This module talks about ethnography. Contents: 1. What is Ethnography? - Definition, advantages and disadvantages, and when to use ethnography 2. Ethnography vs Other Qualitative Research - Comparisons between Ethnography and Narrative research, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory, and Case study 3. Ethnographic methods - Understanding how anthropology is investigated through ethnographic means 4. Comparative Methods - Exploring anthropology through the comparative research method 5. Challenges When Doing Ethnography - Assessing the various obstacles ethnographers face while doing fieldwork 6. Global Challenges and Opportunities - Realizing the challenges that ethnographers go through in today's globalized world, and how they sought opportunities from it

1. JUAN, Karen
PAGCALIWAGAN, Angelika
Module 3

2. Contents
01 What is Ethnography?
What is Ethnography?
Definition, advantages and disadvantages, and when to use
ethnography
02
Ethnography vs Other
Ethnography vs Other
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
Comparisons between Ethnography and Narrative research,
Phenomenology, Grounded Theory, and Case study
03 Ethnographic methods
Ethnographic methods
Understanding how anthropology is investigated through
ethnographic means

3. Contents
04 Comparative Methods
Comparative Methods
Exploring anthropology through the comparative research
method
05
Challenges When Doing
Challenges When Doing
Ethnography
Ethnography
Assessing the various obstacles ethnographers face while
doing fieldwork
06 Global Challenges and Opportunities
Global Challenges and Opportunities
Realizing the challenges that ethnographers go through in today's
globalized world, and how they sought opportunities from it

4. What is
Ethnography?
01

5. definition
Ethnography is typically defined as the systematic
study of people and cultures.
Ethno = people; graphy = writing →writing about
people
of ethnography
of ethnography

6. definition
The central aim of ethnography is to understand
another way of life from the native point of view.
The goal of ethnography, as Malinowski put it, is
“to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to
life, to realize his vision of his world.”
of ethnography
of ethnography

7. ADVANTAGES
of ethnography
of ethnography
can account for the complexity of group behaviors,
reveal interrelationships among several dimensions of group
interactions, and provide context for behaviors.
reveal qualities of group experience in a way that other research
methods cannot.
help determine future questions and types of follow-up research.

8. DISADVANTAGES
of ethnography
of ethnography
It is time consuming and requires a well-trained researcher
Bias on the part of the researcher can affect both the design of the
study and the collection and interpretation of data.
Too little data may lead to false assumptions about behavior patterns,
while large quantities of data may not be processed effectively

9. While searching for the meanings of cultural norms and views
In trying to understand the reasons for the use of certain behavior or
practices
For examining social trends and instances like divorce, illness, migration
For examining social interactions and encounters
To understand the roles of families and organizations and their behavior
To identify new patterns and gain new insights into social phenomenon
To understand the hygiene and sanitation practices of communities
To observe the types of punishment given to children at school
To study the behavior of workers in an organization
when do we use
ethnography?
ethnography?

10. 02
Ethnography vs
Other Qualitative
Research

11. of approach
Research Focus
Research Focus
Ethnography
Narrative
research
Phenomenology
Case study
Grounded
theory
Describing and interpreting a culture-sharing group
Exploring the life of an individual
Understanding the essence of the experience
Developing a theory grounded in data from the field
Developing an in-depth description and analysis of a case or
multiple cases

12. analysis
Unit of
Unit of
Ethnography
Narrative
research
Phenomenology
Case study
Grounded
theory
Studying a group that shares the same culture
Studying one or more individuals
Studying several individuals who have shared the experienc
Studying a process, an action, or an interaction involving many
individuals
Studying an event, a program, an activity, or more than one
individual

13. Suited for approach
Type of research problem
Type of research problem
Ethnography
Narrative
research
Phenomenology
Case study
Grounded
theory
Describing and interpreting the shared patterns of culture of a
group
Needing to tell stories of individual experiences
Needing to describe the essence of a lived phenomenon
Grounding a theory in the views of the participants
Providing an in-depth understanding of a case or cases

14. disciplinary origins
Nature of
Nature of
Ethnography
Narrative
research
Phenomenology
Case study
Grounded
theory
Drawing from anthropology and sociology
Drawing from the humanities including anthropology, literature,
history, psychology, and sociology
Drawing from philosophy, psychology, and education
Drawing from sociology
Drawing from psychology, law, political science, and medicine

15. Ethnographic
Methods
03

16. tHREE fUNDAMENTAL aSPECTS OF
human experience
human experience
CULTURAL
BEHAVIOR:
What
people do
CULTURAL
KNOWLEDGE:
What people
know
CULTURAL
ARTIFACTS:
The things
people make
and use

17. classical
ethnographic methods
ethnographic methods
Secondary Data Analysis.
Fieldwork
Observing activities of interest
Recording field notes and observations
Participating in activities during observations
(Participant observation)
Carrying out various forms of informal and semi-
structured ethnographic interviewing

18. basic classical
ethnographic methods
ethnographic methods
Physical mapping of the study setting
Conducting household censuses and genealogies
Assessing network ties
Using photography and other audio/visual methods

19. Difference
Difference
between the
between the
larger category of classical
methods and the subcategory
of Basic Classical methods is
associated with the social
setting to be studied
Classical Ethnographic
methods have been frequently
associated with the study of
communities or populations
Basic classical methods are
those that are administered
not only to human residential
communities and populations,
but also applied to other
social settings, such as
organizations, institutions,
meetings, and just about any
setting wherein humans are
iterating

20. skills required
for Ethnographic Studies
for Ethnographic Studies
High degree of interpretative agility is required to understand the wide
range of issues and facts involved in the study.
The researcher needs to be unbiased and unprejudiced in order for the
study to draw valid and reliable conclusions.
The researcher needs to be familiar with the social settings and needs
to have a high degree of intellectuality and diplomacy.
The researcher needs to possess good interactional and interpersonal
skills.
The researcher needs to be sensitive towards the culture, values and
norms of the social setting in which the study is being conducted.
The researcher needs to be familiar with the tenets of research ethics

21. major steps
involved in ethnography
involved in ethnography
Identify
intent and
type of
design and
relate intent
to your
research
problem
Discuss
approval and
access
considerations
Collect
appropriate
data
emphasizing
time in field,
multiple
sources,
collaboration
Analyse and
interpret
data within a
design
Write report
consistent
with your
design

22. Fieldwork on Prostitution
in the era of aids
in the era of aids
R e s e a r c h t o p i c
by Claire E. Sterk
Prostitution from the point of view of women, themselves
To understand their current lives, it was necessary to learn how they got started
in the life, the various processes involved in their continued prostitution careers,
the link between prostitution and drug use, the women’s interactions with their
pimps and customers, and the impact of the AIDS epidemic and increasing
violence on their experiences

23. Fieldwork on Prostitution
in the era of aids
in the era of aids
A c c e s s a n d d a t a c o l l e c t i o n
by Claire E. Sterk
Challenge of identifying locations where street prostitution took
place
Participant Observation
In-depth Life history interviews
Ethical and Safety Concerns

24. 04
Comparative
Methods

25. Ethnography
Comparative
Comparative
Cultural comparison using ethnographic data is essential for explanation,
hypothesis testing, and theory generation (Ember, 2009).
Comparative ethnography is ethnographic research that explicitly and
intentionally builds an argument by analyzing two or more cases.
The comparative method is often applied when looking for patterns of
similarities and differences, explaining continuity and change.
Comparative ethnography can yield new and different insights that sharpen a
study’s theoretical contribution and enhance its contribution to knowledge in
the field.
This method can be done through a single case or among multiple sites

26. Gopala Sarana in his book The Methodology of Anthropological Comparison (1975)
distinguishes three kinds of comparative method:
a sample of the world’s societies is chosen. Then the sample is analysed
with respect of the distribution of selected cultural features.
Conclusions are drawn on cause and effect, and thus the sample is
believed to yield explanations of relations between cultural features
broadly applicable worldwide.
(1) Global-sample comparison
comparative ethnography
Kinds of
Kinds of
This is used especially, and legitimately, for pedagogical purposes
and more broadly for highlighting social or cultural phenomena that
may be different in diverse contexts.
Nuer of Northeast Africa (patrilineal) vs Trobriand of Papua New
Guinea (matrilineal)
(2) Illustrative comparison

27. Gopala Sarana in his book The Methodology of Anthropological Comparison (1975)
distinguishes three kinds of comparative method:
In between the two lies a controlled comparison and the most
informative type
The idea is that by narrowing the range of variables through working
on similar societies, especially but not necessarily ones within an
ethnographic region or culture area, more meaningful comparisons
can be made.
Ex. three cases where close-kin marriage is common in South
Africa: the Tswana, Southern Sotho, and Swazi
(3) Regional comparison
comparative ethnography
Kinds of
Kinds of
The distinctions between the different types of comparison is not strictly
definable, and some comparative studies are open to interpretation as to
exactly what the theory of comparison is.

28. comparative ethnography
Issues in using
Issues in using
Anthropologists often express concern, suspicion, or outright dismissal of
(what they call) ethnographic analogies
There is an issue on ensuring equivalence
The more cases to compare, the less comparable variables available and
vice versa.
Literature exists about comparative ethnography (George, 2007; Howe,
2005; Kingfisher & Goldsmith, 2001; Simmons & Smith, 2019), however very
few explain the procedural considerations or practical steps.
It can be time-consuming and resource intensive.
There is an issue in defining the dimensions to compare.

29. comparative ethnography
Advantages of using
Advantages of using
Comparative ethnography opens new possibilities for theorizing in
ways that are productively different from single-case ethnography.
It can help ethnographers question existing conceptual categories
and generate novel understandings
It is useful for answering “how” questions and illustrating political
processes
This type of ethnography offers opportunities for cooperation among
ethnographers.

30. In conclusion,
In conclusion,
Comparison is perhaps less
fashionable as a ‘method’
than it was in the past, but it
is always with us as part of
social anthropology’s
essence.

31. Time to take a
break~~

32. let's
play!

33. Challenges
When Doing
Ethnography
05

34. 01 Cross-cultural
misunderstanding
misunderstanding
Cultural misunderstanding happens when two or more people
speak the same language, but they mean or understand
different things.This is usually due to their cultural background
and experiences.
The essential core of ethnography is the concern with the
meaning of actions and events to the people we seek to
understand.
Some of these meanings are directly expressed in
language; many are taken for granted and communicated
only indirectly through word and action.

35. 01 Cross-cultural
misunderstanding
misunderstanding
Language-based - different understanding of the same word /
expression
f o u r t y p e s :
Behavior Based - one person acts in a way that means a different
thing to the other.
Mixed Language & Behavior Based - happens when we have the
same understanding of the words, but the behavior of the other
person makes us not believe what they say.
Silent assumption - happens when you don’t talk or behave in a
certain way, just assume based on your cultural experience.

36. 01 Cross-cultural
misunderstanding
misunderstanding
e x a m p l e
Eating
Christmas in
the Kalahari
by Richard Borshay Lee

37. 02 Naive
realism
realism
Naive realism is considered as the human tendency to believe that we
see the world around us objectively, and that people who disagree
with us must be uninformed, irrational, or biased.
It is the belief that people everywhere see the world in the same way.
If an ethnographer fails to control his or her own
naive realism, inside cultural meanings will surely
be overlooked
Examples: eating dogs, beauty standards

38. 03 CULTURE
shock
shock
Culture shock is a state of anxiety that
results from cross-cultural
misunderstanding.
Immersed alone in another society, the
ethnographer understands few of the
culturally defined rules for behavior and
interpretation used by his or her hosts. The
result is anxiety about proper action and an
inability to interact appropriately in the new
context.

39. 04 ETHNOCENTRISM
Ethnocentrism is the belief and feeling that one’s own culture is best.
It reflects our tendency to judge other people’s beliefs and behavior
using values of our own native culture.
It is impossible to rid ourselves entirely of the
cultural values that make us ethnocentric
when we do ethnography. But it is important
to control our ethnocentric feeling in the field
if we are to learn from informants.

40. 05 ASSIGNED
The role assigned to ethnographers by
informants affects the quality of what can
be learned
Ethnography is a personal enterprise which
requires prolonged social contact with the
community, unlike using research methods
such as questionnaires or short interviews
role
role

41. 06
Since 2012, the American Anthropological Association’s
Principles of Professional Responsibility state:
ethical
considerations
considerations
Do no harm
Be open and honest regarding your own work
Obtain informed consent and necessary permissions
Weigh competing obligations due collaborators and affected parties
Make your results accessible
Protect and preserve your records
Maintain respectful and ethical professional relationships
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

42. 06 ethical
considerations
considerations
Due to the distinctive features of ethnographic research, anthropologists are
continuously faced with ethical dilemmas while on the field (Arnould, 1998)
W h y E t h i c s d i f f e r s i n e t h n o g r a p h y
involves involves extended, experiential participation of the researcher in a
specific cultural context
involves socialization with a vengeance
emphasizes processual research
involves constant role playing and interactional deceit
exposes the life-worlds and life-projects of research participants holistically in
order to craft ethnographies.

43. Global
Challenges and
Opportunities
06

44. global
challenges
challenges
Anthropology is uniquely a knowledge for the 21st
century, crucial in our attempts to come to terms with
a globalized world, essential for building
understanding and respect across real or imagined
cultural divides, and it is not only the ‘most scientific
of the humanities and the most humanistic of the
sciences’, but also the most useful of the basic
sciences.oink

45. global
challenges
challenges
Why anthropological knowledge can help make
sense of the contemporary world?
Contact between culturally different groups has
increased enormously during our time
The world is shrinking in other ways as well. For better
and for worse, satellite television, cell phone networks
and the internet have created conditions for
instantaneous and friction-free communications.

46. Social distancing measures have limited methods of
ethnographic research
Digital media of the kind to which we’ve
quickly turned in this crisis offers a useful
communicative tool for conducting interviews
or meetings; however, it is neither universally
available nor reliable for all researchers and
their subjects
global
challenges
challenges

47. global
challenges
challenges
The pandemic allowed us to recognized that no individual can
unproblematically enter spaces of danger and operate with authority
The work we do as social scientists can harm the groups we
aim to understand but when observing those who are medically
vulnerable during a pandemic, anyone can be a threat in a direct
and personal way.
There is a need for collaboration. Collaboration means
recognizing the different conditions that shape how we do what
we do and how we know what we know and working to mitigate
the varying levels of risk assumed by individual collaborators.

48. For now, ethnography’s critical insights on the what,
where, and with whom of social research can help
us productively reorient our work in the face of the
current global immobility that will inevitably continue
to shape social life and research even in post
pandemic times.
global
opportunities
opportunities

49. Ethnography’s focus on the politics of location—i.e., the
“where” of our studies—also offers important lessons for
contemporary social research.
We must recognize that a certain phenomena does
not necessary lives in a particular physical place
We must acknowledge that the things we study are
assembled in ways that are not tied to a single
point on the map
global
opportunities
opportunities

50. global
opportunities
opportunities
Analyses of global dynamics are especially fruitful
opportunities for rethinking research
Example: The tension between globalism and
nationalism has emerged as a crucial feature of the
current crisis.
As leaders race to locate the source of the virus,
close borders, regulate domestic movement, and
bolster flailing economies, the meaning and shape
of nationalism is being refigured.

51. global
opportunities
opportunities
The challenge for many researchers now is to conduct their academic research
despite not being able to access the ‘field’ regularly physically. As the
pandemic impedes into their fieldwork plans, the prospect of continued
ethnographic research seems uncertain.
Researchers are, therefore, re-inventing their methods to continue their
research (Miller, 2018). To manage such a crisis during ‘new-normal’,
social anthropologists utilize ‘online ethnography’ (Miller, 2020)
Unlike conventional ethnography, digital ethnography involves analyzing
social constructions of cultural life through online virtual worlds
(Boellstor!, 2012).

52. global
opportunities
opportunities
Digital Ethnography involves addressing three basic
questions:
Where: The first step is to identify the location from where the researcher
wants to collect data;
How: The second step is to decide the selection of interlocutors. Such
choices and the patterns of selection should be linked to research
objectives;
Who: Finally, the researcher should locate the interlocutor and make
him/her aware of the objectives of research and thereby addresses
issues of ethics and ownership

53. Five Key principles for doing
Digital Ethnography
Digital Ethnography
Multiplicity
Non-Digital
Centricness
Openness
Unorthodox
Reflexivity
There are several ways to engage with the digital, and all these ways have
a clear impact on the research
Even when research is conducted online, relationships cannot be purely
digital, so it is important to look beyond it to understand how relationships
are played out.
Openness and flexibility is the major feature of digital research design.
Digital ethnographers theorize and encounter the world as a digital–
material–sensory environment and relexively engage in asking how we
produce knowledge
Digital ethnography acknowledges and seeks out ways of developing
knowledge about social realities that might otherwise be invisible and
unanticipated.

54. global
opportunities
opportunities
It is also important to remember that while digital ethnography cannot
completely counteract all the challenges brought forward to ethnographic
practice ‘at home’, yet it can guide us to make further enquiries into global
structures and locations of power, cultural practices and social phenomena
Ethnography is being reconstructed and renegotiated as the ‘desk has
collapsed into the field’ (Mosse, 2006: 937) due to the pandemic. In such
times, digital ethnographic practices can provide a viable option for doing
thick, analytical and descriptive research

55. ANY QUESTIONS?
thanks for
listening!

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Research Methods (eds J. Matthes, C.S. Davis and R.F. Potter). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118901731.iecrm0035
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http://what-when-how.com/social-and-cultural-anthropology/comparative-method-anthropology/
https://items.ssrc.org/covid-19-and-the-social-sciences/social-research-and-insecurity/thinking-ethnographically-in-
pandemic-times/
https://www.easaonline.org/publications/policy/why_en
LIST OF
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References

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LIST OF
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References