Geology and Other Sciences Difference between Geo-science and Geology What Geoscientists are? Career Path Scientific Principles in Geology - Parsimony - Superposition - Uniformitarianism Introduction to Geoscience Course 5113 introduces the fundamental character of the physical Earth; how it was formed and developed over time. Students will study the processes by which igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks form and the type of landforms, for example volcanoes, produced by such processes. The nature and formation of the sea floor, the continents, and the mountain belts of the world will be studied in terms of the theory of plate tectonics, which describes how the outer part of the Earth is broken into large fragments (plates) that are in continuous motion relative to each other. One consequence of this motion is the buildup of stress and strain within the crust and underlying mantle, resulting in the generation of earthquakes.

1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOSCIENCE

2. Introduction to Geo-science
a) Geology and Other Sciences
b) Difference between Geo-science and Geology
c) What Geoscientists are?
d) Career Path
e) Scientific Principles in Geology
- Parsimony
- Superposition
- Uniformitarianism
a) Geology and Other Sciences
b) Difference between Geo-science and Geology
c) What Geoscientists are?
d) Career Path
e) Scientific Principles in Geology
- Parsimony
- Superposition
- Uniformitarianism

3. Introduction to Geoscience
Course 5113 introduces the fundamental character of the physical
Earth; how it was formed and developed over time. Students will
study the processes by which igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks form and the type of landforms, for example
volcanoes, produced by such processes. The nature and formation of
the sea floor, the continents, and the mountain belts of the world
will be studied in terms of the theory of plate tectonics, which
describes how the outer part of the Earth is broken into large
fragments (plates) that are in continuous motion relative to each
other. One consequence of this motion is the buildup of stress and
strain within the crust and underlying mantle, resulting in the
generation of earthquakes.

4. Objectives
At the end of this course, students should be able to:
Identify common rocks and minerals and show an understanding of how
they form.
Describe the structure and composition of the Earth and the methods
used to acquire information about the Earth's crust and interior.
Describe the nature of the sea floor and how it changes over time
Discuss the theory of plate tectonics and how it can be used to explain the
formation and distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain belts.
Understand the nature of the geomorphic processes that modify the
Earth's landscape.
Identify a variety of landforms from diagrams and photographs and discuss
their formation.
Discuss the interaction of human and the landscape on which they live
and their response to natural destructive forces such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

5. Geoscience or Earth Science is a
body of knowledge related to
the study of the planet Earth.
However, geoscience is not only
the study of earth materials and
processes that occur on or
within it, but also involves
studying external factors that
may influence earth processes.
Geoscience is mother science
that incorporates sciences like
mathematics, physics,
chemistry, biology, etc. and
uses them to explain the
dynamic processes that
continually chnging the shape
of the earth.
Our Beautiful Blue Planet Earth
What is Geoscience?

6.  a group of related disciplines focused
on the Earth and its systems, history, and
resources
 it’s more than just rocks: geoscience
also involves climate, plants, asteroids,
fossils, archaeology, pollen, glaciers etc.
Geoscience
Shubholong

7.  looks at everything involving the Earth
and other planets, little picture to big
picture
 also investigates ways that geology can
help people
Geoscience

8. Little picture
(grains of sand to molecules)
grains of sand (sedimentology)
crystals (mineralogy and crystallography)
molecules in groundwater (Hydrogeology)
individual atoms (isotope geochemistry)

9.  plate tectonics
 composition and structure of the crust,
mantle, and core
 impact cratering
 formation and evolution of the Earth
Big picture (Earth as a whole)

10. Big picture (Earth as a whole)
Big picture (Earth as a whole)
some fields of geoscience into
the big picture
• GEODESY
• GEOPHYSICS
• GEOCHEMISTRY
• ENVIRONMENTAL
GEOLOGY

11.  geologic events that can harm
people or property, such as
• volcanoes
• earthquakes
• landslides and avalanches
• sinkholes
• floods
Geologic
hazards

12. Geologic Hazards
areas of geoscience that
study these hazards include:
• volcanology
• seismology
• geophysics
• engineering geology
• geomorphology
• hydrology

13.  geologic materials used by people, such
as:
• energy (petroleum, coal, geothermal,
hydroelectric)
• materials (metals, gemstones, sand and
gravel)
• fresh water
• fertile soil
Natural Resources

14. Natural Resources
 areas of geoscience concerned
with natural resources include:
• exploration geophysics
• mineral mining
• hydrogeology
• soil science

15. Earth History
 Earth history concerns the
changes in the Earth’s past, such
as:
• past climate
• evolution of the atmosphere
• ice ages
• past plant and animal life
• mass extinctions
• human evolution

16. Earth
History geoscience fields
involved in this research:
• paleoclimatology
• dendrochronology
• paleontology
• paleoanthropology
• geoarchaeology
• Chronometry
• Historical geology

17. Summary
• Geoscience is a very broad field
involving the study of the Earth
and other planets, from atoms and
molecules to planet-wide events
like plate tectonics
• There are many diverse careers
involved in geoscience research

18. The role of geoscience in shaping
human history is not widely
recognized. Much of the geological
knowledge acquired during human
history in finding and mining copper,
tin, iron, coal, and petroleum has not
been and probably never will be made
part of the public record. Geology will,
unfortunately, remain an under-
recognized, “phantom,” science in that
its role in explaining the foundations
for human society may never be fully
appreciated.
In the beginning of recorded human
history it seems logical to propose that
topography and soils “segregated”
humans into clans and tribes. Since the
surface of the earth’s rocky crust is
composed of many rock types, normal
weathering and erosion creates a
variety of environments determined by
topography and character of the soils.
Application of Geoscience

19. A modern industrial society
depends on natural resources
and the ability to process those
resources. In turn, the
discovery of earth resources
requires the skills of
geoscientists. Exploitation and
management of these
resources lie in the realm of
business and government.
Ultimately, the demand and
disposal of products rests with
individual conscience and
different levels of government.
Mineral materials, including
metals, non-metals (for
example, cement, building
stones, clay, sand and gravels)
and fossil fuels, and the
industries that process them,
involve over one third of global
economy.
A modern industrial society
OPEN PIT IRON ORE MINE, Michigan
Iron Ore Pellets

20. Over the past century,
industries have developed
rapidly, populations have
grown dramatically, and
standards of living have
improved drustically, resulting
in an ever-growing demand for
energy and mineral resources.
Geoscientists have led the
exploration for fossil fuels
(coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) and
concentrations of geothermal
energy, for which applications
have grown in recent years.
They also have played a major
role in locating deposits of
commercially valuable
minerals.
Exploration for energy and mineral
resources
- An open cast tin mine near Taiping. Malay Peninsula

21. The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and
19th centuries was fueled by coal. Though it
has been supplemanted by oil and natural gas
as the primary source of energy in most
modern industrial nations, coal nonetheless
remains an important fuel.
The U.S. Geological Survey has estimated that
only about 2 percent of the world’s minable
coal has so far been exploited; known
reserves should last for at least 300 to 400
years.
Coal-exploration geologists have found that
coal was formed in two different tectonic
settings: (1) swampy marine deltas on stable
continental margins, and (2) swampy
freshwater lakes in graben (long, narrow
troughs between two parallel normal faults)
on continental crust. The main concern,
therefore, is the quality of the coal and the
thickness of the coal bed or seam, information
that can be derived from geophysical surveys
and from samples obtained by drilling into the
rock formation in which the coal occurs.
Coal
Long Wall technology in Coal Mines

22. During the last half of the 20th century, the
consumption of petroleum products
increased sharply. This has led to a
depletion of many existing oil fields,
notably in the United States, and intensive
efforts to find new deposits.
Crude oil and natural gas in commercial
quantities are generally found in
sedimentary rocks along rifted continental
margins and in intracontinental basins.
Such environments exhibit the particular
combination of geologic conditions and
rock types and structures conducive to the
formation and accumulation of liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons. They contain
suitable source rocks (organically rich
sedimentary rocks such as black shale),
reservoir rocks (those of high porosity and
permeability capable of holding the oil and
gas that migrate into them), and overlying
impermeable rocks that prevent the
further upward movement of the fluids.
Oil and natural gas
Side view of a typical diatom, the energy-
trapping organism generally thought to be
the origin of oil.

23. Although only about 15 percent of the
world’s oil has been exploited,
petroleum geologists estimate that at
the present rate of demand the supply
of recoverable oil will last no more
than 100 years. Owing to this rapid
depletion of conventional oil sources,
economic geologists have explored oil
shales and Tar sands as potential
supplementary petroleum resources.
Extracting oil from these substances is,
however, very expensive and energy-
intensive. In addition, the extraction
process (mining and chemical
treatment) poses environmental
challenges, especially in regions where
it occurs. Even so, oil shales and tar
sands are abundant, and advances in
recovery technology may yet make
them attractive alternative energy
resources.
Oil Shale and Tar Sand
Tar Sands Open Pit Mining, Alberta, Canada
Organic-rich black shale.Tar Sands

24. Another alternate energy resource is the heat from the
Earth’s interior. The surface expression of this energy is
manifested in volcanoes, fumaroles, steam geysers, hot
springs, and boiling mud pools. Global heat-flow maps
constructed from geophysical data show that the zones
of highest heat flow occur along the active plate
boundaries. The most active geothermal spots are found
near fault lines and volcanoes but also occur where there
are hot springs, geysers and geothermal reservoirs. It can
be harnessed cleanly and efficiently.
A variety of applications have been developed for
geothermal energy. For example, public buildings,
residential dwellings, and greenhouses in such areas as
Reykjavík, Iceland, are heated with water pumped from
hot springs and geothermal wells. Hot water from such
sources also is used for heating soil to increase
crop production (e.g., in Oregon) and for seasoning
lumber (e.g., in parts of New Zealand). The most
significant application of geothermal energy, however, is
the generation of electricity. The first geothermal power
station began operation in Larderello, Italy, in the early
1900s. Since then similar facilities have been built in
various countries, including Iceland, Japan, Mexico, New
Zealand, Turkey, the Tibet Autonomous Region of China,
and the United States. In most cases turbines are driven
with steam separated from superheated water tapped
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal plants, such as this one in
Iceland, produce harmless vapor, instead
of the soot that can spray from plants
burning fossil fuels.

25. As was mentioned above, the
distribution of commercially significant
mineral deposits, the economic factors
associated with their recovery, and the
estimates of available reserves
constitute the basic concerns of
geoscientists. Because continued
industrial development is heavily
dependent on mineral resources, their
work is crucial to modern society.
It has long been known that certain
periods of Earth history were especially
favourable for the concentration of
specific types of minerals. Copper, zinc,
nickel, and gold are important in
Archean rocks; magnetite and
hematite are concentrated in early
Proterozoic banded-iron formations;
and there are economic Proterozoic
uranium reserves in conglomerates.
Mineral Deposits
Penjom Gold Mine Kuala Lipis, Malaysia
Copper, Colonial Copper Mine, Cape D'Or, Nova Scotia

26. During the 20th century the
exploitation of mineral deposits has
been so intense that serious
depletion of many resources is
predicted. To deal with this
problem, it has become necessary
to mine deposits having smaller and
smaller workable grades, a trend
well illustrated by the copper
mining industry, which now extracts
copper from rocks with grades as
low as 0.2 percent.
Investigations showed a major
potential metallic source on the
deep ocean floor, where there are
large concentrations of manganese-
rich nodules along with minor
amounts of copper, nickel, and
cobalt.
Copper Mine in Chile
Copper Mine in Malaysia

27. Agricultural, industrial and
residential uses require large
quantities of pure,
uncontaminated water, often
beyond that readily available
at the surface. Geoscientists
have the task to find the
hidden subsurface water
resources, assess their quality
and decide the reservoir
potential. In addition, they are
often directly involved in major
assessment studies
concerning water pollution, or
the disposal of chemical and
radioactive wastes.
Exploration for Groundwater Resources
Groundwater use for Irrigation

28. One of the most frightening and destructive
natural phenomena is a terrible earthquake
and its after effects. Eartquakes are the cause
of thousands of deaths and colossal loss and
damage of properties and the natural
landscape. Such a devastation and loss could
be significantly mitigated through advance
assessment of seismic hazard and risk and
through the implementation of approprite
land use, construction codes, and emergency
plans. If major earthquakes could be
predicted, it would be possible to evacuate
population centres and take other measures
that could minimize the loss of life and
perhaps reduce damage to property as well.
For this reason earthquake prediction has
become a major concern of seismologists in
the United States, Russia, Japan, and China. A
primary goal of earthquake research is to
increase the reliability of earthquake
probability estimation. Geoscientists,
ultimately, would like to be able to specify a
Natural Hazards Earthquakes
- Earthquake and tsunami damage at
Fukushima Dai Ichi Power Plant, Japan, 2011
high probability for a specific earthquake on a particular fault within a articular year.

29. Seismologists have done much to
explain the characteristics of
ground motions recorded in
earthquakes. Such information is
required to predict ground
motions in future earthquakes,
thereby enabling engineers to
design earthquake-resistant
structures. The largest percentage
of the deaths and property
damage that result from an
earthquake is attributable to the
collapse of buildings, bridges, and
other man-made structures during
the violent shaking of the ground.
An effective way of reducing the
destructiveness of earthquakes,
therefore, is to build structures
capable of withstanding intense
ground motions.
Haiti Earthquake : Fire breakeout

30. Aftermath of an earthquake in Japan, 2004

31. Cars and airplanes swept by a tsunami caused by an 8.9 magnitude earthquake are
pictured among debris at Sendai Airport, northeastern Japan March 11, 2011.

32. The fields of engineering,
environmental, archeological, and
urban geology are broadly
concerned with applying the
findings of geoscience studies to
construction engineering,
archeological site investgations
and to problems of land use. The
location of a bridge, for example,
involves geologic considerations in
selecting sites for the supporting
piers. The strength of materials
such as rock or compacted clay
that occur at the sites of the piers
should be adequate to support the
load placed on them.
Other Areas of Application
4.8 kilometers long Jamuna_Bridge on Mighty
Jamuna River
The earthen Kaptai dam in Bangladesh is 670 meters
long and 45.7 meters wide with a 16-gated spillway

33. Gescience in Archeological site investigation , Belabo, Central Part of Bangladesh

34. Excavated Items :Copper Bracelets (Ring), Approx. 600 to 1200 years BC.

35. The encoded papyrus craft sheet was in the same way that the ancient Egyptians
made their papyrus. It accepts ink, acrylic, felt-tipped pea, water colour and oil
paints.

36. Geology is the core discipline of
earth science and is used in the
exploration for deposits of
minerals, metals and fuels
essential to our present
lifestyle. Geologists are also at
the forefront of environmental
earth science, resource
mapping, recycling technology,
remote sensing, geochemistry,
geophysics and computer
simulations. Geoscientists have
looked at the earth from space.
Geologists can now record the
physical processes that shape
the planet from the tops of the
highest mountains to the depths
of the deepest seas. Geologists
along other geoscientists
explore the movements of the
crust, and probe to the centre of
the planet. Dome's unique geology which made it a world
heritage
GEOSCIENCE & GEOLOGY

37. Geoscientists are stewards or caretakers of Earth's resources and
environment. They work to understand natural processes on Earth and
other planets. Investigating the Earth, its soils, oceans, and atmosphere;
forecasting the weather; developing land-use plans; exploring other
planets and the solar system; determining environmental impacts; and
finding new sources of useful Earth materials are just a few of the ways
geoscientists contribute to our understanding of Earth processes and
history. Geoscientists provide essential information for solving problems
and establishing governmental policies for resource management;
environmental protection; and public health, safety, and welfare.
Geoscientists are curious about the Earth and the solar system. Is there life on
other planets? How are they changing? What effects will shrinking glaciers
have on the oceans and climate? What makes a continent move, a mountain
form, a volcano erupt? Why did the dinosaurs become extinct?
Geoscientists are concerned about the Earth. How is the global climate
changing? How do Earth systems work? How and where should we dispose of
industrial wastes? How can society's growing demands for energy and water be
satisfied while conserving natural resources for future generations? As global
populations increase, can we grow enough food and fiber to sustain them?
What is a GEOSCIENTIST?

38. Geoscientists gather and interpret data about
the Earth and other planets. They use their
knowledge to increase our understanding of
Earth processes and to improve the quality of
human life. Their work and career paths vary
widely because the geosciences are so broad
and diverse. The National Science Foundation
considers geology, geophysics, hydrology,
oceanography, marine science, atmospheric
science, planetary science, meteorology,
environmental science, and soil science as the
major geoscience disciplines. The following list
gives a glimpse of what geoscientists do in
these disciplines and a variety of subdisciplines.
What Do GEOSCIENTISTS Do?
Atmospheric scientists study weather processes; the global dynamics of climate; solar
radiation and its effects; and the role of atmospheric chemistry in ozone depletion,
climate change, and pollution.
Economic geologists explore for and develop metallic and nonmetallic resources; they
study mineral deposits and find environmentally safe ways to dispose of waste materials
from mining activities.

39. Engineering geologists apply geological data, techniques, and principles to the study
of rock and soil surficial materials and ground water; they investigate geologic factors
that affect structures such as bridges, buildings, airports, and dams.
Environmental geologists study the interaction between the geosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, biosphere, and human activities. They work to solve problems associated
with pollution, waste management, urbanization, and natural hazards, such as flooding
and erosion.
Geochemists use physical and inorganic chemistry to investigate the nature and
distribution of major and trace elements in ground water and Earth materials; they use
organic chemistry to study the composition of fossil fuel (coal, oil, and gas) deposits.
Geochronologists use the rates of decay of certain radioactive elements in rocks to
determine their age and the time sequence of events in the history of the Earth.
Geologists study the materials, processes, products, physical nature, and history of the
Earth.
Geomorphologists study Earth's landforms and landscapes in relation to the geologic
and climatic processes and human activities, which form them.
Geophysicists apply the principles of physics to studies of the Earth's interior and
investigate Earth's magnetic, electric, and gravitational fields.
Glacial geologists study the physical properties and movement of glaciers and ice
sheets.
Hydrogeologists study the occurrence, movement, abundance, distribution, and quality
of subsurface waters and related geologic aspects of surface waters.

40. Hydrologists are concerned with water from the moment of precipitation until it evaporates
into the atmosphere or is discharged into the ocean; for example, they study river systems to
predict the impacts of flooding.
Marine geologists investigate the ocean-floor and ocean-
Continent boundaries; they study ocean basins, continenta
shelves, and the coastal environments on continental borders.
Meteorologists study the atmosphere and atmospheric
phenomena, including the weather Mineralogists study
mineral formation, composition, and properties.
Oceanographers investigate the physical, chemical, biological,
and geologic dynamics of oceans.
Paleoecologists study the function and distribution of ancient
organisms and their relationships to their environment.
Paleontologists study fossils to understand past life forms and
their changes through time and to reconstruct past
environments.
Petroleum geologists are involved in exploration for and
production of oil and natural gas resources.
Petrologists determine the origin and natural history of rocks by analyzing mineral
composition and grain relationships.

41. Stratigraphers investigate the time and space relationships of rocks, on a local,
regional, and global scale throughout geologic time -- especially the fossil and mineral
content of layered rocks.
Structural geologists analyze Earth's forces by studying deformation, fracturing, and
folding of the Earth's crust.
Planetary geologists study planets and their
moons in order to understand the evolution of
the solar system.
Sedimentologists study the nature, origin,
distribution, and alteration of sediments, such
as sand, silt, and mud. Oil, gas, coal and
many mineral deposits occur in such
sediments.
Seismologists study earthquakes and
analyze the behavior of earthquake waves to
interpret the structure of the Earth.
Soil scientists study soils and their properties
to determine how to sustain agricultural
productivity and to detect and remediate
contaiminated soils.
Volcanologists investigate volcanoes and volcanic phenomena to understand these
natural hazards and predict eruptions.

42. Geoscientists may be found sampling the deep ocean floor
or examining rock specimens from the Moon or Mars. But the
work of most geoscientists is more "down to Earth." They
work as explorers for new mineral and hydrocarbon
resources, consultants on engineering and environmental
problems, researchers, teachers, writers, editors, and
museum curators as well as in many other challenging
positions. They often divide their time among work in the
field, the laboratory, and the office.
Where Do GEOSCIENTISTS Work?
Field work usually consists of making observations, exploring the subsurface by
drilling or using geophysical tools, collecting samples, and making measurements that
will be analyzed in the laboratory. For example, rock samples may be X-rayed,
studied under an electron microscope, and analyzed to determine physical and
chemical properties. Geoscientists may also conduct experiments or design computer
models to test theories about geologic phenomena and processes.
In the office, they integrate field and laboratory data and prepare reports and
presentations that include maps and diagrams that illustrate the results of their
studies. Such maps may pinpoint the possible occurrence of ores, coal, oil, natural
gas, water resources, or indicate subsurface conditions or hazards that might affect
construction sites or land use.

43.  Geoscientists follow paths of exploration and discovery in quest of
solutions to some of society's most challenging problems. Predicting the
behavior of Earth systems and the universe.
 Finding adequate supplies of natural resources, such as ground
water, petroleum, and metals.
 Conserving soils and maintaining agricultural productivity.
 Developing natural resources in ways that safeguard the
environment.
 Maintaining quality of water supplies.
 Reducing human suffering and property loss from natural hazards,
such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, landslides, hurricanes,
and tsunamis.
 Determining geological controls on natural environments and
habitats and predicting the impact of human activities on them.
 Defining the balance between society's demand for natural resources
and the need to sustain healthy ecosystems.
 Understanding global climate patterns.
ROLE OF GEOSCIENTISTS

44. Job and Salary OUTLOOK
The employment outlook in the geosciences -- as in any profession -- varies with the
economic climate of the country. The long-range outlook is good at this time.
Dwindling energy, mineral, and water resources along with increasing concerns about
the environment and natural hazards present new challenges to geoscientists.
Most geoscientists are employed by industries related to oil and gas, mining and
minerals and water resources.
Many geoscientists are self-employed as geological consultants or work with
consulting firms. Most consulting geologists have had extensive professional
experience in industry, teaching, or research.
Salary scales vary from employer to employer depending on the career path, location,
qualifications of the geoscientist, and, of course, the economy.
Geoscientists with Master's degrees are expected to have the most employment
opportunites of all degreed geoscientists.
Salary estimates released by BLS (Bureau of Labour Statistics) for 2008 indicated that
the mean annual salary for geoscientists was $89,300. Geoscientists in the petroleum
and mining industries earned the highest salaries ($95,200 - $130,620) and those in
state government earned the least ($59,830). Geoscientist faculty earned a mean
annual salary of $74,770 in 2008. Additionally, according to the National Association
of Colleges and Employers, average starting salaries for college graduates with
geoscience bachelor's degrees were $40,786 in 2007.

45. A strong interest in science and a good education are the most
important elements in becoming a geoscientist. The geosciences draw
on biology, chemistry, mathematics, physics, and engineering. High
school courses related to these subjects plus a geology or earth-
science course, or an integrated science curriculum, will help prepare
you for college. Also, get a solid grounding in English, because
geoscientists need to be able to write and speak clearly.
As in any profession, the applicants with the best qualifications get the
best jobs. Most professional positions in the geosciences require a
master's degree. A Ph.D. is needed for advancement in college
teaching and in most high-level research positions.
Who Should be Interested?

46. Scientific Principles in Geology
• Early Greeks, who included Aristotle, Herodotus and Strabo, recognized coastal
erosion and progradation, the role of earthquakes in the uplift and down warping
of the Earth's crust, and the extrusion of molten rock from volcanoes. Others
recognized marine fossils in the rock record and believed sea level had changed
during the Earth's history
• In around 1500 Leonardo de Vinci recognized marine fossils in Italian mountains,
and in about 1670 Robert Hooke wrote that he thought that fossils were the
remains of ancient organisms and might be used to compare rocks of similar age.
• Science
• Parsimony is one of the two pillars of science, the first pillar being
falsification through experiment, the other taking the results and
explaining it with the simplest theory with the best predictive power. In
science, parsimony is preference for the least complex explanation for an
observation. This is generally regarded as good when judging hypotheses.
• Nicholas Steno formulated three principles (Dott and Batton 1976) that are widely
used today to make stratigraphic interpretations. These are:
• 1) The principle of superposition
• 2) The principle of original horizontality
• 3) The principle of original lateral continuity

47. 1) The principle of superposition - states that a sedimentary rock layer in a
tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than
the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously
deposited. This is the basis of the establishment of the relative ages of all strata and
their contained fossils.
2) The principle of original lateral continuity - strata originally extended in all
directions until they thinned to zero or terminated against the edges of their original
basin of deposition.
3) The principle of original horizontality - states that because sedimentary
particles settle from fluids and experience the influence of gravity, stratification was
originally horizontal and when steeply inclined must have suffered subsequent
disturbance. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide
variety of environments supports this generalization.
Other Principles used in Stratigraphy include:
1) The principle of uniformitarianism - states that the geologic processes observed
in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same
way over geologic time. A fundamental principle forwarded James Hutton is that "the
present is the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must
be explained by what can be seen to be happening now.“
Scientific Principles in Geology Contd.

48. 2) The principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary
rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or
(sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they
are found.
The principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when
an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that
the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of
different types of intrusions, including stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and dikes.
The principle of cross-cutting relationships pertains to the formation of faults and the age
of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut;
accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it,
then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut
must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine
whether the fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault.
The principle of inclusions and components states that, with sedimentary rocks, if
inclusions (or clasts) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the
formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel
from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation
with igneous rocks occurs when xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as
magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths
are older than the rock which contains them.
Scientific Principles in Geology Contd.

49. Thank you all
For your Deep
aTTenTion

50. THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Lec. 2
• a) Origin of the Universe
• b) Big Bang Theory
• c) How Do Star Form?
• d) Characteristic of Solar System
• e)Terrestrial VS Jovian Planet
• f) The Sun and The Moon

51.  As we all know matter consists of atoms
 atoms (building blocks) consist of:
protons (+1 charge)
neutrons (neutral)
electrons (-1 charge)
 protons and neutrons make up nucleus; electrons form "clouds" about nucleus
single element = constant # protons and electrons; different elements = different #
protons and electrons
extremely SMALL size of atoms
electron cloud = 10 millionth of millimeter; nucleus = 1 trillionth of a millimeter
marble-sized nucleus = km diameter electron cloud
different elements combine to form compounds or molecules
2H + O = H2O
I) Introduction: Matter
THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

52. II) How did matter form? How did
atoms originate?
BIG BANG THEORY: The Universe and all matter as we know it originated from
conversion of energy to mass during the tremendous explosion called the "Big
Bang.“
Theory of General Relativity - Albert Einstein
E = mc2
(energy and mass are related to each other) Big Bang "play by play:"

53. 1) 10-20 billion years after Big Bang
2) very cold clouds of H, He, and some heavier elements
3) wave of gravity (near by exploding star?) set cloud in motion
4) cloud began to rotate and contract / condense
5) rotating cloud assumed disk-like form
6) contraction / condensation continued due to gravity - generated tremendous
heat
7) eventually, heat and pressure were high enough to produce nuclear fusion in
protosun.
Nuclear fusion: process by which He and heavier elements are fused from
lighter elements by extreme heat and pressure. Releases tremendous energy.
8) Planetesimals (early form of planets) formed from rotating disk of matter
around protosun.
How do stars form? How did our solar
system form?

54. SOLAR SYSTEM

55. SOLAR SYSTEM
Discovery and exploration
• For many thousands of years, humanity, with a few notable exceptions,
did not recognize the existence of the Solar System. They believed the
Earth to be stationary at the center of the universe and categorically
different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky.
Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a
heliocentric reordering of the cosmos.
• Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive
heliocentric system. His 17th-century successors, Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, developed an understanding of
physics which led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that the Earth
moves around the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same
physical laws that governed the Earth.
• In more recent times, improvements in the telescope and the use of
unmanned spacecraft have enabled the investigation of geological
phenomena such as mountains and craters, and seasonal meteorological
phenomena such as clouds, dust storms and ice caps on the other planets.

56. SOLAR SYSTEM
• The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it
by gravity, all of which formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud
approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Of a large number of objects that orbit
the Sun, most of the mass is contained within eight relatively solitary
planets whose orbits are almost circular and lie within a nearly-flat disc
called the ecliptic plane. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars, also called the terrestrial planets, are primarily composed
of rock and metal. The four outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune, also called the gas giants or jovian planets, are composed largely
of hydrogen and helium and are far more massive than the terrestrials.

57. Structure
• The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a
main sequence G2 star that contains 99.86 percent of the system's
known mass and dominates it gravitationally. The Sun's four largest
orbiting bodies, the gas giants, account for 99 percent of the
remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more
than 90 percent .
• Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of
Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to
the ecliptic while comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at
significantly greater angles to it.
• All the planets and most other objects also orbit with the Sun's
rotation (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above the Sun's north
pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.

58. The orbits of the bodies in the Solar System to
scale (clockwise from top left)

59. Planets and Dwarf Planets of the Solar System
• The Solar System is also home to two regions populated by smaller objects.
The asteroid belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter, is similar to the
terrestrial planets as it is composed mainly of rock and metal. Beyond
Neptune's orbit lie trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices such as
water, ammonia and methane. Within these two regions, five individual
objects, Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris, are recognized to be large
enough to have been rounded by their own gravity, and are thus termed dwarf
planets. In addition to thousands of small bodies in those two regions, various
other small body populations, such as comets, centaurs and interplanetary
dust, freely travel between regions.
• The solar wind, a flow of plasma from the Sun, creates a bubble in the
interstellar medium known as the heliosphere, which extends out to the edge
of the scattered disc. The hypothetical Oort cloud, which acts as the source for
long-period comets, may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times
further than the heliosphere.
• Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by
natural satellites, usually termed "moons" after Earth's Moon. Each of the
outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles.

60. Planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System.

61. Inner Solar System Characteristics
• The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising
the terrestrial planets and asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and
metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the
Sun; the radius of this entire region is shorter than the distance
between Jupiter and Saturn.
• Inner planets
• The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions,
few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of
refractory minerals, such as the silicates which form their crusts and
mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores.
Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have
atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have
impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and
volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with
inferior planet, which designates those planets which are closer to the
Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).

62. MERCURY
• Mercury (0.4 AU from the Sun) is the closest planet to the
Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System (0.055
Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites, and its
only known geological features besides impact craters are
lobed ridges or rupes, probably produced by a period of
contraction early in its history. Mercury's almost negligible
atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the
solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle
have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses
include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant
impact, and that it was prevented from fully accreting by
the young Sun's energy

63. VENUS
• Venus (0.7 AU from the Sun) is close in size to Earth, (0.815 Earth
masses) and like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron
core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological
activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is
ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the
hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C, most likely
due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No
definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected
on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion
of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is
regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.

64. EARTH
• Earth (1 AU from the Sun) is the largest and densest of the
inner planets, the only one known to have current
geological activity, and is the only place in the universe
where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is
unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the only
planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's
atmosphere is radically different from those of the other
planets, having been altered by the presence of life to
contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the
Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the
Solar System.

65. MARS
• Mars (1.5 AU from the Sun) is smaller than Earth and Venus
(0.107 Earth masses). It possesses an atmosphere of mostly
carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars
(roughly 0.6 percent that of the Earth's). Its surface,
peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and
rift valleys such as Valleys Marineris, shows geological
activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2
million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron oxide
(rust) in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites (
Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.

66. OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM
Jupiter has more mass than all other planets in the solar system
combined. It helps protect Earth by steering comets either towards
the sun or ejecting them to the outer reaches of the solar system or
beyond. Jupiter has dozens of moons orbiting it, one of which,
Europa, is thought to have a sub-surface liquid salt water ocean. It
therefore may possibly harbor life as heat and water, the two
ingredients required for life on Earth as we know it, are seemingly
present below the moon’s surface.
Saturn has intrigued man for centuries, especially since the invention
of the telescope when the Saturn’s grand rings were observed for the
first time. Much like Jupiter, Saturn has many dozens of moons, one
of which, Enceladus, could provide a foot-hold for life to form.
Observations by the Cassini spacecraft revealed Enceladus’ to have
tenuous geyser and therefore heated liquid must be lurking below
the surface. Water and energy are essential to all forms of life on
Earth and these two constituents are what scientists treasure most in
the search for life beyond our planet.

67. Uranus - Over the 2006–2016 timeframe, there are no strategic
missions planned to Uranus and only one spacecraft, the extremely
productive Voyager II, has ever visited the distant planet.
Ultimately, deep-entry probes into Uranus will be necessary in
order to understand its composition and compare it to that of the
other “water giant,” Neptune.
Neptune poses a number of important questions regarding how
giant planets form and what truncates the formation of multiple
giant planets in a planetary system. Residing on the edge of our
planetary system, Neptune may hold, deep in its interior, chemical
clues concerning the nature of the rocky and icy debris that formed
the giant planets. A comprehensive study of Neptune, and its moon
Triton, is considered a priority for the third decade by the Solar
System Exploration roadmap team.
OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM

68. A Jovian planet is a gas giant, the term is derived
from Jupiter which describes the three other gas
giants in the Solar System as Jupiter-like. Though
the name may imply it, a gas giant is not
composed only of gas. It may have a metallic or
rocky core, which is believed to actually be
required for a Jovian planet to form, but the
majority of its planetary mass is in the form of
gases such as hydrogen and helium along with
some traces of water, ammonia, methane and
other hydrogen compounds.
Characteristics of Outer Planets
Unlike rocky planets such as the Earth and Mars, a Jovian planet does not have distinguishing
characteristics between its surface and atmosphere. Its atmosphere gradually becomes denser
toward the core, even having liquid states in between and at the core itself because of intense
high temperatures. Because of this, one cannot actually “land on” such a planet in the
traditional sense.
The gas giants of our Solar System are actually the outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune, the latter two planets usually being referred to separately as the “ice giants” due to
their being composed largely of ices, water, ammonia and methane. Common features among
these four are their numerous satellites and rings, except for Uranus which has no ring but has
its own unique feature of rotating on its side due to an axial tilt of 97.77 degrees.
Outer planets
Jupiter Saturn
Uranus Neptune

69. COMETS
• Comets
– Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a
few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices.
They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion
within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far
beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar
System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to
sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas
and dust often visible to the naked eye.

70. KUIPER BELT
• The Kuiper belt, the region's first formation, is a great ring of debris similar to
the asteroid belt, but composed mainly of ice. It extends between 30 and
50 AU from the Sun. It is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies,
but many of the largest Kuiper belt objects, such as Quaoar, Varuna, and
Orcus, may be reclassified as dwarf planets. There are estimated to be over
100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km, but the total
mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the
mass of the Earth. Many Kuiper belt objects have multiple satellites, and
most have orbits that take them outside the plane of the ecliptic.
• The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the "classical" belt and the
resonances. Resonances are orbits linked to that of Neptune (e.g. twice for
every three Neptune orbits, or once for every two). The first resonance
begins within the orbit of Neptune itself. The classical belt consists of objects
having no resonance with Neptune, and extends from roughly 39.4 AU to
47.7 AU. Members of the classical Kuiper belt are classified as cubewanos,
after the first of their kind to be discovered, (15760) 1992 QB1, and are still
in near primordial, low-eccentricity orbits.

71. THE SUN• The Sun is the Solar System's star, and by far its chief component. Its large
mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core
great enough to sustain nuclear fusion, which releases enormous amounts of
energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation, peaking in the
400–to–700 nm band we call visible light.
• The Sun is classified as a type yellow dwarf, but this name is misleading as,
compared to the majority of stars in our galaxy, the Sun is rather large and
bright. Stars are classified by the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a graph which
plots the brightness of stars with their surface temperatures. Generally, hotter
stars are brighter. Stars following this pattern are said to be on the main
sequence, and the Sun lies right in the middle of it. However, stars brighter and
hotter than the Sun are rare, while substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known
as red dwarfs, are common, making up 85 percent of the stars in the galaxy.
• The Sun is growing brighter; early in its history it was 70 percent as bright as it is
today.
• The Sun is a population I star; it was born in the later stages of the universe's
evolution, and thus contains more elements heavier than hydrogen and helium
than older population II stars. This high metallicity is thought to have been
crucial to the Sun's developing a planetary system, because planets form from
accretion of "metal

72. The physical characteristics and surface of the moon thus have been
studied telescopically, photographically, and more recently by
instruments carried by manned and unmanned spacecraft. The moon's
diameter is about 2,160 mi (3,476 km) at the moon's equator,
somewhat more than 1/4 the earth's diameter. The moon has about
1/81 the mass of the earth and is 3/5 as dense. On the moon's surface
the force of gravitation is about 1/6 that on earth. It has been
established that the moon completely lacks an atmosphere and, despite
some tantalizing hints that there might be ice under the surface dust in
shaded portions of Shackleton Crater (near the moon's south pole),
there is no definite evidence of water. The surface temperature rises
above 100°C (212°F) at lunar noon and sinks below -155°C (-247°F) at
night.
The Moon

73. The lunar surface is divided into the mountainous highlands and the
large, roughly circular plains called maria (sing. mare; from
Lat.,=sea) by early astronomers, who erroneously believed them to
be bodies of water. The smooth floors of the maria, varying from
flat to gently undulating, are covered by a thin layer of powdered
rock that darkens them and accounts for the moon's low albedo
(only 7% of the incident sunlight is reflected back, the rest being
absorbed). The brighter regions on the moon are the mountainous
highlands, where the terrain is rough and strewn with rocky rubble.
The lunar mountain ranges, with heights up to 25,000 ft (7800 m),
are comparable to the highest mountains on earth but in general
are not very steep. The highlands are densely scarred by thousands
of craters—shallow circular depressions.
The Moon

74. Diffraction of seismic waves provided the first clear-cut
evidence for a lunar crust, mantle, and core analogous to those
of the earth. The lunar crust is about 70 km (45 mi) thick,
making the moon a rigid solid to a greater depth than the
earth. The inner core has a radius of about 1,000 km (600 mi ),
about 2/3 of the radius of the moon itself. The internal
temperature decreases from 830°C (1,530°F) at the center to
170°C (340°F) near the surface. The heat traveling outward
near the lunar surface is about half that of the earth.
The Moon

75. THANKSTHANKS

76. Thank you all
For your Deep
aTTenTion