* Yet another possible source of psychological distortion is the overconfidence effect, one of several self-deception biases that may be found in a variety of contexts.** If a person estimates the percentage of his or her correct answers on a subject, the esti- mate will likely err on the high side—at least if the questions are difficult or the subject matter is unfa- miliar.† Perhaps some manifestation of the overcon- fidence effect explains why, in the early stages of the American Idol competition, many contestants appear totally convinced they will be crowned the next American Idol—and are speechless when the judges inform them they cannot so much as carry a tune.†† Closely related to the overconfidence effect is the better-than-average illusion. The illusion crops up when most of a group rate themselves as better than most of the group relative to some desirable charac-
  • 32. teristics, such as resourcefulness or driving ability. The classic illustration is the 1976 survey of SAT tak- ers, in which well over 50 percent of the respondents rated themselves as better than 50 percent of other SAT takers with respect to such qualities as leader- ship ability.‡ The same effect has been observed when people estimate how their intelligence, memory, or job performance stacks up with the intelligence, memory, and job performances of other members of their profession or workplace. In our own informal surveys, more than 80 percent of our students rate themselves in the top 10 percent of their class with respect to their ability to think critically. Unfortunately, evidence indicates that even when they are informed about the better-than-average illusion, people may still rate themselves as better than most in their ability to not be subject to it.‡‡ ‡‡http://weblamp.princeton.edu/ psych/f ACUl TY/Articles/Pronin/The%20Bias%20Blind.PDf . The better- than-average bias has not been found to hold for all positive traits. In some things, people underestimate their abilities. The moral is that for many
  • 33. abilities, we are probably not the best judges of how we compare to others. And this includes our ability to avoid being subject to biasing influences. ‡See Mark D. Alicke and other authors in “The Better-Than- Average Effect,” in Mark D. Alicke and others, The Self in Social Judgment: Studies in Self and Identity (new York: Psychology Press, 2005), 85–106. The better-than-average illusion is sometimes called the l ake Wobegon effect, in reference to Garrison Keillor’s story about the fictitious Minnesota town “where all the children are above average.” ††This possibility was proposed by Gad Saad, Psychology Today, www.psychologytoday.com/blog/homo- consumericus/200901/ self-deception-american-idol-is-it-adaptive. †See Sarah lichtenstein and other authors, “ Calibration of Probabilities: The State of the Art to 1980, ” in Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic, and Amos Tversky, Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (Cambridge, England: Cambridge
  • 34. University Press, 1982), 306–34. **However, a universal tendency among humans to irrationally exaggerate their own competencies hasn’t been established. for an online quiz purportedly showing the overconfidence effect, see www.tim-richardson.net/joomla15/finance-articles- profmenu- 70/73-over-confidence-test.html. *Jamey Keaton, Associated Press. Reported in The Sacramento Bee, Thursday, March 18, 2010. Did the subjects suspect the shocks weren’t real? Their statements afterward don’t rule out the possibility but certainly seem to suggest they believed they truly were administering painful electrical shocks to the actor. ■ Does Kim Kardashian wear too much makeup? The issue is subjective, or, as some people say, “a matter of opinion.” Stephen l ovekin/WWD/ Shutterstock
  • 35. Confirming Pages moo41025_ch07_207-232.indd 216 11/05/19 06:15 PM 216 CHAPTER 7 : InduCTIon FAllA CIES Bandwagon Fallacy Sometimes a speaker or writer will try to get us to do something by suggesting that every- one or most people are doing it. The idea is not to cite what people believe as evidence of the truth of a claim. Rather, the attempt is made to induce us to do something by mak- ing us feel out of step with things if we don’t. This is the infamous Bandwagon Fallacy, illustrated by this example: Appealing to Tradition According to Representative Steve King of Iowa (pictured here), “Equal protection [under the Constitution] is not equal protection for same sex couples to marry. Equal protection has always been for a man and a woman to be able to get married to each other.”
  • 36. YuRI GRIPAS/uPI/newscom Pete Marovich/ZuMAPRESS. com/newscom I am the most popular candidate by far. Only a minority support my opponent. The speaker wants us to jump on the bandwagon. He or she has not said anything that is relevant to who we should support or how we should vote. Here is one more example: Let’s get a spa. They are very popular these days. The speaker hasn’t really shown that we need a spa. He wants us to get on the bandwagon. More Relevant Moore & Parker spark student interest in skills that will serve them throughout their lives,
  • 37. making the study of critical thinking a meaning- ful endeavor. ■ ■ Boxes show students how critical thinking skills are relevant to their day-to-day lives. ■ ■ Striking visuals in every chapter show stu- dents how images affect our judgment and shape our thinking. Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xvii 12/10/19 01:23 PM More Student Success Moore & Parker provide a path to student suc- cess, making students active participants in their own learning while teaching skills they can apply in all their courses. ■ ■ Learning objectives link to chapter sections and in turn to print and online activities, so
  • 38. that students can immediately assess their mastery of the learning objective. ■ ■ Exercises are dispersed throughout most chapters, so that they link tightly with the concepts as they are presented. ■ ■ Students have access to over 2,000 exer- cises that provide practice in applying their skills. the course. Skills for life. First Pages moo41025_ch08_223-246.indd 240 09/19/19 02:23 PM 240 CHAPTER 8: FoRMAl FAllA CIEs ANd FAllA CIEs o F lANG u AGE Exercise 8-4 Here are 107 examples of the fallacies discussed in this chapter. Match each item to one or more of the following categories or otherwise answer as indicated:
  • 39. a. affirming the consequent b. denying the antecedent c. undistributed middle fallacy d. confusing explanations with excuses e. equivocation f. composition g. division h. miscalculating probabilities Note Your instructor may or may not ask you to further assign miscalculating probabilities into the following subcategories: Incorrectly combining the probabilities of indepen- dent events, the gambler’s fallacy, overlooking prior probabilities, and faulty inductive conversion. 1. Professor Parker can tell you if you are sick; after all, he is a doctor. 2. If this man is the president, then he believes in immigration reform. If this man is vice president, then he believes in immigration reform.
  • 40. Therefore, if this man is president, then he is vice president. 3. If global warming is for real, then the mean global temperature will have risen over the past ten years. And that is what happened. Therefore, global warming is for real. 4. My chance of being born on December 25 was the same as yours. So the chances we were both born on December 25 have to be twice as good. 5. Sodium is deadly poisonous, and so is chlorine. Salt consists of sodium and chlo- rine, which must be why we’re told not to eat too much of it. 6. The Bible commands you to leave life having made the world a better place. And therefore it commands you to make the world a better place each and every day. 7. A dialogue: JILL: Helen has her mother’s eyes. BILL: Good lord! Can the woman still see?
  • 41. 8. Is an explanation clearly being offered as an excuse/justification? I didn’t buy tick- ets to see Chris Angel’s show because I heard that he spends half his act with his shirt off strutting around in front of the ladies in the audience. 9. If Congress changes marijuana from a Class 1 drug to something lesser, next year the penalties for possession will be much less than they are now. But Congress is not going to declassify marijuana this year. So we’ll have to live with the drastic penalties for at least another year. 10. If you are rich, then your car is something like a Mercedes or a Bentley. Oh! Is that your Bentley, you rich old thing, you? 11. Man! Three sons in a row? Your next kid is bound to be a girl. ▲ ▲
  • 42. ▲ Additional Exercises Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xviii 12/10/19 01:23 PM I t is remarkable how much university students have changed over the decades since we first began teaching in our 20s. Back then they called us by our first names or even “Dude.” Nowadays they call us “Sir,” as in, “Sir, do you need help?” They are also better informed. Thanks to Instagram and Snapchat and other sources of breaking news, they know what friends are doing and thinking at any given moment. Educators seem not to agree on what exactly critical thinking is, though they do
  • 43. agree that, whatever it is, we can use more of it. They also agree that being informed is important, though what they think is important to be informed about doesn’t necessar- ily include how Emily did her nails or what Jacob thinks about the new Starbucks cups. You have to wonder. How can teachers compete with such stimulating infor- mation? Critical thinking instruction is fairly abstract. It doesn’t deal with topics. In this book, we don’t discuss whether someone’s a good president or if global climate is changing. Rather, we offer instruction on good and bad reasoning. We try to help read- ers develop facility in spotting irrelevancies, emotional appeals, empty rhetoric, and weak evidence. To compete with distractions, we offer examples and exercises we hope first-year university students can understand and relate to, and we try to be as concise and readable as possible. What, by the way, is our definition of critical thinking? This is something we go
  • 44. into more in Chapter 1; for now, let’s just point out that critical thinking is aimed at mak- ing wise decisions about what to think and do. This book is not about critical thinking as much as it is a book in critical thinking. We try to provide guided practice in what we think are the most important critical thinking skill sets. Although as authors we dif- fer somewhat in our emphasis, we both agree (as do many instructors) that drill-and- practice is useful in improving students’ critical thinking ability. Online technology can be helpful when it comes to drill-and-practice, as well as in enabling students to learn at their own pace. (Details coming up shortly). But if you don’t use online assignment, practice, and assessment platforms such as ours, this text contains hundreds and hun- dreds of exercises of the sort that (we think) can be applied directly to the world at large. Exercise questions are all answered in the answer sections at the end of each chapter. If you use this text or the online peripherals, we would appreciate hearing
  • 45. from you. We can both be contacted through McGraw-Hill Education or by way of the philosophy department at Chico State. Preface Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xix 12/10/19 01:23 PM A friend recently asked us which critical thinking skills we worry about people not having. At this point in time, we admit we are especially concerned about information- acquisition skills, the skills people use to acquire veridical information and to weed out bogus news sources, misinformation, flimflam, and snake oil. There is much talk these days about people lacking these skills, and everyone seems to assume the problem lies with the people on the other side of the political aisle. Maybe both sides are right. So, important revisions in this edition are aimed at improving
  • 46. information- acquisition skills, and these revisions are found in Chapter 4 (Credibility). This chapter is about recognizing dubious claims and sources. In it you will find our long-standing analysis of credibility as having two parts, the believability of claims and the credibility of sources. In this edition, we have expanded on the credi bility of mainstream news, social media, and other internet sources of information. A society could become mis- or ill-informed through indifference or overt censor- ship, to name two possibilities. But it could also get that way if enough people obtain information primarily from sources assumed to be accurate and comprehensive, but which in fact are not. Nobody wants to be misled, but most of us do like information that fits with our view of the world, especially if it reinforces our pre-existing opinions (or riles us up about people who don’t share our views). Motivated information-seeking (seeking information for the purpose of confirming opinions we already hold) can lead
  • 47. people to news sources that tailor the news for their audience. If enough people get tailored news, society may become divided not only as to which sources are regarded as authoritative but also as to what are and are not facts. Some of the reasons for thinking such divisions exist today are discussed in Chapter 4. In that chapter, we also put forth what we think is a non-partisan recommendation for obtaining legitimate news. Another important batch of changes in this edition relates to inductive reasoning, which is introduced in Chapter 2 and examined in more detail in Chapter 11. We now divide inductive reasoning into four fundamental kinds: generalizing, de-generalizing (which is the opposite of generalizing), analogical reasoning, and cause-effect reason- ing. Other forms of inductive reasoning commonly discussed in texts such as this, including notably sign arguments, arguments from examples, and inferences to the best explanation, can be treated as one or another of the four basic kinds of inductive rea-
  • 48. soning (as we explain). Our reasoning-hierarchy is this: Changes to the 13th Edition People convince themselves or remain convinced of what they want to believe—they seek out agreeable information and learn it more easily; and they avoid, ignore, devalue, forget, or argue against information that contra- dicts their beliefs. —Julie Beck, “This article won’t change your mind,” The Atlantic REASONING DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE CATEGORICAL TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL ANALOGICAL GENERALIZING DE-GENERALIZING CAUSE/EFFECT (including hypothesis
  • 49. formation and confirmation, and IBEs) Final PDF to printer xx CHANGES TO THE 13TH EDITION moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xx 12/10/19 01:23 PM We have also expanded the section on how to tell the difference between deductive and inductive arguments, including the fact that if an argument has a subjective judgement as its conclusion, then (for reasons we explain) it is unlikely to be inductive. In Chapter 1, we have revised and expanded our treatment of the distinction between sub- jective judgments and objective claims. As usual, most of our revisions result from questions and
  • 50. difficulties that have actually arisen in our own teaching experience, as well as from feedback from readers. And as always, we have updated the social, political, and cultural backdrop for the book and have revised exercises to keep them relevant. Nowadays students stare blankly if you men- tion a carburetor or refer to TV sets that don’t have remotes; we try to make the book about the world they know. Or rather the world we think they know. ■ World leaders celebrate worldwide rise in critical thinking. Edgar Su/Reuters Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxi 12/10/19 01:23 PM Acknowledgments Y ou may find mistakes in this book. Who made them? It
  • 51. depends on whom you ask. Moore blames Parker, and Parker blames Moore. We certainly don’t blame the people who we are about to list, who have helped us enormously in our effort to improve. In a previous edition, we tried to blame everything on Terry McGraw, but someone said we couldn’t do that. For thanks, we begin with our caring brand manager Alex Preiss and our astute and amazing production manager, Sarah Paratore. Alex provided the broad picture of what this edition should be; Sarah worked out the details. We also want to thank our entire McGraw Hill Education team, including Traci Vaske, Danielle Clement, Nancy Baudean, Deb Hash, and David Hash. The guidance of our reviewers over the editions has been indispensable to us. These reviewers include Keith Abney, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo James Anderson, San Diego State University Benjamin Arah, Bowie State University
  • 52. Sheldon Bachus Patricia Baldwin, Pitt Community College Monique Bindra Tim Black, California State University, Northridge Charles Blatz, University of Toledo Christian Blum, Bryant & Stratton, Buffalo K. D. Borcoman, Coastline College/CSUDH Keith Brown, California State University, East Bay Rosalie Brown Lee Carter, Glendale Community College Jennifer Caseldine-Bracht, Indiana University-Purdue University, Fort Wayne Lynne Chandler-Garcia, Pikes Peak Community College David Connelly, Cayuga Community College Anne D’Arcy, California State University, Chico Michelle Darnelle, Fayetteville State University Ray Darr, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville William J. Devlin, Bridgewater State University Paul Dickey, Metropolitan Community College Sandra Dwyer, Georgia State University Jeffrey Easlick, Saginaw Valley State University Aaron Edlin, University of California, Berkeley Dorothy Edlin Noel Edlin Ellery Eells, University of Wisconsin–Madison
  • 53. Ben Eggleston, University of Kansas Geoffrey B. Frasz, Community College of Southern Nevada Josh Fulcher Angela Gearhart, University of Chile, Santiago Rory Goggins Geoffrey Gorham, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire Final PDF to printer xxii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Joseph Graves, North Carolina A&T University Dabney Gray, Stillman College Patricia Hammer, Delta College Anthony Hanson, De Anza College Rebecca Hendricks Judith M. Hill, Saginaw Valley State University Steven Hoeltzel, James Madison University Steven R. Huizenga, Central Ohio Technical College J. F. Humphrey, North Carolina A&T University Amro Jayousi
  • 54. Gary John, Richland College Sunghyun Jung Allyn Kahn, Champlain College David Kelsey, Coastline Community College David Keyt, University of Washington Paulina Kohan William Krieger, California State University–Pomona Michael LaBossiere, Florida A&M University Sunita Lanka, Hartnell College Bill Lawson Marisha Lecea, Western Michigan University Marion Ledwig, University of Nevada–Las Vegas Vern Lee, University of Phoenix Terrance MacMullon, Eastern Washington University Andrew Magrath, Kent State University Alistair Moles, Sierra College Ralph J. Moore, Jr. Jeffry Norby, Northcentral Technical College Eric Parkinson, Syracuse University Steven Patterson, Marygrove College Carmel Phelan, College of Southern Nevada Jamie L. Phillips, Clarion University Domenick Pinto, Sacred Heart University Ayaz Pirani, Hartnell College Ed Pluth, California State University, Chico
  • 55. Scott Rappold, Our Lady of Holy Cross College N. Mark Rauls, College of Southern Nevada Victor Reppert, Glendale Community College Matthew E. Roberts, Patrick Henry College Greg Sadler, Fayetteville State University Matt Schulte, Montgomery College Richard Scott, Glendale Community College Laurel Severino, Santa Fe Community College Mehul Shah, Bergen Community College Robert Shanab, University of Nevada at Las Vegas Steven Silveria Robert Skipper, St. Mary’s University Aeon J. Skoble, Bridgewater State University Taggart Smith, Purdue University–Calumet Richard Sneed, University of Central Oklahoma Final PDF to printer ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxiii 12/10/19 01:23 PM Alan Soble, Drexel University
  • 56. Chris Soutter James Stump, Bethel College Lou Suarez Susan Vineberg, Wayne State University Michael Ventimiglia, Sacred Heart University Helmut Wautischer, Sonoma State University Dennis Weiss, York College of Pennsylvania Linda L. Williams, Kent State University Amy Goodman Wilson, Webster University Christine Wolf Wayne Yuen, Ohlone College; and Marie G. Zaccaria, Georgia Perimeter College Over the years, our Chico State colleague Anne Morrissey has given us more usable material than anybody else. She’s also given us more unusable material, but never mind. We’ve also had fine suggestions and examples from Curtis Peldo of Chico State and Butte College; Dan Barnett, also of Butte College, has helped in many ways over the years. We thank colleagues at Chico State, who are ever ready with a suggestion, idea,
  • 57. or constructive criticism; in particular, Marcel Daguerre, Randy Larsen, Becky White, Wai-hung Wong, Zanja Yudell, and Greg Tropea, whose death in 2010 left us saddened beyond words. We are also grateful to Bangs Tapscott, Linda Kaye Bomstad, Ann Bykerk-Kauffman, Sue Patterson, and Jeffrey Ridenour for contributions both archival and recent. David Connelly, from Cayuga Community College, helped us rethink the objective/subjective distinction; we appreciate that. Last, and especially, we give thanks to two people who put up with us with patience, encouragement, and grace, Leah Blum and Marianne Moore. Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxiv 12/10/19 01:23 PM About the Authors
  • 58. B rooke Moore and Richard Parker have taught phi-losophy at California State University, Chico, for a long time, since 1970 in Moore’s case and since 1972 in Parker’s. Moore has a bachelor’s degree in music from Antioch College and a PhD in philosophy from the University of Cincinnati; Parker received his undergradu- ate degree from the University of Arkansas and his PhD from the University of Washington, both in philosophy. After all this time and all the collaboration, Moore and Parker are still on speaking terms. In fact, they are close friends.Courtesy of Brooke Moore Courtesy of Richard Parker Final PDF to printer moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxv 12/10/19 01:23 PM To: Sherry and Bill; and Sydney, Darby, Alexander and Levi Peyton Elizabeth, and Griffin From Richard From Brooke Final PDF to printer
  • 59. moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xxvi 12/10/19 01:23 PM This is not entirely a work of nonfiction. Final PDF to printer 1 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 1 11/27/19 06:53 AM 1 Driving Blindfolded Students will learn to . . . 1. Define critical thinking 2. Explain the role of beliefs and claims in critical thinking 3. Identify issues in real-world situations
  • 60. 4. Recognize an argument 5. Define and identify the common cogni- tive biases that affect critical thinking 6. Understand the terms “truth” and “knowledge” as used in this book F or a while there, the Bird Box challenge was providing lots of great examples of poor critical thinking. In case you forgot (or never knew in the first place), the Bird Box challenge came from the movie Bird Box, in which Sandra Bullock and others must wear blindfolds when outside, to protect them from a force that makes people kill themselves. The challenge went viral and people had friends video them doing all sorts of things while blind- folded. One teenager in Utah attempted to drive blindfolded and crashed into another vehicle. Police reminded people not to wear a blindfold when they were driving.* This book is about critical thinking. We are going out on a limb here, but we bet you don’t need this book to avoid driving blindfolded. If you do drive that way, the book may not help
  • 61. you. So what is critical thinking? Almost everyone would agree, driving blindfolded is not thinking critically—but what exactly is critical thinking? Why do people say it is so important? Yes, critical thinking involves considering the possible out- comes of an action, such as what might happen if you drive down this street blindfolded. But it involves more. Speaking generally, just thinking and doing stuff doesn’t amount to thinking critically. Critical thinking kicks in when we evaluate beliefs and actions—when “What gets us into trouble is not what we don’t know. It’s what we know for sure that just ain’t so.” —Not by Mark Twain, apparently *https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/utah-teen-crash-bird- box-challenge_us_5c3908cae4b01
  • 62. c93e009e011 Cavan Images/Getty Images Final PDF to printer 2 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 2 11/27/19 06:53 AM we critique them. Critical thinking is thinking that critiques. To critique something is to evaluate it according to standards of some sort. So you can think critically about any- thing it makes sense to evaluate according to standards. Among the most important things you can critique—and what we are concerned with in this book—is reasoning, the thinking that comes into play when we form opinions, make judgments, arrive at deci- sions, develop plans, come to conclusions, offer hypotheses, and the like. So for our pur- poses, critical thinking is reasoning evaluation. We engage in it
  • 63. when we consider whether reasoning, broadly construed, passes muster by the standards of logic and good sense. If you are a student at a college or university, chances are your instructor will think critically about the work you turn in. He or she will offer critical commentary on what you submit. If you want to think critically, you have to do this yourself to your own work. Try to leave your instructor with nothing to say except, “Good job!” It can be the same in the workplace or in the military. You might perhaps be asked to solve a problem or troubleshoot a situation or come up with a recommendation, or any number of other things that involve arriving at conclusions. Your colleagues or friends or supervisors may give you feedback or commentary. They are thinking criti- cally about your reasoning. Of course, if you are so brilliant that you never err in your thinking, then you may not
  • 64. need feedback from others. Unfortunately, there is evidence that people who think they are experts are more likely to believe they know things they don’t really know.* Anyway, almost everyone makes mistakes. We overlook important considerations, ignore viewpoints that conflict with our own, or in other ways don’t think as clearly as we might. Most of us benefit from a little critical commentary, and this includes commentary that comes from ourselves. The chances of reaching defensible conclusions improve if we don’t simply con- clude willy-nilly, but reflect on our reasoning and try to make certain it is sound. Being able to think critically can be useful in another way. Others try to influence what we think and do. There is much to be said for being able to critically evaluate a sales pitch, whether it comes from a stranger or a friend, or is about kitchen gadgets or for whom to vote for president. Critical thinking helps us recognize a scam when we see it. Some educators equate critical thinking with problem solving or
  • 65. innovative think- ing (“thinking outside the box”). This is fine, though at a certain point proposed solu- tions and possible innovations have to be tested. That’s where critical thinking comes in. This is a book in critical thinki ng because it offers guidance about critiquing think- ing. The book and the course you are using it in, if you are, explain the minimum criteria of good reasoning—the requirements a piece of reasoning must meet if it is worth paying attention to, no matter what the context. Along the way we will explore the most common and important obstacles to good reasoning, as well as some of the most common mistakes people make when coming to conclusions. Other courses you take offer refinements. In them you will learn what considerations are important from the perspective of individual disciplines. But in no course anywhere, at least in no course that involves arriving at con- clusions, will thinking that violates the standards set forth in this book be accepted.
  • 66. If it does nothing else, what you read here and learn in your critical thinking course should help you avoid at least a few of the more egregious common errors peo- ple make when they reason. If you would have otherwise made these mistakes, you will *Scientific American Mind, January/f ebruary 2016, p . 13. Critical thinking is thinking that critiques. In this book we critique reasoning, broadly construed—the thinking used in arriving at decisions, developing plans, coming to conclusions, offering hypotheses, coming up with solutions, and so forth. Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 3 11/27/19 06:53 AM DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED 3 have become smarter. Not smarter in some particular subject,
  • 67. mind you, but smarter in general. The things you learn from this book (and from the course you may be reading it for) apply to nearly any subject people can talk or think or write about. To a certain extent, questions we should ask when critiquing our own—or some- one else’s—thinking depend on what is at issue. Deciding whom to vote for, whether to buy a house, whether a mathematical proof is sound, which toothpaste to buy, or what kind of dog to get involve different considerations. In all cases, however, we should want to avoid making or accepting weak and invalid arguments. We should also avoid being distracted by irrelevancies or ruled by emotion, succumbing to fallacies or bias, and being influenced by dubious authority or half-baked speculation. These are not the only criteria by which reasoning might be evaluated, but they are central and important, and they provide the main focus of this book. Critical Thinking, the Long Version
  • 68. The Collegiate l earning Assessment (Cl A) Project of the Council for Aid to Education has come up with a list of skills that covers almost everything your authors believe is important in critical thinking. If you achieve mastery over all these or even a significant majority of them, you’ll be well ahead of most of your peers—and your fellow citizens. In question form, here is what the council came up with: How well does the student ■ determine what information is or is not pertinent; ■ distinguish between rational claims and emotional ones; ■ separate fact from opinion; ■ recognize the ways in which evidence might be limited or compromised; ■ spot deception and holes in the arguments of others; ■ present his/her own analysis of the data or information; ■ recognize logical flaws in arguments; ■ draw connections between discrete sources of data and information; ■ attend to contradictory, inadequate, or ambiguous information; ■ construct cogent arguments rooted in data rather than
  • 69. opinion; ■ select the strongest set of supporting data; ■ avoid overstated conclusions; ■ identify holes in the evidence and suggest additional information to collect; ■ recognize that a problem may have no clear answer or single solution; ■ propose other options and weigh them in the decision; ■ consider all stakeholders or affected parties in suggesting a course of action; ■ articulate the argument and the context for that argument; ■ correctly and precisely use evidence to defend the argument; ■ logically and cohesively organize the argument; ■ avoid extraneous elements in an argument’s development; ■ present evidence in an order that contributes to a persuasive argument? www.aacu.org/peerreview/pr_sp07_analysis1. cfm. Final PDF to printer 4 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED
  • 70. moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 4 11/27/19 06:53 AM BELIEFS AND CLAIMS Why bother thinking critically? The ultimate objective in thinking critically is to come to conclusions that are correct and to make decisions that are wise. Because our decisions reflect our conclusions, we can simplify things by saying that the purpose of thinking critically is to come to correct conclusions. The method used to achieve this objective is to evaluate our thinking by the standards of rationality. Of course, we can also evaluate someone else’s thinking, though the objective there might simply be to help the person. When we come to a conclusion, we have a belief. Concluding involves believing. If you conclude that the battery is dead, you believe that the battery is dead. Keeping this in mind, let’s define a few key terms. A belief is, obviously, something you believe. It is important to understand that a belief is propositional, which means it can be expressed in a
  • 71. declarative sentence—a sen- tence that is either true or false. A good bit of muddleheaded thinking can be avoided if you understand that beliefs are propositional entities, but more on this later. As we use these words, beliefs are the same as judgments and opinions. When we express a belief (or judgment or opinion) in a declarative sentence, the result is a statement or claim or assertion, and for our purposes these are the same thing. Claims can be used for other purposes than to state beliefs, but this is the use we’re primarily concerned with. Beliefs and claims are propositional: they can be expressed in true-or-false declarative sentences. ■ Judges on So You Think You Can Dance critique the singers on the show, but this book is mainly about how to critique
  • 72. reasoning. fo X Image Collection/Getty Images Objective Claims and Subjective Judgments Before we say something more about conclusions, we should make a distinction between objective claims and subjective judgments. An objective claim has this characteristic: Final PDF to printer BEl IEf S An D Cl AIMS 5 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 5 11/27/19 06:53 AM Whether it is true or false is independent of whether you or anyone else thinks it is true or false. “There is life on Mars” is thus an objec- tive claim, because whether or not life exists there doesn’t depend on whether you (or any- one else) thinks it does. If you (or anyone else)
  • 73. suddenly believes there is life on Mars, that doesn’t mean that suddenly there would be life on Mars. Likewise, “God exists” is an objec- tive claim because whether it is true doesn’t depend on what you (or anyone else) thinks. Although objective claims are either true or false, we may not know which a given claim is. “Portland, Oregon, is closer to the North Pole than to the equator” is true. “Portland, Oregon, is closer to the equator than to the North Pole” is false. “More stamp collectors live in Portland, Oregon, than in Portland, Maine” is an objective claim whose truth or falsity is not known, at least not by us. Not every declarative sentence expresses an objective claim, of course. “Bruno Mars has swag” is not objective, for it lacks the characteristic mentioned previously. That is, whether or not someone has swag does depend on whether you think he does. If nobody thinks Bruno Mars has swag, then he doesn’t. If Parker thinks he does and Moore doesn’t, you will say that Parker and Moore are each
  • 74. entitled to their opinions. Whether someone has swag is in the eyes of the beholder. Judgments like “Bruno Mars has swag” are subjective. Whether a subjective judg- ment is true or false is not independent of whether you think it is true or false. On the contrary, a subjective judgment about something is true if you think it is true. Examples of subjective claims would be judgments of taste, such as “Rice vinegar is too sweet.” Is rice vinegar too sweet? It depends on what you think. Some kinds of comparisons also are subjective. Is snowboarding more fun than skiing? Again, it depends on what you think, and there is no further “truth” to consider. However, many statements contain both objective and nonobjective elements, as in “Somebody stole our nifty concrete lawn duck.” Whether the lawn duck is concrete is an objective question; whether it is our lawn duck is an objective question; and whether it was stolen is an objective question. But whether the stolen concrete lawn duck is nifty is a subjective question.
  • 75. Here is an important point. If you think a subjective judgment is true, you can’t be mistaken. If Parker thinks that the tomato he is eating tastes great, his judgment “this tastes great,” as made by him, cannot be incorrect. If Parker says, “this tomato tastes great but I might be wrong about that,” we wouldn’t understand him. Let’s take an extreme case. Parker peels a lemon, takes a bite, and says, “This tastes sweet.” Let’s assume for the moment that nobody else on the planet would agree that this lemon tastes sweet. Would that mean that Parker’s judgment is incorrect? Not at all. It would just mean that what Parker finds sweet is very odd, not that Parker is mistaken. Because a subjective judgment cannot be mistaken, it makes no sense to think of it as probable or likely, or improbable or unlikely. If Parker says of the tomato he is eating, “this probably tastes great,” or “this tastes great but there is a chance I am mistaken,” or
  • 76. “it isn’t very likely that this tastes great,” we wouldn’t know what to make of his remark. Finally, because a subjective judgment cannot be viewed as probably true or as probably false, it isn’t the sort of thing that can be thought of as supportable by evi- dence. Evidence is something that raises the probability a claim is true. Subjective judg- ments are not susceptible to varying degrees of probability. If it makes no sense to think ■ Maybe he should have read this book? Brilliant Eagle/Alamy Stock Photo Final PDF to printer 6 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 6 11/27/19 06:53 AM
  • 77. of a remark as probable to a greater or lesser extent, then it makes no sense to think of it as something for which evidence as to its probable truth might be produced. If Parker says that the tomato he is eating tastes great, we might ask him what makes him think that, but if we press him for evidence he wouldn’t know how to respond. He might have reasons for thinking that the tomato he is eating tastes great. He might say, for example, that it tastes great because it isn’t bitter. But that is not evidence that it tastes great. It is an explanation of why he thinks it tastes great. Parker is telling us what causes him to think that the tomato tastes great. Of course, as a practical matter, many objective claims also cannot be supported by evidence. Is there life beneath the surface of the rocky planet that circles Proxima Centauri? We currently cannot obtain evidence that bears on the question. But when it comes to Parker’s judgment that the tomato he is eating tastes great, it’s not that he
  • 78. cannot presently provide evidence of its truth, it’s that it makes no sense to even think of providing evidence of its truth. However—and this is worth highlighting—the fact that subjective judgments cannot be mistaken, are not subject to probability quantifications, and are not the sort of thing for which evidence could be given, should not be invoked to dismiss any particular statement as unworthy of discussion. In the first place, it isn’t always clear whether a given remark actually is a subjective judgment. As we shall see, for example, moral judgments might not be subjective despite widespread belief and initial appearances that they are. Further, even if someone’s judgment about something unquestionably is subjective, we might learn something from hearing why the individual thinks as he or she does. We might find our own opinion about The Simpsons improved by listening to a friend explain her reasons for thinking it is a great TV series. If somebody tells you a certain outfit you are wearing doesn’t look good on you, you might benefit from hearing his or
  • 79. her explanation why he or she thinks that.* Is the case before the Supreme Court analogous to the case the Solicitor General cites as a precedent? Members of the Court and other legal scholars may disagree, but it would be ridiculous to brush off the question as “just subjective.” In our opinion, few claims fall into the category of automatically not worth discussing. Offhand, the only claims we can think of that might qualify are nonsense claims, like “weirdness is fattening.” The point is not to employ the objective/subjective distinction to stifle inquiry or discussion. Fact and Opinion Sometimes people talk about the difference between “fact” and “opinion,” having in mind the notion that all opinions are subjective judgments. But some opinions are not subjective judgments, because their truth or falsity is independent of what people think. Again, in this book “opinion” is just another word for “belief.” If you believe that
  • 80. Portland, Oregon, is closer to the North Pole than to the equator, that opinion happens to be true, and would continue to be true even if you change your mind. You can refer to objective opinions as factual opinions or beliefs, if you want— but that doesn’t mean fac- tual opinions are all true. “Portland, Oregon, is closer to the equator than to the North Pole” is a factual opinion that is false. A factual opinion/belief/claim = an objective opinion/belief/claim = an opinion/ belief/claim whose truth is independent of whether anyone thinks it is true. *The claim “o ther people won’t think that outfit looks good on you” is an objective claim about what other people will think. It is the sort of thing about which the speaker might be mistaken, and it could be supported with evidence. Final PDF to printer
  • 81. ISSUES 7 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 7 11/27/19 06:53 AM Thinking About Thinking Remember, an objective statement is not made true by someone thinking it is true. “Wait a minute,” you might say. “Isn’t the statement ‘Joanie is thinking about f rank’ made true by her thinking that it is true?” The answer is no! It is made true by her thinking about Frank. Relativism Relativism is the idea that truth is relative to the standards of a given culture. More precisely, relativism holds that if your culture and some other culture have different standards of truth or evidence, there is no independent “God’s- eye view” by which one culture’s standards can be seen to be more correct than the others. Whatever may be said of this as an abstract philosophical doctrine, it cannot pos- sibly mean that an objective statement could be made true by a
  • 82. culture’s thinking that it is true. If it is universally believed in some culture that “water” is not H2O, then either the people in that culture are mistaken or their word “water” does not refer to water. Moral Subjectivism Moral subjectivism is the idea that moral opinions, such as “Bullfighting is morally wrong” or “Jason shouldn’t lie to his parents,” are subjective judgments. It is the idea, in other words, that if you think bullfighting is morally wrong, then it is morally wrong for you and you don’t need to consider any further truth. It is the idea expressed by Hamlet in the famous passage, “There is nothing either good or bad, but that thinking makes it so.” You should be wary of Hamlet’s dictum. Ask yourself this: If someone actually believes there is nothing wrong with torturing donkeys or stoning women to death for adultery, would you say, well, if that’s what he thinks, then it’s fine for him to torture
  • 83. donkeys or stone women to death? Of course you wouldn’t. Those ideas can’t be made true by thinking they are true anymore than drinking battery acid can be made good for you by thinking it is. ISSUES An issue, as we employ that concept in this book, is simply a question. Is Moore taller than Parker? When we ask that question, we raise the issue as to whether Moore is taller than Parker. To put it differently, we are considering whether the claim “Moore is taller than Parker” is true. Let us note in passing that as with claims, some issues are objective. Is Moore taller than Parker? Whether he is or isn’t doesn’t depend on whether we think he is, so this is an objective issue (question). Other issues, such as whether P. Diddy dresses well, are subjective, in the sense explained previously. The first order of business when it comes to thinking critically about an issue is
  • 84. to determine what, exactly, the issue is. Unfortunately, in many real-life situations, it is difficult to identify exactly what the issue is—meaning it is difficult to identify exactly what claim is in question. This happens for lots of reasons, from purposeful obfuscation to ambiguous terminology to plain muddleheaded thinking. In his inaugural address, President Warren G. Harding said, Final PDF to printer 8 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 8 11/27/19 06:53 AM This is formidable. Do you understand what issue Harding is addressing? Neither does anyone else, because his statement is perfectly meaningless. (American satirist H. L. Mencken described it as a “sonorous nonsense driven home with gestures.”*) Understanding what is meant by a claim has so many aspects
  • 85. that we’ll devote a large part of Chapter 3 to the subject. However, if you have absolutely no clue as to what an issue actually is, there isn’t much point in considering it further—you don’t know what “it” is. There also isn’t much point in considering it further if you have no idea as to what would count toward settling it. For example, suppose someone asks, “Is there an identical you in a differ- ent dimension?” What sort of evidence would support saying either there is or isn’t? Nobody has any idea. (Almost any question about different “dimensions” or “planes” or “universes” would be apt to suffer from the same problem unless, possibly, it were to be raised from someone well educated in physics who used those concepts in a techni- cal way.) “Is everything really one?” would also qualify as something you couldn’t begin to settle, as would wondering if “the entire universe was created instantly five minutes ago with all false memories and fictitious records.”**
  • 86. Obscure issues aren’t always as metaphysical as the preceding examples. Listen carefully and you may hear more than one politician say something like, “It is human nature to desire freedom.” Oh, really? This sounds good, but if you look at it closely it’s hard to know exactly what sort of data would support the remark. This isn’t to imply that only issues that can be settled through scientific test or via the experimental method are worth considering. Moral issues cannot be settled in that way, for example. Mathematical and historical questions are not answered by experi- ment, and neither are important philosophical questions. Does God exist? Is there free will? What difference does it make if he does or doesn’t or there is or isn’t? Legal ques- tions, questions of aesthetics—the list of important questions not subject to purely sci- entific resolution is very long. The point here is merely that if a question is to be taken seriously, or if you want others to take it seriously, or if you want others who can think
  • 87. critically to take it seriously, you must have some idea as to what considerations bear on the answer. ARGUMENTS In our experience, lots of college students seriously contemplate getting a dog or cat. But they are conflicted. On the one hand, it would be sweet to have a nice pet; but on the other, it would be extra work and cost money, and they aren’t sure what to do with the animal if they take a trip. If you are such a student, you weigh the arguments pro and con. An argument presents a consideration for accepting a claim. For example, this is an argument: We have mistaken unpreparedness to embrace it to be a challenge of the reality and due concern for making all citizens fit for participation will give added strength of citizenship and magnify our achievement. A dog would keep me company; so I should get one.
  • 88. **This famous example comes from philosopher Bertrand Russell. *Reported on n BC n ews, Meet the Press, January 16, 2005. Final PDF to printer ARGUMEn TS 9 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 9 11/27/19 06:53 AM And so is this: Are You Good at Reasoning? Are you the kind of person who reasons well? Some people are. Unfortunately, maybe people who aren’t very good at reasoning are the most likely to overestimate their reasoning ability.* *See Justin Kruger and David Dunning, “Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing o ne’s o wn Incompetence
  • 89. l ead to Inflated Self-Assessments,” Psychology 1 (2009): 30– 46. My landlord will raise my rent; so I shouldn’t get one. The first example is an argument for getting a dog. The second is an argument for not getting one. As you can see from these two examples, an argument consists of two parts. One part gives a reason for accepting the other part. The part that provides the reason is called the premise of the argument,* though an argument may have more than one premise. The other part is called the conclusion. The conclusion of an argument is what the premise supposedly supports or demonstrates. You should always think of the conclusion of an argument as stating a position on an issue, and of the premise or premises as giving reasons for taking that position. Want an example? Look at the two arguments previously shown.
  • 90. They both address the issue of whether I should get a dog. The premise of the first example (“A dog would keep me company”) gives a reason for saying I should get a dog. The premise of the second example (“My landlord will raise my rent”) gives a reason for saying I should not get a dog. What does this have to do with critical thinking? Everything. You want to make the best decision on an important issue—in this case, whether to get a dog. You evaluate the arguments pro and con. Being able to do this intelligently may not be the sum total of critical thinking, but it is an essential part of it. A large part of this book is devoted to understanding how to evaluate arguments, and all this will begin in Chapter 2. However, right now, tw o minor points about argu- ments are worth noticing: 1. The two arguments given as examples are not very long or complicated. Some
  • 91. arguments can be very long and complicated. Einstein’s revolutionary theory that E = mc2 was based on complex mathematical reasoning, and that reasoning was his argument for saying that E = mc2. 2. Not every issue requires an argument for resolution. Is your throat sore? You can just tell directly, and no argument is necessary. We will now offer you a few exercises to help you understand these fundamen- tal concepts. In the next section we will look at psychological factors that impede clear thought. *Unfortunately, sometimes people use the word “argument” to refer only to the premise or premises of an argument. Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 10 11/27/19 06:53 AM
  • 92. 10 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED Answer the questions based on your reading to this point, including the boxes. ▲ —See the answers section at the end of this chater. 1. What is an argument? 2. T or F: A claim is what you use to state an opinion or a belief. 3. T or F: Critical thinking consists in attacking other people’s ideas. 4. T or F: A long passage is more likely to contain an argument than a short one. 5. T or F: When a question has been asked, an issue has been raised. 6. T or F: All arguments have a premise. 7. T or F: All arguments have a conclusion.
  • 93. 8. T or F: You can reach a conclusion without believing it is true. 9. T or F: Beliefs, judgments, and opinions are the same thing. 10. T or F: All opinions are subjective. 11. T or F: All factual claims are true. 12. “There is nothing either good or bad but that thinking makes it so” expresses a doctrine known as . 13. The first order of business when it comes to thinking critically about an issue is (a) to determine whether the issue is subjective or objective, (b) to determine whether the issue can be resolved, or (c) to determine what exactly the issue is. 14. T or F: The conclusion of an argument states a position on an issue. 15. T or F: Issues can be resolved only through scientific testing.
  • 94. 16. T or F: Statements, claims, and assertions are the same thing. 17. T or F: The claim “Death Valley is an eyesore” expresses a subjective judgment. 18. T or F: Every issue requires an argument for a resolution. 19. T or F: Relativism is the idea that if the standards of evidence or truth are different for two cultures, there is no independent way of saying which standards are the correct ones. 20. T or F: It is not possible to reason correctly if you do not think critically. ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
  • 95. ▲ ▲ ▲ On the basis of a distinction covered so far, divide these items into two groups of five items each such that all the items in one group have a feature that none of the items in the second group have. Describe the feature on which you based your classifications. The items that belong in one group are listed at the end of this chapter. Hint: the feature is not that five items are subjective and five are objective. 1. You shouldn’t buy that car because it is ugly. 2. That car is ugly, and it costs more than $25,000, too. 3. Rainbows have seven colors, although it’s not always easy to see them all. 4. Walking is the best exercise. It places the least stress on
  • 96. your joints. 5. The ocean on the central coast is the most beautiful shade of sky blue, but it gets greener as you go north. 6. Her favorite color is yellow because it is the color of the sun. ▲ ▲ Exercise 1-1 Exercise 1-2 Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 11 11/27/19 06:53 AM ARGUMEn TS 11
  • 97. 7. Pooh is my favorite cartoon character because he has lots of personality. 8. You must turn off the lights when you leave the room. They cost a lot of money to run, and you don’t need them during the day. 9. Television programs depict too much violence and immoral behavior. Hundreds of killings are portrayed every month. 10. You’ll be able to find a calendar on sale after the first of the year, so it is a good idea to wait until then to buy one. ▲ ▲ ■ Can bears and other animals think critically? f ind out by checking the answers section at the end of the chapter.
  • 98. M G Therin Weise/Getty Images Which of the following claims are objective? 1. Nicki Minaj can fake a great English accent. 2. On a baseball field, the center of the pitcher’s mound is 59 feet from home plate. 3. Staring at the sun will damage your eyes. 4. Green is the most pleasant color to look at. 5. Yellow is Jennifer’s favorite color. 6. With enough experience, a person who doesn’t like opera can come to appreciate it. 7. Opera would be easier to listen to if they’d leave out the singing. 8. Sailing is much more soothing than sputtering about in a motorboat. 9. Driving while drowsy is dangerous.
  • 99. 10. Pit vipers can strike a warm-blooded animal even when it is pitch dark. 11. P. Diddy is totally bink. 12. P. Diddy is totally bink to me. ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ Exercise 1-3 Which of the following are subjective judgments? 1. Fallon tells better jokes than Colbert. 2. In 2013 Miguel Cabrera hit the most home runs on a 3–0 count.
  • 100. 3. Your teacher will complain if you text in class. 4. Your teacher would be crazy not to complain if you text in class. 5. There is life on Mars. 6. Golf wastes time. 7. Warcraft scared the you-know-what out of my sister. 8. Warcraft is lousy. A total letdown. 9. Movies like Warcraft lack redeeming social value. [Hint: An assertion might have more than one subjective element.] 10. Donald Trump has beautiful hair. ▲ ▲ ▲
  • 101. ▲ Exercise 1-4 Some of these items are arguments, and some are not. Which are which? 1. Tipsarevic is unlikely to win the U.S. Open this year. He has a nagging leg injury, plus he doesn’t have the drive he once had. ▲ Exercise 1-5 Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 12 11/27/19 06:53 AM 12 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED 2. Hey there, Marco! Don’t go giving that cat top sirloin. What’s the matter with
  • 102. you? You got no brains? 3. If you’ve ever met a pet bird, you know they are busy creatures. 4. Everybody is saying the president earned the Nobel Prize. What a stupid idea! She hasn’t earned it at all. There’s not a lick of truth in that notion. 5. “Is the author really entitled to assert that there is a degree of unity among these essays which makes this a book rather than a congeries? I am inclined to say that he is justified in this claim, but articulating this justification is a somewhat complex task.” —From a book review by Stanley Bates 6. As a long-time customer, you’re already taking advantage of our money management expertise and variety of investment choices. That’s a good reason for consolidating your other eligible assets into an IRA with us.
  • 103. 7. PROFESSOR X: Well, I see where the new chancellor wants to increase class sizes. PROFESSOR Y: Yeah, another of his bright ideas. PROFESSOR X: Actually, I don’t think it hurts to have one or two extra people in class. PROFESSOR Y: What? Of course it hurts. Whatever are you thinking? PROFESSOR X: Well, I just think there are good reasons for increasing the class size a bit. 8. Yes, I charge a little more than other dentists. But I feel I give better service. So my billing practices are justified. 9. Since you want to purchase the house, you should exercise your option before June 30, 2018. Otherwise, you will forfeit the option price.
  • 104. 10. John Montgomery has been the Eastern Baseball League’s best closer this season. Unfortunately, when a closer gets shelled, as Montgomery did last night, it takes him a while to recover. Nobody will say he is the best closer after that performance. ▲ ▲ ▲ Determine which of the following passages contain arguments. For any that do, identify the argument’s conclusion. There aren’t hard-and-fast rules for identifying arguments, so you’ll have to read closely and think carefully about some of these. 1. The Directory of Intentional Communities lists more than 200 groups across the country organized around a variety of purposes, including environmentally aware
  • 105. living. 2. Carl would like to help out, but he won’t be in town. We’ll have to find someone else who owns a truck. 3. Once upon a time Washington, DC, passed an ordinance prohibiting private ownership of firearms. After that, Washington’s murder rate shot up 121 percent. Bans on firearms are clearly counterproductive. 4. Computers will never be able to converse intelligently through speech. A simple example proves this. The sentences “How do you recognize speech?” and “How do you wreck a nice beach?” have different meanings, but they sound similar enough that a computer could not distinguish between the two. ▲ ▲ Exercise 1-6
  • 106. Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 13 11/27/19 06:53 AM ARGUMEn TS 13 5. The Carrie Diaries isn’t very good. It’s just a repackage of Sex and the City. 6. “Like short-term memory, long-term memory retains information that is encoded in terms of sense modality and in terms of links with information that was learned earlier (that is, meaning).” —Neil R. Carlson 7. Fears that chemicals in teething rings and soft plastic toys may
  • 107. cause cancer may be justified. Last week, the Consumer Product Safety Commission issued a report confirming that low amounts of DEHP, known to cause liver cancer in lab animals, may be absorbed from certain infant products. 8. “It may be true that people, not guns, kill people. But people with guns kill more people than people without guns. As long as the number of lethal weapons in the hands of the American people continues to grow, so will the murder rate.” —Susan Mish’alani 9. Then: A Miami man gets thirty days in the stockade for wearing a flag patch on the seat of his trousers. Now: Miami department stores sell boxer trunks made up to look like an American flag. Times have changed. 10. Dockers are still in style, but skinny legs are no longer
  • 108. trending. ▲ ▲ ■ What does critical thinking tell you about this sign? Peter Turnley/Corbis Historical/ Getty Images For each numbered passage, identify which lettered item best states the primary issue discussed in the passage. Be prepared to say why you think your choice is the correct one. 1. Let me tell you why Hank ought not to take that math course. First, it’s too hard, and he’ll probably flunk it. Second, he’s going to spend the whole term in a state of frustration. Third, he’ll probably get depressed and jump out the window.
  • 109. a. whether Hank ought to take the math course b. whether Hank would flunk the math course c. whether Hank will spend the whole term in a state of frustration d. whether Hank will get depressed and jump out the window. 2. The county has cut the library budget for salaried library workers, and there will not be enough volunteers to make up for the lack of paid workers. Therefore, the library will have to be open fewer hours next year. a. whether the library will have to be open fewer hours next year b. whether there will be enough volunteers to make up for the lack of paid workers ▲ Exercise 1-7 Final PDF to printer
  • 110. moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 14 11/27/19 06:53 AM 14 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED 3. Pollution of the waters of the Everglades and of Florida Bay is due to multiple causes. These include cattle farming, dairy farming, industry, tourism, and urban development. So it is simply not true that the sugar industry is completely responsible for the pollution of these waters. a. whether pollution of the waters of the Everglades and Florida Bay is due to multiple causes b. whether pollution is caused by cattle farming, dairy farming, industry, tourism, and urban development c. whether the sugar industry is partly responsible for the pollution of these waters
  • 111. d. whether the sugar industry is completely responsible for the pollution of these waters 4. It’s clear that the mainstream media have lost interest in classical music. For example, the NBC network used to have its own classical orchestra conducted by Arturo Toscanini, but no such orchestra exists now. One newspaper, the no-longer-existent Washington Star, used to have thirteen classical music reviewers; that’s more than twice as many as The New York Times has now. H. L. Mencken and other columnists used to devote considerable space to classical music; nowadays, you almost never see it mentioned in a major column. a. whether popular taste has turned away from classical music b. whether newspapers are employing fewer writers on classical music c. whether the mainstream media have lost interest in classical music
  • 112. 5. This year’s National Football League draft lists a large number of quarterbacks among its highest-ranking candidates. Furthermore, quite a number of teams do not have first-class quarterbacks. It’s therefore likely that an unusually large number of quarterbacks will be drafted early in this year’s draft. a. whether teams without first-class quarterbacks will choose quarterbacks in the draft b. whether this year’s NFL draft includes a large number of quarterbacks c. whether an unusually large number of quarterbacks will be drafted early in this year’s draft 6. An animal that will walk out into a rainstorm and stare up at the clouds until water runs into its nostrils and it drowns—well, that’s what I call the world’s
  • 113. dumbest animal. And that’s exactly what young domestic turkeys do. a. whether young domestic turkeys will drown themselves in the rain b. whether any animal is dumb enough to drown itself in the rain c. whether young domestic turkeys are the world’s dumbest animal 7. The defeat of the school voucher initiative was a bad thing for the country because now public schools won’t have any incentive to clean up their act. Furthermore, the defeat perpetuates the private-school-for- the-rich, public-school-for-the-poor syndrome. a. whether public schools now have any incentive to clean up their act b. whether the defeat of the school voucher initiative was bad for the country c. whether public schools now have any incentive to clean up their act and
  • 114. whether the private-school-for-the-rich, public-school-for-the- poor syndrome will be perpetuated (issues are equally stressed) 8. From an editorial in a newspaper outside California: “The people in California who lost a fortune in the wildfires last year could have bought insurance that ▲ ▲ Final PDF to printer moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 15 11/27/19 06:53 AM Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 15 would have covered their houses and practically everything in them. And anybody with any foresight would have made sure there were no brush and no trees near
  • 115. the houses so that there would be a buffer zone between the house and any fire, as the Forest Service recommends. Finally, anybody living in a fire danger zone ought to know enough to have a fireproof or fire-resistant roof on the house. So, you see, most of the losses those people suffered were simply their own fault.” a. whether fire victims could have done anything to prevent their losses b. whether insurance, fire buffer zones, and fire-resistant roofs could have pre- vented much of the loss c. whether the losses people suffered in the fires were their own fault 9. “Whatever we believe, we think agreeable to reason, and, on that account, yield our assent to it. Whatever we disbelieve, we think contrary to reason, and, on that account, dissent from it. Reason, therefore, is allowed to be the principle by which our belief and opinions ought to be regulated.”
  • 116. —Thomas Reid, Essays on the Active Powers of Man a. whether reason is the principle by which our beliefs and opinions ought to be regulated b. whether what we believe is agreeable to reason c. whether what we disbelieve is contrary to reason d. both b and c 10. Most people you find on university faculties are people who are interested in ideas. And the most interesting ideas are usually new ideas. So most people you find on university faculties are interested in new ideas. Therefore, you are not going to find many conservatives on university faculties, because conservatives are not usually interested in new ideas. a. whether conservatives are interested in new ideas b. whether you’ll find many conservatives on university faculties c. whether people on university faculties are interested more in
  • 117. new ideas than in older ideas d. whether most people are correct ▲ COGNITIVE BIASES Unconscious features of psychology can affect human mental processes, sometimes in unexpected ways. Recent research suggests that donning formal business attire or a physician’s white lab coat might improve a person’s performance on a cognitive test.* Seeing a fast food logo (e.g., McDonald’s golden arches) may make some individuals attempt to process information more hastily.** In one experiment, subjects being told that the expensive sunglasses they were asked to wear were fake increased their pro- pensity to cheat on tests that involved cash payments for correct answers.† In another experiment, male subjects, if dressed in sweats, made less profitable deals in simulated negotiations than did subjects dressed in suits.
  • 118. When a poll is really, really out of whack with what I want to happen, I do have a tendency to disregard it. —Rush l imbaugh, recognizing his own confirmation bias *Referenced in Scientific American Mind, January/f ebruary 2016, p . 13. **Referenced in a posting dated April 13, 2010, by Christopher P eterson in Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ blog/the-good-life/201004/fast-food-and-impatience . †This and the experiment cited in the next sentence also are referenced in Scientific American Mind, January/f ebruary 2016, p . 13. Final PDF to printer 16 CHAPTER 1 : DRIv In G Bl In Dfol DED
  • 119. moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 16 11/27/19 06:53 AM Were we entirely rational, our conclusions would be grounded in logic and based on evidence objectively weighed. The unconscious features of human psychology affect- ing belief formation that have been reasonably well established include several that are widely referred to as cognitive biases.* They skew our apprehension of reality and interfere with our ability to think clearly, process information accurately, and reason objectively. For example, we tend to evaluate an argument based on whether we agree with it rather than on the criteria of logic. Is the follow ing specimen good reasoning?People will generally accept facts as truth only if the facts agree with what they already believe. —Andy Rooney, nicely explaining belief bias All Golden retrievers are dogs.
  • 120. Some dogs are gentle. Therefore some Golden retrievers are gentle. It isn’t. You might as well conclude some Golden retrievers are Basset hounds. After all, all Golden retrievers are dogs and some dogs are Basset hounds. If it took you a moment to see that the first argument is illogical, it’s because you know it’s conclu- sion, that some Golden retrievers are gentle, is true. The tendency to evaluate reasoning by the believability of its conclusion is known as belief bias. A closely related cognitive bias is confirmation bias, which refers to the tendency to attach more weight to evidence that supports our viewpoint. If you are a Democrat, you may view evidence that Fox News is biased as overwhelming; if you are a Republican you may regard the same evidence as weak and unconvincing. In science, good experiments are designed to ensure that experimenters can’t “cherry-pick” evi- dence, that is, search for evidence that supports the hypothesis they think is true while
  • 121. ignoring evidence to the contrary. There isn’t any hard-and-fast difference between confirmation bias and belief bias; they are both unconscious expressions of the human tendency to think our side of an issue must be the correct side. Thinking critically means being especially critical of arguments that support our own points of view. Some cognitive biases involve heuristics, general rules we unconsciously follow in estimating probabilities. An example is the availability heuristic, which involves unconsciously assigning a probability to a type of event on the basis of how often one thinks of events of that type. After watch- ing multiple news reports of an earthquake or an airplane crash or a case of child abuse, thoughts of earthquakes and airplane crashes and child abuse will be in the front of one’s mind. Accordingly, one may overestimate their probability. True, if the probability of airplane crashes were to increase, then one
  • 122. might well think about airplane crashes more often; but it does not follow that if one thinks about them more often, their probability has increased. The availability heuristic may explain how easy it is to make the mistake known as generalizing from anecdote, a logical fallacy we discuss later in the book. Generalizing ■ Bad-mouthing someone is not the same as thinking critically about what he or she says. f rederic l egrand – Co MEo / Shutterstock *The concept of cognitive biases, as such, originated with Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. See “Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases” (1974), in Science, 185 (4157): 1124–1131 Final PDF to printer
  • 123. Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 17 moo41025_ch01_001-034.indd 17 11/27/19 06:53 AM from anecdote happens when one accepts a sweeping generalization based on a single vivid report. The availability heuristic is also probably relate d to the false consensus effect, which refers to the inclination we may have to assume that our attitudes and those held by people around us are shared by society at large.* Another source of skewed belief is the bandwagon effect, which refers to an unconscious tendency to align one’s thinking with that of other people. The bandwagon effect is potentially a powerful source of cognitive distortion. In famous experiments, psychologist Solomon Asch found that what other people say they see may actually alter what we think we see.** We—the authors—have students take tests and quizzes using smartphones and clickers, with software that instantly displays
  • 124. the opinion of the class in a bar graph projected on a screen. Not infrequently it happens that, if opinion begins to build for one answer, almost everyone switches to that option—even if it is incorrect or illogical. If you have wondered why consumer products are routinely advertised as best- sellers, you now know the answer. Marketers understand the bandwagon effect. They know that getting people to believe that a product is popular generates further sales. Political propagandists also know we have an unconscious need to align our beliefs with the opinions of other people. Thus, they try to increase support for a mea- sure by asserting that everyone likes it, or—and this is even more effective—by asserting that nobody likes whatever the opposition has proposed. Given alternative measures X and Y, “Nobody wants X!” is even more likely to generate support for Y than is “Everyone wants Y!” This is because of negativity bias, the
  • 125. tendency people have to weight negative information more heavily than positive information when evaluating things. Negativity bias is hard-wired into us: the brain displays more neural activity in response to negative information than to positive information.† A corollary to negativ- ity bias from economics is that people generally are more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain, a bias known as loss aversion. It also should come as no surprise that we find it easier to form negative opin- ions of people who don’t belong to our club, church, party, nationality, or other group. This is a part of in-group bias, another cognitive factor that may color per- ception and distort judgment. We may well perceive the members of our own group as exhibiting more variety and individuality than the members of this or that out- group, who we may view as indistinguishable from one another and as conforming to stereotypes. We may attribute the achievements of members of our own group