FLCT - Chapter 1 - Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

Chapter 1: Learner-
Centered Theories of
Learning
BAAO COMMUNITY COLLEGE
San Juan, Baao, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
JESUS B. RANCES, LPT
Instructor, Baao Community College

FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
When we hear the word, “learning,” the first
thing that comes to our mind is studying subject or
courses like mathematics, science, and language in
school. In a broader sense though, learning extends
much more beyond the confines of the classroom or
the school. People learn everyday of their lives in
various places and conditions.
Introduction

The term “learning” and all other concepts
related to it, expectedly form a major part of the
experiences for you who are studying to become
teachers. As such, it is important for you to understand
the nature of learning because you play a major role in
the students’ learning. Knowing and understanding
learning-related concepts will enable you to better
develop teaching methodologies and other inventions
meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.

The goal of education is to effect learning among
students and the population at large. Learning
connotes observed changes in a person as a result of
environmental events and interventions. The process
of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that as
students go up the educational ladder, developmental
changes in their personality are affected. This has to do
with improved and enhanced physical, emotional,
social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and other
personality behaviors.

For a start, learning is generally defined as any
change in the behavior of the learner. The change can be
deliberated or unintentional, for better or for worse,
correct or incorrect and conscious or unconscious (Mayer
2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). To qualify for
learning the change should be brought about by experience
or by interaction of the person with the environment. It is
not learning if the change is brought about by maturation
like getting taller or hair turning gray. Temporary changes
due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included as
example of learning.
LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING

While the definition may generally connote change
either in the direction of the positive or negative, it should
be borne in mind that for our purposes in education, it
means conscious and deliberate effort to effect behavioral
changes among learners in the positive direction. Thus, we
should be thinking about improving and enhancing
learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills and values,
quantitatively and qualitatively speaking. Toward this end,
we should look to the goals and objectives of education as
our guide to successfully effect the desired learning
outcomes.

Learning is a process that brings together
persona and environmental experiences and influences
for acquiring, enriching or modifying ones knowledge,
skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views
(“Education,” n. d.).
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively
permanent change in behavior with behavior including
both observable activity and internal processes such as
thinking, attitudes, and emotions.

Santrock (2012, p. 217) defined learning as a relatively
permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking
skills that comes about through experiences. Santrock goes
further to say that it is a long-term change in mental
representations or associations as a result of experiences. For
example, as a result of experience, children will change from
being unable to operate a computer into individuals who can.
However, not everything that an individual knows or is able to
do is the result of experiences. There are some things an
individual can do due to inherrited capacities. An example of
this is swallowing or blinking of the eyes. If, however, an
individual develops new methods of study, works harder to solve
problems, asks better questions, then these are learninh as a
result of experience.

The definition of learning covers the following
elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not
necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experiences.
c. It does not include changes that are
physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue,
hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation and
association, presumably, it has basis in the brain.

Woolfolk (2016) asserts that "learning occurs
when experience (including practice) causes a
relatively permanent change in an individual's
knowledge, behavior or potential for behavior." For
Ormrod (2015), "learning is a long-term change in
mental presentations or associations as a result of
experience."

Learning is also defined as “any relatively
permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
practice and experience." From the definitions, learning
has three important elements; a) a change in behavior,
better or worse; b) change takes place through practice or
experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation);
and c) behavior change must be relatively permanent and
last for a fairly long time. All learning involve activities,
whether physical or mental. Activities learned by the
individual refer to types of learning, as for example, habits,
skills, facts ("Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and
Theories of Learning" n. d.).

There are types of learning resulting from
engagement or participation in classroom activities.
These types of learning are basic ingredients to success
in school. These are what school desire of students to
develop.
Types of Learning

It is a form of learning for one to
maintain and go through daily life activities as
for example, walking, running, driving,
climbing, and the like. These activities involve
motor coordination.
a. Motor Learning.

It involves the use of spoken language as
well as the communication devices used. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds are
tools used in such activities.
b. Verbal Learning.

A form of learning which requires the use
of higher-order mental processes like thinking,
reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two
processes; abstraction and generalization.
c. Concept Learning.

It is learning to differentiate between
stimuli and responding appropriately to these
stimuli. An example is being able to distinguish
the sound of horns of different vehicles like
bus, car, and ambulance.
d. Discrimination Learning.

It is learning principles related to
science, mathematics, grammar and the like.
Principles show the relationship between two
or more concepts, some examples of which are
formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and
the like.
e. Learning of Principles.

This is a higher-order thinking process.
This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities - such as thinking, reasoning,
observation, imagination and generalization.
f. Problem Solving.

Attitude is a predisposition which
determines and predicts behavior. Learned
attitudes influence one's behavior toward
people, objects, things or idea ("Learning
Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of
Learning" n. d.).
g. Attitude Learning.

The nature of learning or the changes
occurring within an individual is difficult to visualize
and understand because it is an internal process.
Hence it is not easy to present, or explain in concrete
terms what this complex process is all about. Thus,
there is a need to look at theories of learning to
enable one to better conceptualize and
operationalize what learning is all about.
LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING

Learning is a very comprehensive and complex
concept, and it covers a wide range of activities
which cannot be explained with a limited framework.
This may be the reason why there is available wide
range of theories of learning, each propounding and
focusing on a particular perspective or view to
explain what learning is.

A learning theory is an organized set of principles
explaining how individuals acquire, retain, and recall
knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people
learn and why they learn. They also try to explain the
phenomenon of learning - its nature, and the conditions
under which learning best occurs. The explanations are,
however, considered as tentative. Be as it may, these
statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead, they
are well studied or seriously thought out, and in many
cases, the result of scientific study. These theories
especially guide teachers to have a better understanding
of how learning occurs and how learners learn
("Educational Learning and Learning Theories," n. d.).

The term "learning" may mean differently to
different people and used differently by different
theorists. As theories of learning evolved over time,
definitions of learning shifted from changes that
occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to
changes in participation in on-going activities with
other individuals, to changes in a person's identity
within group. (Theories of Learning," n. d.).

Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and
push for learner-centeredness in educational
practice, especially in curriculum development and
teaching methodology. This means that policy,
planning, and implementation of educational
practice should have the learner as its focus. It is
therefore expected that theories of learning and their
applications should be learner-centered.
LEARNING POINT: DEFINING "LEARNER-CENTERED"

Learner-centered is the perspective that
focuses on individual learners - their heredity,
experiences, perspectives, background, talents,
interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on
learning - the best available knowledge about
learning and how it occurs, and about teaching
practices that are most effective in promoting the
highest levels of motivation, learning and
achievement for all learners.

For a better understanding of the term
learner-centered, following are learner-centered
principles, meant to provide a framework for
developing and incorporation new strategies and
designs of teaching,
These are the main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning
process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily
internal and under the control of the learner.

c. They deal with external or contextual factors that
interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no
principle to be viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive,
metacognitive, motivational, affective, developmental,
social, and individual difference factor related to
learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but
to everybody involved in the educational system, as for
example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff and
guidance counsellors.

Listed below are the learner-centered
psychological principles which provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is
and should be (Workgroup of the American
Psychological Association Board of Educational Affairs,
1997 cited in Santrock, 2011). Learner-centered does not
only refer to learner-characteristics, but also to the
beliefs, dispositions, and practices that are created by
teachers. To digress a little, principles are statements
that depict a general truth which have been established
through careful study.

1. Nature of the Learning Process. Learning
of complex subject matter is most effective when it is
an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.
2. Foals of the Learning Process. The
successful learner, over time, with support and
guidance can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge. The learner
can relate new information in meaningful ways.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

4. Strategic Thinking. The learner can create
and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex goals.
5. Thinking About Thinking. Higher-order
strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning. Learning is influenced
by environmental factors including culture
technology, and instructional practices.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in
Learning. What and how much is learned is influenced
by the learner's level of motivation. Motivation to learn is
in turn influenced by the learner's emotional states,
beliefs, interests, goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn. Learning is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation in Effort. Acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without this motivation,
willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless coerced.
Motivational and Affective Factors

10. Developmental Influences on Learning. As
individuals develop, they encounter different
opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when
differential within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social Influences on Learning. Learning is
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
Developmental and Social Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning. Learners
have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective
when differences in learners' linguistic, social, and
cultural backgrounds a re taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately
high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
and learning progress - including diagnostic and
outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning
process.
Individual Differences Factors

The above context describes the different
conditions under which learning best occurs. It
therefore behoves educational practitioners,
especially teachers to be creative, flexible and
innovative in their approaches and methodologies,
not only in teaching, but in dealing with their
students.

Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered
instructional strategies which address learners' needs.
They are:
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-
solving. It exposes learners to authentic life problems
that they meet in their daily lives. This approach involves
small-group efforts to identify problems and issues they
wish to tackle and explore, then identify materials and
resources to solve the problems. The teacher guides and
monitors the learners' problem solving efforts.

2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners,
which perplex them. This is followed by other
questions, which motivate the students to explore
the questions and look for answers. The questions
cause the students to think, and provoke their
curiosity. These questions are creative. A "dull"
question, like "What is the effect of the People Power
Revolution in our political and economic life?" can
be translated into a more thought-provoking one
like, "Is the People Power Revolution still going on?"

3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-
instruction approach. Teachers create the situation
where students explore and figure out things for
themselves. The guided discovery learning evolved
from discovery learning, where students still
construct their own understanding but with the
guidance of the teacher.

Earlier on, the nature of theories of learning
has been discussed. It must be noted that there are
many theories of learning as a result of continuous
study and research, in search for the truth. It is the
dynamic nature of theories that enable us to
understand better a complex phenomenon, as
learning.
LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING

Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the
learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in
the early 1900s through the research efforts of van
Pavlov and Edward Thorndike who made more
objective studies about learning as opposed to the
studies on learning which relied heavily on
introspection.
Behaviorism

The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula
rasa) and behavior is learned or shaped through positive
reinforcement. Both of these increase the probability that
the antecedent behavior will be repeated or will happen
again. Behaviorism advances the idea that when a cue or
stimulus In the environment is presented, the individual
makes a particular response to that stimulus.
Behaviorism contends that new behaviors or changes in
behaviors are acquired by associating stimuli and
responses. Thus association leads to changes in behavior.
Behaviorism is a world view that operates on the
principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R).

All behavior can be explained without the need to
consider the internal mental states or consciousness.
Behaviorism instruction, however, does not prepare
the learners for problem-solving which currently is
the skill being developed among learners for
survival. This is because behaviorism looks at the
learner as a passive learner. Learning is promoted by
environmental factors like reinforcement, feedback,
practice or repetition. ("Behaviorism," n.
d).

Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism,
which many behaviorists share (Ormrod, 2015. pp 52-
53).1
a. Principles of learning should apply equally to
different behaviors and to a variety of animal species.
This is on the assumption that humans and other
animals learn similar ways. Thus behaviorists-
researchers apply to humans what they have derived
from the studies of animals.
b. Learning processes can be studied most
objectively when the focus of study is on the stimuli and
responses. It is argued that stimuli and responses are
observable and measurable which contribute to
objectivity of studying learning.

c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in
theoretical explanations. This thinking stemmed from the
argument that these internal behaviors cannot be directly
observed. Recently, however, there has emerged a thinking
propounded by neo-behaviorists that learning is better
understood if cognitive processes, be included as a factor, that
explains learning
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or
concise).

The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed
below: (Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly, September, 2012).
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforces
l. Negative reinforcement

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism
The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s
replaced behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for
learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is
necessary to open it for a better understanding of how
people learn. Mental processes such as memory, knowing,
problem-solving, reasoning and other such processes need
to be explored. People are seen not as programmed beings
that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as is
propounded in behaviorism. Cognitivism requires active
participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a
result of thinking Knowledge can be seen as schema or
symbolic mental constructions, thus learning is defined as
change in a learner’s schemata.

Changes in behavior are observed but this only indicates
what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner's mind is
compared to a computer which does a lot of processing of
the data fed into it. Thus individuals are thought of as
active learners, actively engaged in their learning: and
actively seeking ways to understand and process
information that they receive and relate this to what is
already known and stored within memory. Learning is
thought of as an internal process rather than simply
dealing with or responding to external stimuli. Learning
involves the reorganization of experiences, either by
attaining new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning
is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory and
not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012).

Examples and applications of the cognitive learning theory
(Kelly, September 2012)
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something
known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and
meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

Social Constructivism
As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the
1970s and 1980s, it posits that learning is an active
constructive process. The learner himself constructs
knowledge. People actively construct or create their own
representation of objective reality. New information is
linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are
subjective. Learning is seen as an active contextualized
process of constructing knowledge instead of simply
acquiring it. Knowledge is based on the learners' personal
experiences and expectations of the environment and
where they continuously test these expectations through
social negotiations.

Each person may have a different interpretation and
construction of the knowledge process. The person is not a
blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a
situation. It assumes that all knowledge is constructed
from the learner's previous knowledge regardless of how
one was taught. Thus, a simple task of listening to a lecture
involves active attempts to construct new knowledge and
not just absorbing what is being said in the lecture. Each
person generates knowledge based on his previous
experiences or knowledge. Thus, the individual develops
his own mental models to make sense of his experiences.
Thus, learning is adjusting to one's mental models to
accommodate new experiences.

The theory is about preparing the individual to
solve problems. Thus, the individual needs to have a
wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to
create and interpret ideas. It may be said that results
may not be the same because learners create their own
ideas and thus, may be unique to the individual
persons. So constructivism does not work which
results are expectedly fixed or consistent.

Following are some applications of social constructivism
(Kelly, September 2012).
a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
The applications of social constructivism show that
class activities which require the participation and
contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to
occur.

The table below presents some salient points about the
above-mentioned theories of learning considered as
basic to the further study of learning:
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism
View of Knowledge Knowledge is a
repertoire of
behavioral responses
to environmental
stimuli.
Knowledge systems of
cognitive structures are
actively constructed by
leaners based on cognitive
structures.
Knowledge is constructed
within social contexts
through interactions with a
knowledge community.
View of Learning Passive absorption of
a predefined body of
knowledge by the
leaner. Promoted by
repetition and
positive
reinforcement.
Active assimilation and
accommodation of new
information to existing
cognitive structures
Discovery by leaners.
Integration of students into
a knowledge community.
Collaborative assimilation
and accommodation of
new information.

Behaviorism
Cognitive
Constructivism
Social Constructivism
View of
Motivation
Extrinsic,
involving positive
and negative
reinforcement.
Intrinsic, leaners set
their own goals and
motivate themselves to
learn.
Irtrinsic and extrinsic.
Learning goals and
motives are determined
both by learners and
extrinsic rewards
provided by the
knowledge community.
Implicationd for
Teaching
Correct behavioral
responses are
transmitted by
teachers and
absorbed by
students.
Teacher facilitates
learning by providing an
environment that
promotes discover and
assimilation/accomomo
dation.
Collaborative learning
is facilitated and guided
by the teacher. Group
work.

Thus far, the theories of learning presented
above are considered as forerunners of the study of
learning theories. Each theory projects its own points
and tries to relate specific factors along a particular
perspective to learning. It would be good, however, to
look at the other theories of learning that consequently
evolved following the basic theories (“Strengthening
Education,” n.d.).

1. Social Learning Theory
This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who
works with both cognitive and behaviorist frameworks that
embrace attention, memory, and motivation. This theory
suggests that people learn within a social context and that
learning is facilitated through concepts like modeling,
observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward
“reciprocal determinism” that holds the view that a
person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all
reciprocally influence each other. He argues that children
learn from observing others as well as from model
behavior, which are process involving attention, retention,
reproduction, an motivation. The importance of positive
role modeling on learning is well-established.

Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education.
a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing
people.
b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively
increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate
ones.
c. Modelling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching
new behaviors. It can provide a faster, more efficient means of
teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors
and take care not to model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teacher should expose students to a variety of other
model to break down traditional stereotypes.

2. Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of
learning was further changed by the perspective of
‘situated cognition and learning.’ It emphasized the
significant role of context particularly social interaction in
learning. Criticism against the information-processing
between constructivist approach to cognition and learning
became stronger as the pioneer work of Leo Vygotsky as
well as anthropological and ethnographic research by
scholars like Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave came to the
fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism
was that the information-processing constructivism saw
cognition and learning as processes occurring within the
mind in isolation from the surroundings and interaction
with it.

Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and
independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In
the new view, cognition and learnings are understood
as interactions between the individual and a situation;
knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of
the activity, context, and culture in which it is formed
and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor, for
learning as “’participation and social negotiation.”

Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of
Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to
engage in a group work or cooperative learning.
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make
sure that each learner is able to make his contribution to
accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local
instructional materials which are familiar to the learners.
This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for
group discussions, and problem solving tasks.

3. Experiential Learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and
constructivist theories of learning but situate experience at
the core of the learning process. They aim to understand
the manner in which experiences, whether first- or second-
hand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in
everyday life-that lead to a change in individual’s
knowledge and behaviors. Carl Rogers is an influential
proponent of these theories suggesting that experiential
learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural
inclination to learn; and they learn if they are fully involved
in the learning process.

Rogers put forward the following insights; a) learning
can only be facilitated; we cannot reach another
person directly; b) learners become more rigid under
threat; c) significant learning occurs in an
environment where threat to the learner is reduced to
a minimum; d) learning is most likely to occur and to
last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic
continuous process or change where new learning
results in and affects learning environments.

Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of
Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history
and experiences of the learners, which could serve as
inputs for related lessons. In so doing, students would feel
that they are involved in the learning process, because it is
their own experience which they are studying.
b. Teacher should make sure that they have a feel of
the experiences of the students, so that they are better able
to create an atmosphere for students that is relaxed.
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate
and guide students’ learning, so that they do not have to
always be the source of learning materials.

4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)
This theory challenges the assumption in many learning
theories that learning is a universal human process that all
individuals experience according to the same principles.
Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence challenges the
understanding that intelligence is dominated by a single general
ability. He argues that intelligence actually consists of many
distinct intelligences: logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial,
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal
ability, and naturalistic ability. This theory is speculative but
appreciated by teachers in broadening their framework of
developing skills, curriculum and testing. The MI theory
“requires” the teachers to come up with a variety of instructional
materials and strategies, to make sure that the needs of students
with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice
They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented.
These concepts were developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger.
Situated learning recognizes that there is no learning that is not
situated. It emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of
knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning
activity for individuals involved. The theory further asserts that it is
within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions
taking place within a community of practice, i.e. cooperation, problem
solving, building trust, understanding and relations-have the potential
to foster community social capital that enhances the community
members’ well-being. Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is
most effective when it takes place in communities. Communities of
practice is not confined only to schools but to cover other settings like
workplaces and organizations. It seeks to understand both the
structure of communities and how learning occurs in them
(“Education,” n.d.).

According to McCarthy (1981,1987) the concept of
communities of practice is based on the following
assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon.
People organize their learning around social communities
where they belong. Therefore, schools are powerful
learning environment for students whose social
communities coincide with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities
that share values, beliefs, language and ways of doing
things. These are called communities of practice. Real
knowledge is integrated in the doing, social relations, and
expertise of these communities.

c. The process of learning and membership in a
community of practice are inseparable. Because
learning is intertwined with community membership,
it is what lets us belong to adjust our status in the
group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is
impossible to know without doing. By doing, we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a
community creates the potential for learning. This is
because individuals learn from experiences of others.

6. 21st Century Learning Skills
The study or exploration of 21st century learning or
skills emerged from the concerns about transforming the
goals and daily practice of learning to meet new demands
of the 21st century characterized as knowledge and
technology-driven. These are skills necessary for students
to master for them to experience school and life success in
an increasingly digital and connected age. Current
discussions about 21st century skills lead classrooms and
other environments to encourage the development of core
subject knowledge as well as media literacy, critical and
systems thinking. Group learning and use of thematic
projects involving inquiry-based collaborative work that
addresses world issues support the learning of the 21st
Century Skills. (Source: https://unesco.org/new/en)

Reference:
 Brawner, Dalisay G., Facilitating Learner-Centered
Teaching. Quezon City, Manila, Philippines. Adriana
publishing Co., Inc.

FLCT - Chapter 1 - Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

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FLCT - Chapter 1 - Learner-Centered Theories of Learning