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Journal of Geography in Higher
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A claim for the case method in the
teaching of geography
Richard Grant
a
a
Department of Geography, Maxwell School of Citizenship and
Public Affairs , Syracuse University , Syracuse, NY 13244–1090,
USA E-mail:
Published online: 02 May 2007.
To cite this article: Richard Grant (1997) A claim for the case method in the
teaching of geography, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 21:2, 171-185, DOI:
10.1080/03098269708725423
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2. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1997
A Claim for the Case Method in the
Teaching of Geography
RICHARD GRANT, Syracuse University, USA
ABSTRACT The case method and use of cases offer geographers an exciting and
innovative pedagogical approach. The case method is an interactive learning approach
that promotes student discussion and shifts the emphasis from a teacher-centred to a
student-centred classroom. Currently, this method is part of a growing trend in
international affairs education, and preliminary evaluation of the approach has been
highly positive. By applying the case method, educators can extrapolate connections
between research and teaching, these being poorly realised links to date. In this paper
the case method is outlined, the sources of cases and how to teach them are detailed,
and the relevance of the case methodfor geography teaching and learning is evaluated.
KEYWORDS Case method, geographic learning, pedagogy.
Introduction
Interactive learning, an approach in which students are active participants in the learning
process, represents a gateway to improve geographic education (Hill, 1994; Grosvenor,
1995). This approach suggests a radically different notion of how education should
proceed by shifting the core concept of education from teaching to learning. Calls for an
active learning approach arise because of three broad types of objections (cognitive,
philosophic and pragmatic) to the traditional lecture model of education, summarised by
Garvin (1991, p. 4). First, retention of knowledge appears to be higher when students are
active participants in the learning process rather than passive recipients. Second, there is
a belief that lectures cannot teach skills such as judgement, analysis, problem-solving
etc. Third, many students simply do not like the lecture format, so an alternative may
help stimulate their learning. These criticisms have reinforced the appeal of an alterna-
tive model of education (Christensen et al., 1991).
Responding to this call the National Geographic Society has spent more than US$80
million over the last 10 years on a multi-pronged campaign that supports, trains and
empowers secondary school teachers to improve the quality of geographic education [1].
A major emphasis of the new mission in geographic education is to develop innovative
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3. R. Grant
educational methods. Some geographers, for instance Klein (1995), offer creative
approaches to designing instructional materials for secondary geography and have begun
to focus their efforts on grounding these new materials in an alternative pedagogical
practice that addresses the new National Geography Standards (GESP, 1994) [2]. Others
have experimented with innovative teaching approaches within college and university
geography courses. This paper describes one such effort, the use of the case method. It
details the sources of cases, describes how to teach them, and finally assesses the
relevance of the case method for teaching and learning geography.
The aim of the case method is to teach a range of skills (diagnosis, analysis,
evaluation, problem solving, decision making, etc.) that can be learned by students to
interpret events and to understand place in the 21st century. Proponents also use the
approach to encourage student responsibility for learning in an effort to improve the
quality and standard of education by encouraging students to think for themselves
(Garvin, 1991).
Presently, the case method is part of a growing trend in international affairs education
(Long, 1993). Across the USA, in both public and private university classrooms,
graduate seminars and large introductory courses are being enlivened by the introduction
of this alternative to the traditional lecture method of teaching. The development of the
case method is linked to a programme launched by the Pew Charitable Trusts 10 years
ago. In the first phase of the Pew-funded programme, grants were given to six prominent
schools of international affairs [3]. Subsequently the Pew Faculty Fellowship in Inter-
national Affairs was established to train and support faculty through a Harvard Pro-
gramme in case teaching and case writing in an effort to disseminate the method.
Recently, some geographers have received these fellowships, have studied the case
method, and have written cases with an explicit geographic perspective (Pitzl, 1995;
Grant, 1995).
While the case method is relatively new to university geography teaching, the
approach has been used in secondary education. For instance, in the USA, the High
School Geography Project (HSGP) of the late-1960s (Helburn, 1968) and the Geographic
Inquiry into Global Issues Project (GIGI) from 1990-94 developed instructional modules
around case studies of global issues (Klein, 1995). In England, Wales and Northern
Ireland, the Geography 16-19 Project promoted a national geography curriculum for
secondary education based on the case method (although the term 'enquiry approaches'
was used) (Naish & Rawlings, 1990, p. 57).
The case method must not be confused with using cases as reading material to
illustrate themes or concepts or to provide examples in lectures, as has been the practice
in economic, cultural and physical geography teaching. The terms case-study/case, and
the case method have precise meanings and refer to an entire, established pedagogical
practice whose objective is student-centred learning. The teacher's role is not to profess,
diagnose, analyse and interpret but to act as a facilitator, posing open-ended questions
that invite students to explore and interpret the material for themselves and to allow
students to benefit from the group's work.
The form of a case can vary from a structured narrative to an article, a book, or a
video and from half-page vignettes to multi-part documents that contain maps, exhibits,
tables, graphs and appendices (Boehrer & Linsky, 1990). Usually, a case is a real-world
example of phenomena or events that the educator requires students to reflect upon
(Boehrer, 1994). My own case (Grant, 1995) provides an account of global/national and
national and local tensions that are impediments to agricultural trade reform in Ireland
and France. By providing a narrative on the negotiation strategies of Ireland and France
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4. A Claimfor the Case Method in Teaching
and policies during the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, I encourage students to
grapple with issues such as how comparative advantage was created by agricultural
policy in Europe, why an agrarian myth prevails, how agricultural policy is made, and
how and why governments find it so difficult to reform farm trade. My case was written
to serve as the basis for discussions to promote interactive learning. For instance, rather
than lecturing to students about EU trade policy I get them to work through and then
discuss a real-world example of trade policy conflict, and I encourage students to
undertake their own analyses and problem-solving of the events. My aim is to excite
students about the subject-matter so that they become more engaged and more active
participants in the learning process.
Support for the case method has been so strong and widespread that a worldwide
electronic discussion forum and archive of materials (cases, teaching notes, case reviews,
syllabi, information on case teachers, etc.) has been set up and can be accessed on the
Internet: CaseNet (See Table I for details of how to access CaseNet and other sources
of cases). The list of subscribers to CaseNet continues to expand. In 1995 CaseNet was
rated in the top 5% of all World Wide Web sites visited (Point Communications, 1995).
The Case Method
My initial attraction to the case method was to use cases as a vehicle to improve
classroom discussions. I felt that this was a positive and proactive response to dealing
with 'flat' classroom discussions. Use of the case method encouraged me to think more
about the questions I posed, how to chart probable responses, and when to plan for points
in the discussion that would be most appropriate for inserting follow-up questions.
Rather than allowing the discussion to wander, I posed questions that called for deeper
analysis in an attempt to enrich the discussion. By using cases, students were able to
connect more abstract concepts such as place, culture and locality with real-world
examples.
Historically, the case method has its roots in legal and medical education in the
nineteenth century where actual cases were used to illustrate and teach general principles
as well as specific subject-matter and modes of analysis (Boehrer & Linsky, 1990). The
modern expression was pioneered by the Harvard Business School in the first half of the
twentieth century and remains the essence of its approach to research and teaching
(Christensen, 1981). Case studies now account for 80% of the coursework at HBS (The
Economist, 1995, p. 69) [4]. In recent years the case method has evolved into a highly
interactive discussion process that is implemented to engage a diverse range of students
including undergraduates, graduates, senior practitioners in executive programmes and
children in elementary schools. It serves a wide range of disciplines including geogra-
phy, political science and economics and an array of subjects from public policy and
foreign policy to nursing and teaching itself.
Some of the salient aspects of case-study pedagogy are not realised by other
non-discussion modes. For instance, in the case method approach both teacher and
students are encouraged to acquire the artistry of listening. The teacher needs to listen
to each student's comments to gauge their command of substantive material and logic,
as well as to assess the contribution of the individual comment(s) to the group's
continuing dialogue (Christensen, 1981). Students are forced to listen to one another and
focus on a similar target, usually an analysis of an issue such as trade policy reform. In
the process students develop an idea orally, articulate their viewpoints within the context
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5. O
TABLE I. Some sources of available cases
Organisation Addresses—postal and World Wide Web Topics
CaseNet
Carnegie Council on Ethics
and International Affairs
The CHANCE Project
Clearing House for Decision
Case Education
World Wide Web Site:
http://csf.colorado.edu
170 E. 64 Street,
New York,
New York 10021-7478
USA
The CHANCE Project,
Dartmouth College Mathematics Dept.,
Hanover,
New Hampshire 03755, USA
World Wide Web Site:
http://www.geom.umn.edu
Clearing House for Decision
Case Education,
Dept. of Agronomy and Plant Genetics,
The University of Minnesota,
1991 Upper Buford Circle,
St Paul,
Minnesota 22108, USA
World Wide Web Site:
http://www.decisioncase.edu
Development, environment, foreign policy,
history, international political economy,
international trade and economics
Ethics, international relations, development
Statistics, probability
Sustainable agriculture, education
technologies, extension education
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6. The European Case Clearing House
The Foreign Policy Institute
Harvard Business School
Institute for the Study of Diplomacy
The European Case Clearing House,
Cranfield Institute of Technology,
Cranfield,
Bedford, UK
World Wide Web Site:
http.7/www.cranfield.ac.k;shecch;sh
The Johns Hopkins University,
Nitze School of Advanced
International Studies,
1740 Massachusetts Avenue, NW,
Washington DC 20036, USA
Harvard Business School Publishing,
Customer Service Department,
230-5, 60 Harvard Way,
Boston,
Massachusetts02163-1001,
USA
World Wide Web Site:
http://www.hbsp.harvard.edu
Pew Case Study Program,
School of Foreign Service,
Georgetown University,
422A Intercultural Centre,
Washington DC 20057-1052,
USA
Accounting, control and business
environment, finance, policy and
general management, human
resources and organisational
behaviour, marketing, production and
operations management
Foreign policy, negotiation, international
political economy
Business, government and the international
economy, competition and strategy,
information, organisation and control
systems, management policy, managerial
accounting, marketing, organisational
behaviour, technology and operations
management
Conflict resolution and mediation, defence
and security, diplomatic history, ethics
and international affairs, global
resources and the environment, international
law and organisations, international political
economy, development, finance.trade,
North-South relations
8.
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7. R. Grant
of the evolving group discussion and persuade others of their viewpoints. Such
opportunities for student input are not generally available during lectures.
Already an archive of published cases has been established by several organisations
[5] (see Table I for a list of organisations that publish cases). Some organisations, such
as the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy at Georgetown University, catalogue their
published cases by geographic region, sub-region and by subject (international political
economy, diplomatic history, ethics in international affairs, etc.). It regularly updates its
case catalogue. Teaching notes are often provided by the authors of cases to assist
educators in preparing for class discussions. The notes usually include additional
analysis useful for the discussion, sample questions for the discussion, and the probable
outcomes of the case. For instance, for my own case I have written four pages of
teaching notes that include specific questions and four to six probable responses to each
question. Alternative ways to teach the case are also offered in the teaching notes.
Cases serve multiple intended purposes and various teaching objectives. For instance,
Cross & Angelo (1992) list 52 teaching and learning goals that can be used in the
classroom, ranging from higher-order thinking skills (analytical, problem-solving, etc.) to
discipline-specific knowledge skills to academic values with the use of different cases.
The teaching objectives can therefore be varied during the course of the semester. When
I teach my case, my objectives include the pursuit of higher-order thinking skills (the
development of problem-solving skills, the development of analytical skills, the develop-
ment of students' ability to synthesise and integrate information and ideas), improving
memory, speaking and listening skills and connecting the lesson/case to the world of
policy making outside the classroom.
Cases can be found on a range of topics including trade, the environment, develop-
ment and especially foreign policy. To date no physical geography cases have been
published by the Center of Diplomacy. While many of the cases available in the USA
primarily focus on the US or North American governmental actors in international
issues, this does not preclude their use in non-US focused courses. For example, I
regularly teach a course on the European Union (EU) and I adapt many cases originally
written from perspectives held in the USA to emphasise European views and roles. Cases
can easily be adapted by an instructor fielding discussion questions that emphasise the
participation of actors in the case in ways which may differ from the author's original
intentions. For instance, in many cases written about US-EU issues I regularly open
discussion with questions such as: "Why did the Europeans react in this way to the US
initiative?"; "How different is the EU policy-making apparatus from that in Washing-
ton?" Thus, cases can be modified to suit a variety of different contexts.
The goal of the case discussion is to enhance students' capacity to deal with
situation-specific issues (Cusimano, 1995). Through the use of multiple cases, students
learn how to apply general concepts to the real world and learn to be specific; as a
consequence, they become more tentative about applying generalisations across the
board. Students learn the general skills of asking appropriate questions and finding
relevant data to answer these questions. Such learning can encourage students to
undertake further independent inquiry and critical thinking on geographic issues.
Over the past two years my experiments with the case method have consistently
produced two positive results. First, students perform better in examinations. The
average score for the course improved by five percentage points. Although, I have no
scientific evidence, it is likely that the increase in examination marks is due to the
introduction of the case method [6]. However, the exams were designed to assess critical
thinking, a skill that is central to the case method. Second, student evaluation of teaching
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8. A Claimfor the Case Method in Teaching
has been positive. Overall, quantitive evaluations of courses that use both lectures and
cases have been higher than these obtained prior to use of cases. In a recent evaluation,
50% of students rated the course exceptional on a five-point scale and 80% rated the
course above average or higher (1 = exceptional, 2 = above average, 3 = average,
4 = below average, 5 = unsatisfactory). In this quantitative evaluation of my teaching I
used the same standard measures that were used to evaluate lectures. To compensate for
some of the deficiencies in the quantitative evaluation I also undertook a separate
qualitative evaluation of the case method. Students reported by their qualitative evalua-
tions that they learned more than might have been accomplished by a traditional lecture
format. In particular, it was widely noted that many students learned to be more specific
about the information at hand.
The preliminary evaluative evidence on case teaching from other disciplines, such as
international relations and economics is positive (Fratantuono, 1994; Carlson & Schodt,
1995). Moreover, geographers (Charman & Fullerton, 1995) have reported that the
incorporation of cases into lectures is successful. One comparative study (Watson, 1975)
compared classes taught by the case method with the same class taught by the lecture
method and found that more learning occurred in the former. Students in the case class
scored better on knowledge and understanding and on their ability to apply concepts.
Student evaluations of case teaching, as far as they are a useful indicator of learning,
have on the whole been very positive. In addition, the list of cases written each year
continues to grow and demand for cases is increasing. There is also evidence, albeit
small and as yet inconclusive, that cases are more effective than lectures in enabling
students to retain more information. According to Stice (1987) using cases may enable
students to retain information in the 50-70% range. For instance, Stice (1987, p. 294)
found that six weeks after a test, students retain "ten per cent of what they read, twenty
per cent of what they hear, thirty per cent of what they see, fifty per cent of what they
see and hear, seventy per cent of what they say, and ninety per cent of what they do and
say".
Planning and Teaching a Case
The following is a guideline for teachers who are interested in teaching using the case
method. The guideline is based on a format that has been developed by one of Harvard's
more experienced case teachers (see the study by Boehrer (1995) for details of his
approach). Several stages are involved in this format and these are discussed below (see
Figure 1). The advantage of following this sequence of stages for discussion is that
students learn a range of skills including how to build upon each others' contributions
and how to use information to sharpen their analyses. Cases can be adapted to any class
size. Most case teachers argue that cases work best in small classes. Cases can be used
in larger classes but the grading of the cases requires more attention and the support of
teaching assistants. For larger groups, it is useful to break the class up into smaller
groups for group discussion at various points in the overall class discussion to make sure
everyone gets a chance to speak.
Case Selection
Select a case that fits your subject-matter, details significant or revealing events, and
promises to engage students. A large selection of cases is available, written by
experienced case teachers (Table I). Setting a few limited objectives at the outset clarifies
one's discussion goals and, it is hoped, leads to a more focused discussion and more
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Selection of case
Case preparation Recomendation/
Framing Diagnosis Analytical Problem-solving Debriefing
Discussion planning • 5 min. • ;10 min. » 15 min. 15 min. » 5 min.
•4—Before class—• -4 During class •
FIGURE 1. Sequence for case discussion.
productive outcomes. For example, an educator might establish an objective of develop-
ing students' decision-making skills. Usually, in a group discussion many students find
it difficult to decide on 'the best' strategy for solving a real-world problem so the aim
of the educator may be to get students to think through the decision-making process.
Students could be asked to reflect on the possible outcomes and potential barriers to
implementing a particular decision. It is also useful to keep in mind that the same cases
can be discussed very differently by individual discussion groups. Being aware of this
may help prepare the instructor for different treatments and may even allow for
unexpected outcomes to emerge.
Case Preparation
Prepare yourself and your students. Prepare your own interpretation of the case and
outline the different perspectives by which the case may be interpreted. Select questions
that will draw on the case specifics and invite wide-ranging and competing views. Five
or six good questions are sufficient to carry the entire discussion. For instance, the
sequence of questions I typically use when I teach my case are:
(1) Why is agriculture so difficult to reform in Europe?;
(2) What are all the options that the French government could pursue in order to
oppose the Blair House draft?;
(3) What roles did Britain and Germany play during the farm trade negotiations?;
(4) How do you assess the performance of the European Commission on this trade
policy issue?;
(5) Was the EU ultimately successful in the Uruguay Round of trade talks?
For the class discussion I recommend pre-planning for opportunities to move through the
stages of the conversation and the five questions listed. Class time will be used more
effectively if more time is devoted to analysis rather than to framing the discussion.
Besides giving students the case to read, students should be provided with three or four
study questions before the class to assist them as they prepare for the case discussion.
These study questions are similar to the questions that will be employed in case
discussions.
Discussion Planning
Plan for the discussion to evolve through sequential stages and allot a time for each of
the stages (Figure 1). The most labour-intensive part of this process is associated with
case selection and preparation before class.
Figure 1 provides an example of how I typically allocate a 50-minute class period for
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10. A Claimfor the Case Method in Teaching
a case discussion. Time devoted to the preparation stages varies depending on familiarity
with the material. In practice this model can be adapted to fit the time allotted for the
class or the type of discussion emphasis desired. In the early part of the semester, I
usually spend more time framing the discussion and searching for factual information
with students. In the latter part of the semester, I tend to allocate more time for the
groups to recommend a solution(s) and for problem solving.
Framing
Frame the discussion and ask some good questions. Before asking an opening question,
frame the forthcoming discussion by situating it in a context reflecting the course
objective/theme(s), previous classes (lecture or discussion), or readings in order to give
the group a sense of direction for the discussion: for instance, "Let's see why France
proved so steadfast in its negotiating position". Good, opening, information-seeking
questions revolve around 'Who?' 'What?' 'When' and 'Where?'. In general, it is good
to vary the sequencing of questions from one case to the next to provide variety and to
prevent the class discussion from becoming routine. Another approach is to start the
discussion with a 'big bang' open-ended question. A problem with such an approach is
that there is a risk that the question may produce no responses so I would only
recommend this strategy for a group that already has had some exposure to the case
method. Good examples of big open-ended questions are: "Why is/is not reform of the
Common Agricultural Policy a good idea?"; "What are your reactions to French
behaviour in the case?"; "What aspects of the problem were of greatest interest to you?";
"Which of the actor's views do you find most compelling?". So far as it is possible,
questions should be framed to prevent students from thinking that there is a correct
answer. The purpose, after all, is for students to form their own analyses from the
information. Try to ask questions that will bring as many students as possible into the
discussion early on. A useful strategy is to relate questions to something that the students
are familiar with from their own experience. For example, it is much easier to get
students involved early on with factual matters than at a later stage when the discussion
is based on analysis, recommendation or evaluation.
Diagnosis, Analysis, Recommendations
Build a discussion. The art of discussion leading is to retreat from the case at this point,
allowing students to explore (Boehrer, 1994). As Figure 1 illustrates, a sequence of tasks
for the class might be diagnosis, analysis, recommendation/problem solving and de-
briefing. Good examples of diagnostic questions are: "What is your analysis of the
problem?"; "Why is there now a problem with farm trade?". After considering a range
of viewpoints the discussion leader might pose some analytical questions: for instance,
"What conclusions do you draw from the data that are presented in the case?" or "How
accurate is the-statistical information that was presented by the media in various
countries?". Now we enter the heart of the discussion and the group (whole class or
smaller groups [5-10 students] if class size is large) should be asked to perform some
problem solving that is based on the groups' analysis(es). It is often useful to ask: "What
would you do if you were the decision-maker?". This question is likely to invoke
competing perspectives and can lead to a rich discussion of options and recommenda-
tions. Sometimes during discussion I call on students to summarise the discussion in
order to keep the discourse focused and to prevent unnecessary repetition.
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Over the course of several cases you may want to vary the timing allotted to discussion
building to inject variety into the method. A good strategy for involving quieter students
and more reluctant participants is to break the class into small groups. It is useful to allow
these small groups about five minutes to discuss the case before the opening question.
Speaking first within small groups often gives quieter students a low-risk opportunity to
speak, which in many instances may later encourage these individuals to speak to the
larger group on the same issue with more confidence. Role-playing can be a good
strategy for encouraging discussion. Roles can be pre-assigned or they can be assigned
during the discussion. Role plays involve the participants taking on a character and then
viewing a particular situation through the lens of that character (see studies by Maddrell
(1995) and King (1981) on how to use roles plays in participatory learning). Role plays
provide a 'mask' that liberates some individuals and allows them to participate on behalf
of a case character rather than themselves. Role plays, if used effectively, can also
challenge ethnic, gender and class stereotypes. One should be careful to use role plays
carefully so as not to reinforce stereotypes.
Rarely will the class exhaust all the possibilities of the case or arrive at a definitive
answer. In most instances the lesson is that there is no right answer to solve complex
real-world problems, only sound analysis and various interpretations. Bringing closure to
a case is one of the most difficult tasks. Several strategies have been presented by
experienced case teachers for closure and for evaluating the discussion process (Boehrer,
1994; Christensen, 1991). One option is to provide a straightforward summary of the case
discussion, connecting and commenting on the pieces of analysis without giving an
authoritative answer. The second option is to point out where the discussion was rich or
surprising and where it might have gone deeper. A third option is to raise new questions.
These questions can be predictive—"What do you predict about the future for this
issue?"—or questions of extension—"What are the implications of your conclusions
about problems in EU policy making for policy makers in other transnational institu-
tions?"—or questions of generalisations—"Based on your study of agricultural policy
making in the EU, why have the Europeans achieved comparative advantage in this
sector?".
Debriefing
During the last minutes of the class a significant period should be devoted to a debriefing
session on the group's performance. This is a good time to offer your comments on the
discussion process itself and on the group's performance. This can encourage students
to reflect on the process as well as the content of their contributions and their own roles
in the group. Finally, returning to the framing of the discussion itself, the themes of the
course, a theoretical perspective or a discussion of contextual factors may be another way
of bringing the discussion to an adjournment. In some instances the case itself can be a
good introduction to a concept that the educator plans to lecture about in the future. Case
studies can provide students with the background information required to appreciate
course concepts.
The Relevance of the Case Method to Geographic Teaching and Learning
Besides enlivening class discussion and making teaching a more enjoyable endeavour,
there are many other good reasons (not necessarily exclusive to the case method) why
the case method should become an accepted practice in geography teaching [7]. First,
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some cases can allow teachers to integrate their research into teaching. From my own
experience I have found that I have been able to inform my courses more with my
research. By invoking all aspects of the case method including researching, writing and
teaching cases, geographers can make their research accessible and available to students.
This research can also be enhanced by the inclusion of information obtained during
case-research interviews that might not be uncovered by non-qualitative research
methods and by a researcher adopting a quantitative methodology only. For instance, I
found that, in interviewing EU agricultural trade policy makers, they were able to shed
light on aspects of farm trade, especially the politics of trade, that could not be gleaned
from analysing trade data or reading official reports. In this manner, cases can be used
to establish connections between research and teaching.
Second, the case method involves high levels of collaboration between 'educators' and
those 'to be educated'. Case-based learning emphasises individual participation in a
collective enterprise. Each individual's contributions are influenced by and, in turn,
affect the contributions of others. Such collaboration has long been recognised by
business schools as the strength of the approach. Opportunities also exist for students to
collaborate through their involvement in case writing. Collaboration between educator
and students is now becoming a more common practice in international affairs. Such
participation of students in faculty research and teaching will no doubt enrich their
educational experiences as well as help bridge the gaps between the teacher and student.
Such dramatic shifts in the goal of geography teaching/research should encourage
student responsibility for learning, reflecting the spirit of the new National Geography
Standards (GESP, 1994). Case learning also helps bridge gaps between students. For
instance, an advantage of the case method is that it allows students with a particular
expertise, e.g. mature students, to have the opportunity to present their knowledge to
their peers and educators.
Third, cases are very useful for teaching about territorial knowledges and general
principles to be covered in lectures. For the latter, cases provide a good introduction and
a real-world illustration of general concepts. Case learning can fulfil the potential of
geography: territorial knowledges that are an integral part of other knowledges (Le
Heron, 1995). Cases are vehicles for students to ground an issue/problem in a particular
spatial context and to learn how particular spatial contexts influence the outcome of
events. By encouraging students to situate themselves within a real-world problem,
students are invited to situate themselves in a world beyond the classroom, a world
seldom visited in lectures. In case teaching students usually confront issues faced by
policy makers and others in very different spatial contexts. In learning about territorial
knowledges, students will draw connections, especially among territories and the
knowledges rooted in them. Because cases invite students to grapple with real-world
problems and the constraints embedded in society, cases will help bridge the gap
between academic geographic knowledge and everyday life (Pickles, 1986), which is
central to empowering education.
Fourth, cases and the case method allow students to realise that geographic knowledge
is contested and changing. Many students in the USA come to geography for the first
time at university, and have a limited knowledge of geography, assuming it to be the
study of fixed locations. Geography, like other social science disciplines, has undergone
sea-changes in subject-matter and content in recent years, reflecting the end of the Cold
War, globalization and regional integration, and the critical debates about the nature of
geographical knowledge such as postmodernism and feminism. Gone are the days when
a tripartite division of the world into West, East and Third World fits any geographic
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13. R. Grant
reality or where the fortunes of individual places in the world economy can be
understood by looking at national characteristics alone. Localities are subjected to the
pressures of global economic competition and are now less regulated by national
governments and local factors. Cases can be useful vehicles, if they are contextualized,
to allow students to study changing world geographies at various scales.
Trade, for example, cannot be understood by many of the 'old concepts' in economic
geography. It is not that these old concepts are erroneous but that they are insufficient
to analyse current trends. Cases are useful in examining current developments in trade
and other issue areas because they usually have up-to-date information and provide a
narrative that can be used to shed light on the complexities of topics such as the world
trade system. Complex issues arousing strong national sensibilities (e.g. trade in the
1990s) cannot be adequately treated by 'old concepts' in economic geography such as
comparative advantage. Educators who do not explore new trends are not likely to offer
much conceptual insight. There are few better ways to explore these trends, to illustrate
new trade theories such as strategic trade theory, intra-firm trade, etc. than by grounding
the study of theory and by bringing to life general concepts by using a real-world case
study.
Finally, the case method also assists students in developing a command of a body of
geographic materials. Today the sheer volume of information is overwhelming and only
a modicum of geographic concepts and information can be presented in any one course.
A return to the old but valid idea that depth is better than breadth of knowledge is
required (Newmann & Wehlage, 1993). As the National Geography Standards Project
notes (GESP, 1994, p. 18): "Geography has much more to do with asking questions and
solving problems than it does with rote memorisation of isolated facts". Cases can be
used to develop students' capacities for thinking spatially (about contextual factors) and
learning about places through the experiences of participants in real-world cases.
Moreover, in case learning, students develop a broad perspective because the skills
learned are transferable to other disciplines and contexts. Cases can be used to draw out
the most important goals of geographic inquiry: the understanding of self, place, space,
environment, society, context and representation.
The case method, however, has some limitations. It is more appropriate for small to
medium size classes (under 40 students). While I have observed the case method being
used effectively in large lecture classes, that may require a more experienced case
teacher. Grading students' case contributions can also be time consuming and problem-
atic without sufficient support. Because so much of the teacher's effort is required to
facilitate and listen to the discussion, it is generally not possible to assign grades to
student participation at the same time. To remedy this, I have found it useful to have a
teaching assistant transcribe the class conversation, noting who speaks, how long they
speak, the quality of their contributions and at what stage in the conversation they
participate (Figure 1). Such a written record is essential to review before assigning
grades. Moreover, a lot of preparation time is required prior to class (to select cases, to
prepare for discussion and for discussion planning). The most time-consuming part is
selecting cases that are appropriate for illustrating the concepts that the instructor wishes
to present or apply.
Another problem with the case method is that particular types of students, especially
non-individualistic and quieter students, find learning from this approach more challeng-
ing. In particular, some international students may find it more difficult to relate to a
teacher who is a discussion facilitator rather than a lecturer. However, because teaching
and learning are socialised processes it may take more time for students and educators
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14. A Claimfor the Case Method in Teaching
to adapt to additional learning methods also. Obviously, some students will be more
successful at adapting to an alternative teaching method than others. I have found that
with some extra effort most students can learn from the case method regardless of their
culture or personality.
Conclusion
The case method and the use of cases, while no panacea for contemporary geography
instruction, offer an important strategy for increasing students' learning of the discipline.
Cases and case learning meet the urgent need for effective, issues-based instructional
materials (Hill, 1992; Klein, 1995) and offer a useful approach for teaching policy
analysis (Velenchik, 1995). The method offers a framework that can be applied to
teaching by discussion and can be viewed as a companion to some of the other good
practices that have been outlined for teaching geography (Gold et al., 1991). It can be
an alternative to the lecture method, although I would argue for its combination with
lectures. Adopting the case method will enable geographers to move in line with the
educational reform movement that has produced good results in secondary education and
is beginning to yield positive results in third-level education in international affairs. A
more exciting and practical approach that teaches students skills that are important in the
contemporary working world may also encourage enrolment in geography courses in the
USA, where traditionally geography enrolment has lagged behind other social science
subjects.
Developing a repertoire of tools for case teaching and learning is obviously a
long-term professional commitment. My own experience has been very positive. As
Brown et al. (1989, p. 33) note: "People who use tools actively rather than just acquire
them, by contrast, build an increasingly rich implicit understanding of the world in which
they use the tools and of the tools themselves. The understanding, of the world and the
tool, continually change as a result of the interaction". The case method can be an
important powerful additional tool that the geographer brings into the classroom.
Because the method is relatively new to geography teaching, and my experiences with
the case study pedagogy are recent, further evaluation is needed. Assessments will need
to be made of how the method contributes to students' learning of geography and how
students participate in geography courses taught by the method. So far assessments of the
method have been highly positive in economics and international relations but new
authentic assessment is needed which requires researchers to evaluate instruction that is
based on students performing real-world tasks on real-world problems (Newmann &
Wehlage, 1993). This could be achieved by the development of survey instruments that
measure students' ability to diagnose, analyse, make decisions and problem solve
throughout the course and across their educational experience.
Correspondence: Richard Grant, Department of Geography, Maxwell School of Citizen-
ship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1090 USA. Email:
rjgrant@maxwell.syr.edu
NOTES
[1] The National Geographic Society is a non-profit Washington DC-based organisation whose goals are
to disseminate geographical knowledge and to promote geographical education.
[2] The Geography Education Standards Project is a study that was published by the National
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15. R. Grant
Geographic Society and was developed onbehalf of all major American geographical organisations
such as the American Geographical Society, the Association of American Geographers and the
National Council for Geographic Education. Thestudy aimed to build a consensus regarding the
study of geography andto identify keyconcepts andapproaches to geography learning.
[3] Therecipient institutions were Columbia University, Georgetown, Johns Hopkins, University of
Pittsburgh, University of Southern California andHarvard University.
[4] The Economist (1995, p. 69) also raised a criticism of the HBS in its almost religious-like
fundamental adherence tothe case method despite the fact that other US business schools, employing
a variety ofpedagogies, have been rising recently inthe business schools rankings. The lesson here
appears to be that a successful school needs to employ a variety of teaching methods.
[5] Purchasing cases from theHBS andInstitute for theStudy of Diplomacy cost in therange of US
$3-7.
[6] Higher exam marks maybe dueto the case method's encouragement of critical thinking. Other
possibilities to explain these results might include thefact that students were of a higher calibre
and/or students worked harder than usual.
[7] Other methods of geography teaching, e.g. feminist teaching methods, field research etc., canalso
produce similar positive outcomes.
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