Minerals are inorganic compounds that are required for the body as one of the nutrients. The inorganic elements (minerals) constitute only small potion of body weight. Human body needs number of minerals for its functioning.

3. Minerals are inorganic compounds that are required for the
body as one of the nutrients.
The inorganic elements (minerals) constitute only small
potion of body weight.
Human body needs number of minerals for its functioning.
For example-
• Calcification of bone.
• Blood coagulation.
• Neuromuscular
irritability.
• Acid-base equilibrium.
• Fluid balance.
• Osmotic regulation.

4. ESSENTIAL
TRACE
ELEMENT
Fe, Cu, I, Mn,
Zn, Mo, Co,
F, Se, Cr.
POSSIBLY
ESSENTIAL
TRACE ELEMENT
Ni, v, Cd, Ba.
NON EESENTIAL
TRACE ELEMENT
Al, Pb, Hg, B,
Ag, Bi.

5. Most abundant among the mineral in the body.
Total calcium in the body about 1 to 1.5 kg, 99% which is
seen in bone together with phosphate.
Small amount in soft tissue in extra cellular fluid.
Dietary source of the calcium.
Milk is a good source for calcium, egg, fish, cheese, beans,
nuts, cabbage & vegetables.
Daily requirement of adult is 500mg/day, children-
1200mg/day during pregnancy and lactation 1500mg/day.
The normal level of plasma calcium is 9 to 11 mg/dl.

6.  Taken in the diet as calcium phosphate, carbonic and tartrate
salt.
 In gut and first and second part of the duodenum against the
concentration gradient and required energy.
 Requires a carrier protein, helped by calcium dependent ATPase.
 Two mechanism simple diffusion + active transport( process involving
energy ca2+ pump) require calcitriol carrier (vit-D derivative activated b y
kidney)---- >synthesis of Ca-binding protein & transport.
 Stool & urine

7. 1. Activation of enzyme - calmoduline (Ca+2binding regulatory protein ) bind with 4
ca+2 ions and lead to activation o f the enzyme .Ex- pancreatic lipase, enzyme of
coagulation pathway and renin.
2. Muscle contraction- Ca+2 mediated excitation & contraction.
Neural signal

8. stimulates exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing Ach. Ach release in
to the sypatic cleft.
insulin, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, vasopressin.
Ca & cyclic AMP are second messenger of different hormone. E.g..
Glucagon.
6. influences transport of number of substances across
the membranous barrier.
Calcium is known as factor iv in blood coagulation process. Prothrombin
contains ƴ- carboxy glutamate residues which are chelated by Ca+2 during the thrombin
formation.
calcium Ca+2 prolonged systole. In hypercalcimia cardiac arrest in systole.
Ca+2 along with phosphate requires for bone & teeth formation and physical
strength of skeletal tissue. Bone is reservoir of Ca+2 of body.
Osteoblast  induced bone deposition.
osteoclast produced demineralization.

9. Comparison of action of 3 major factor affecting serum calcium
PARTICULARS VIT-D
PARATHYROID
HARMONE
CALCITONIN
Blood Ca+2 Increased
Drastically
increased
Decreased
Main action
Absorption from
gut
Demineralization
Opposes
demineralization
Ca+2 absorption
from the gut
Increased Increased
Indirect
--
Bone reabsorption Decreased Increased Decreased

10. Requirement
for growth
of bone
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Parathyroid
hormone
• Calcitonin
• Vitamin –A
• Vitamin- C
• Sex steroids
• Amino acid

11.  Hypercalcaemia, hypocalcaemia, rickets, renal rickets, osteoporosis , osteopetrosis
(marble bone disease)
 Rickets  defective calcification of bone due low level of vitamin- D in body or due to
dietary deficiency of calcium and phosphorus both.
 Renal rickets  associated with damage renal tissue impairment synthesis of
calcitriol.
 Osteoporosis - characterized by the demineralization of the bone resulting the
progressive loss of bone mass.
 Osteopetrosis  also called marble bone disease characterized by increased bone
density due to inability to absorb bone.

12. 1.Vitamin D:- Calcitriol induces the synthesis of carrier protein (Calbindin) facilitates the
absorption.
2.Parathyroid hormone:- increase transport from the intestinal cells by enhancing
hydroxylase activity.
The enzyme catalyzes the hydroxylation of Calciferol to calcitriol (the bioactive form of
Vitamin D) Ca carrier.
3.Acidity:- Ca-salts, particularly PO4 & carbonates are quite soluble in acidic solutions-ln
alkaline medium, the absorption of calcium is lowered due to the formation of insoluble
tricalcium PO4.
1-Phytic acid (in Cereals) and oxalates(some leafy vegetables) forms insoluble Ca-salts.
2-Fibres: Excess of fibers in the diet interferes with the absorption.
3-High dietary phosphates - precipitate as calcium phosphate.
4-High pH - (alkaline- In alkaline medium, the absorption of calcium is lowered due to the
formation of insoluble tricalcium PO4.
5-Malabsorption syndromes: formation of insoluble Ca salt of fatty acid.
6-Glucocorticoids: Diminishes intestinal transport of calcium Phosphate:
7-High phosphate content will cause precipitation as calcium phosphate
Magnesium: High content of Mg decreases the absorption.

13.  Calcitriol increase intestinal absorption of
Ca increase Ca uptake by osteoblasts increase promotes Calcification.
 Parathyroid hormone
Increase serum Ca Demineralization of bone(Osteoclasts) increase Ca
reabsorption by renal tubules increase intestinal absorption of Ca
by promoting synthesis of Calcitriol.
 Calcitonin
secreted by Para follicular cells of Thyroid gland Lowers the serum Ca
Calcification of bone(by osteoblasts) increase the excretion of Ca into
urine.

14.  Total body phosphate about 1 kg.
 80% in bone and teeth.
 10% in muscle.
 10%^ in various chemical compounds.
 Serum phosphate level  3 to 4 mg/dl(adult), 5 to 6 mg/dl (children)
• 500mg/day
• RDA based on intake of calcium.
• Ca : P of 1:1 is recommended ( adult) for infant 2:1
Red meat, fish, eggs, whole grains, nuts and seeds.

15.  An essential component of bone, cartilage .Phosphorus is an essential component of
phospholipids, nucleic acids, phosphoproteins (casein), high energy phosphate esters
(ATP), hexose phosphates, creatine phosphate, and several key enzymes.
 As a component of these important biological substances, phosphorus plays a central
role in energy and cell metabolism.
 Inorganic phosphates serve as important buffers to regulate the normal acidbase
balance (ie. pH).
DISEASE STATE
o hyperthosthatemia increase serum phosphate level due to increase
absorption of phosphate excess vitamin –d & Hypocalcaemia thyrotoxicosis
o Hypothosthatemia  decrease phosphate level due to decrease absorption
of phosphate, malnutrition & chronic alcoholism.

16.  It is the fourth most abundant cation in the body.
 Magnesium mostly occur in bone in combination with calcium and phosphorus.
However some amount of it also occur in soft organ and body fluid. Magnesium is
activator of large number of enzyme using ATP as a cofactor ( more than 300
enzyme). Some common example, besides most phosphokinase, are:
(i) squalencesynthase
(ii) glutamine synthase
(iii) adenylatecyclase
 Total body magnesium is about 25gm, 60% of which is complexed with Ca+2 in bone.
 30% in soft tissue and body fluid.
 Adult man 400mg/day, Adult woman 300mg/day
 Above 600mg causes diarrhea.
 More requirement during lactation.

17. .
Serum magnesium-

18.  Required for formation of bone & teeth.
 Serve as a cofactor enzyme reaction requiring ATP. Examples- hexokinase, alkaline
phosphatase, fructokinase, adinilatecyclase, CAMP dependent kinase.
 Lowers the neuromuscular irritability.
 Insulin independent uptake of glucose is reduced in magnesium deficiency. Mg
supplementation improve glucose tolerance.
 DNA protein interaction.(histone binding) also require Mg++.

19.  Excessive intake orally or parentally, Renal failure
 Hyperparathyroidism ,Rickets, Multiple myeloma, Dehydration .
 Depression of neuromuscular system.
 Causing hypotension, respiratory depression, bradycardia.
- induce decrease in serum by inhibiting PTH.
 Seen in hospital patients.
 Serum magnesium less than 1.7mg/dl
 increase urinary loss (tubular necrosis)
 increase intestinal loss, diarrhea, vomiting,
 Liversirosis, malabsorption
 protein calorie malnutrition.

20.  Table salt, leafy vegetables, eggs, milk.
 Except for the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, practically all the chlorine involved in
metabolism enters, exists in, and leaves the body in the form of chlorides, much the greater
part as Sodium chloride.
 As a part of sodium chloride, chloride is essential for water balance, regulation of osmotic
pressure and acid-base balance.
 Chloride is necessary for the formation of HCL by the gastric mucosa and for the activation of
enzyme amylase.
 lt is involved in the chloride shift.
 Resulting from processes of building (anabolism) and breaking down (catabolism) body tissues.
Chlorine also plays a specific role in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

21.  citrus fruits, vegetables, grains, salmon, chicken, whole milk and almonds, important
sources (avocados, bananas and coconut water).
 Stroke: it allows more O2 to reach the brain by stimulating neural activity and
increasing cognitive function. Since act as a vasodilator, the blood vessels relax
throughout the body when proper amounts of potassium are consumed. This means
that blood flows more freely, and is less likely to dot and break off to cause Strocks.
 Muscle disorders: required for contraction and relaxation of muscles regular.
 Blood Pressure: reversing the role of sodium in unbalancing normal blood pressure,
(maintains the normality of blood pressure in the human body).
 Water balance- lt rehydrates and optimizes fluid balance.
 Electrolytes: electrolytes help to transmit electrical charges throughout the body from
the brain and nervous system, so extra electrolytes keep everything functioning faster
and more efficiently in the body.

22. Sources –
 Common salt • Bread -whole grains-green-leafy vegetables-Eggs -Milk
Functions-
 AS sodium bicarbonate regulates the body acid base balance.
 Sodium regulates ECF volume: Sodium pump is operating in all cells, so as
to keep Sodium extracellular.
 This mechanism is ATP dependent.
 Required for maintenance of osmotic pressure and fluid balance.
 Necessary for normal muscle irritability and cell permeability.

23. Biological function:
 component of several key amino acids (methionine and cysteine), vitamins
(thiamine and biotin), the hormone insulin, and the crustacean exoskeleton.
 As the sulphate, sulphur is an essential component of heparin, chondroitin,
fibrinogen and taurine.
 Several key enzyme systems such as coenzyme A and glutathione depend for their
activity on free sulphydryl (SH) groups.
Dietary sources:
 sulphur containing amino acids include fish meal, chicken eggs.
Sodium, Potassium and Chlorine occur almost entirely in the
fluids and soft tissues of the body, (Na) and (Cl) mainly in the
body fluids, and (K) mainly in the cells. They serve a vital
function in controlling osmotic pressures and acid-base
equilibrium. They also play important roles in water metabolism.

25. Total content of zinc in adult body 2.0gm  60% in skeletal
muscle , 30% in bone.
Intracellular element Highest percentage hippocampus area
of brain,
prostate gland (100mg/g)
It is a also present in liver, brain & skin
o Rich source  grain, beans, nuts, meat, egg, fish, pulses,
spinach.
o RDA  adult -15mg/day increased in pregnancy and
lactation-15 to20mg/day, children-10mg/day.

26.  Manly absorbed in duodenum, absorption depend on transport protein–
metallothinine, zinc and copper compete for absorption.
 Phytate , calcium, copper, iron interfere the zinc absorption.
Excreted through pancreatic juice, & sweat.
Normal level 100mg/dl

27.  Essential component of several enzyme more than 300 enzyme are zinc
dependent. Ex- carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, alkaline
phosphatase, carboxypeptidase, superoxide dismutase, lactate
dehydrogenase.
 Antioxidant property (superoxide dismutase zinc dependent) protect body
against free radical.
 Storage and secretion of insulin from beta cell of pancrease require zinc.
 Maintain the normal level of vitamin A in serum and promote the synthesis
of RBP.
 Required for wound healing, enhance cell growth and division and stabilized
bio membrane.
 Gusten, zinc contain protein of the saliva for taste sensation.
 Proper reproduction
 RNA polymerase is zinc dependent & help in protein biosynthesis.
 Protaaminezincinsulinase (PZI) contain zinc.

28.  Zinc deficiency  growth failure, loss of appetite, poor
wound healing, anemia.
 Loss of a taste sensation, impair spermatogenesis.
 Skin lesion such as dermatitis.
 Reduction in number of T & B lymphocytase.
 Macrophage function retarded.
 Neuropsychiatric
 Zinc bind with amyloid to form a plaque in Alzheimer's
disease.
 Zinc toxicity  due to inhalation of ZnO fumes.
 Manifestation nausea, gastric ulcer, pancreatitis, anemia,
pulmonary fibrosis.

29. spinach, turnip, sprouts, broccoli and dry fruits also have good iron content, Meat.
 Tissue Respiration:- lron can change readily between Ferrous and Ferric states and
function in electron transfer reactions.(Cytochromes - NADH dehydrogenase -Succinate
dehydrogenase).
 Transport of gases :Able to bind with molecular 02 and C02.
The main function is to coordinate the 02 molecule into heme of hemoglobin, so that ft
can be transported from the lungs to the tissues.
 Oxidative Reactions : Component of various oxidoreductase enzymes.
 Immune Response :Required for effective activity of lysosomal enzyme peroxidase -
helps in phagocytic and bactericidal activity of neutrophils.
 Total body iron content: 3 - 5 gm.
 Adult man 20mg/day
children (13-15 year) 20-30mg/day
pregnant woman 40mg/day.

30.  Ferric ions are reduced with the help of gastric HCI, ascorbic acid, cys. and -SH
groups of pro increase or favors absorption.
 Ca, Cu, Zn, Pb inhibit absorption.
 Phytates (in cereals), oxalates (leafy veg) & phosphates in the diet reduce absorption
by forming insoluble iron salts.
 Marginal Decrease by tea & eggs.
 When iron store in body depleted, absorption is enhanced.
 In adequate quantity of iron is stored, absorption is decrease this is called mucosal
theory.

31.  Inorganic /non-heme iron (90%) Fe3+ (less soluble) - Organic/heme iron (10%) Fe2+
(more soluble) To be soluble. Ferric (Fe3+) needs to be reduced to Ferrous (Fe2+) by
enzyme Duodenal cytochrome b (Dcytb)
(Vitamin C dependent).
 From the gut lume moved into the enterocyte before getting to the bloodstream by
transporter .Inorganic iron use DMT1 & organic iron uses HCP1(ferrous binds to
mucosal cell protein called Divalent Metal Transporter-1 (DMT-1) and transported
into the mucosal cell.
 Iron oxidized to ferric state. Complexed with apoferritin to form Ferritin. 士Ferric Iron
is released, reduced to Ferrous state crosses the cell membrane. Reoxidized to
Ferric state by Ceruloplasmin.
 Ferric Iron bound with Transferrin and transported to tissues. lron is stored in liver,
spleen.

32.  Iron deficiency anemia
 Most common nutritional deficiency diseases.
 All over India, about 70% - 85% of pregnant woman suffer from anemia.
 This lead to irreversible impairment of child learning ability and in adult result in
impair work ability.
 Stick vegetarian are more prone for iron deficiency anemia.
 Iron deficiency characterized by microcytic hypochromic anemia.
 Hb levels <12gm/dl.

33. large quantities in marine plants and animals. Okra, Garlic, lima beans,
summer squash, sesame seeds. Iodized salt.
 Metabolic Rate： Iodine influences the functioning of thyroid glands by
assisting in the production of hormones, which are directly responsible
for controlling the body's base metabolic rate.
 Energy Levels: by ensuring the efficient utilization of calories, without
allowing them to be deposited as excess fats.
Formation of healthy and shiny skin, teeth and hair.
 immune System Strength: Iodine is itself a scavenger of free hydroxyl
radicals(like vitamin-C),it also stimulates antioxidants throughout the
body to provide a strong.
 Reduce conditions like fibrosis, turgidity, and breast tenderness.

34.  Rich dietary sources of cobalt include copra meal (2 mg/kg Co),
linseed meal, dried brewers yeast, fish meal, meat meal, cottonseed
meal, and soybean meal (0.5-0.1 mg/kg).
 The principal biological functions of cobalt may be summarized as follows;
 Cobalt is an integral component of cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12), and as such
is essential for red blood cell formation and the maintenance of nerve tissue
Although not confirmed, cobalt may also function as an activating agent for
various enzyme systems.

35. Sources -
Plants (varies with soil content), meat, sea foods.
 Selenium, as selenocysteine is an
essential component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase.
 Glutathione peroxidase functions as an antioxidant enzyme. It suppresses the oxidative
stress by converting
oxygen free radicals into less toxic forms or non-toxic forms.
 Acts as a non-specific intracellular antioxidant, it protects the cells against the damage
caused by H2O2 .
 Complementary to vit.E : availability of vit.E reduces the Se requirement.
 Protects from developing liver cirrhosis.
 Selenium contains enzyme 5'deiodinase converts thyroxine (T4) to triiodo-thyronine (T3)
in thyroid gland.

36.  50 to 100 microgram/day.
 Normal serum level 50-100micro gram/day.
 Deficiency lead to muscular dystrophy, pancreatic fibrosis, reproductive disorder.
 Toxicity cause selenosis, excessive intake of selenium cause manifestation,
weight loss , emotional disturbance, diarrhea, hair loss.

37. legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains and drinking water
Proper Growth-Pigmentation of Hair and Eyes-Brain Stimulation
Utilization of Iron and Sugar.
Copper is part of many enzymes needed for iron metabolism
Plasma copper 100-200mg/dl 95% in RBC as colorless erythrocuprein.
Copper is either an element or a cofactor in as many as 50 different enzymes
The essential role of copper – transporting ATPase's ATP7A AND ATP7B in human
physiology. This process is essential for human growth and development.

38.  Wilson’s disease.
hepatolenticular degeneration
ceruplasmic level in blood is drastically reduced.
Incidence --1 in 50,000
 Meane’s disease ( menke’s kinky hairs syndrome)
due to defect in intestinal absorption copper
x linked defect (affected only females)

39. Source:
Drinking water (either
fluoridated or naturally
containing fluoride), fish,
and most teas.
Main Functions:
involved in formation of
bones and teeth; helps
prevent tooth decay
NORMAL RANGE- LESS THAN 2 PPM PER DAY

40.  chick shell meal, shrimp tall meat, dried brewers yeast, shellfish.
 Trivalent chromium is an integral component of the glucose tolerance factor (GTF; a low
molecular weight compound with trivalent chromium coordinated to two nicotinic acid
molecules with the remaining coordinates protected by amino acids) and acts as cofactor
for the hormone insulin.
 Apart from its vital role in carbohydrate metabolism (ie. glucose tolerance and glycogen
synthesis), trivalent chromium is also believed to play an important role in cholesterol and
amino acid metabolism.

41.  Text book of Biochemistry by Rafi M.D.
 Wong J & Pantapouls K. (2()11). Reregulation of cellular Iron metabolism. Briochem J.
434(Pt 3): 365 381.
 Diaz V. (20i 1>. Regulation of Iron metabolism during Exercise. Medicina Sport iva. VoL
15 issue 4. p 230.
 Mustafa A & Cagri C. (2013). Iron metabolism and impotence of iron in exercise.
international Journal of Academic Research. Vol. 5 ksue 4. p 222.
 Qian ZM. (20()2). Nitric oxide and change of iron metabolism in exercise, Biol Rev
Camb philos Soc. 77 (4>: 529-536)