PDF annexed with this description is totally based on Roman Coinage. The main aim is help students of Numismatics.

1. ROMAN COINAGE
-ISHITA SINGH
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2. GENEALOGY AND BACKGROUND
The genealogy showcases the family history, and traces the lineages. In case of Roman
emperors, there had been several dynasties at various points and there is not actually unbroken
blood line between them.
• The first Triumvirate- Before Rome became an empire, it was a Republic dominated by three
generals. Among them, Caesar ended up winning and was named the dictator of the Roman
Republic. Later he was assassinated.
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• Caesar had adopted Octavian (nephew of Julius
Caesar) won and became known as Augustus and he
is generally considered to have been the first emperor
of Rome.
• Julio- Claudian Dynasty (30 BCE-68 CE)- In this early
dynasty it could be noticed that all of the emperors are
connected through some sort of adoption and also
through some sort of blood relationship to either the
Julian or the Claudian family. Claudius sidelined his
own son in favor of Nero. Nero was the fifth and final
emperor of this dynasty.
• Flavian Dynasty (69 CE-96 CE)- Power Struggle in
year 69 between four military emperors. Vespasian
won and this was noted as the start of a new but
rather short dynasty. Among his two sons, Domitian
ended up being assassinated. Nerva, who was
Domitian’s Advisor became proclaimed emperor.

3. • Nerva Antonine dynasty- Nerva adopted an individual named Trajan. Trajan soon became
emperor. It could again be noticed here that emperorship is once again passed on through
adoption on regular basis just like it was during Julio- Claudian Dynasty. But interestingly
there was also often a genealogical connection as well. For eg. Trajan chose as his heir
Hadrian and both Trajan and Hadrian were descendants of same individual and also they
both were connected through Hadrian’s wife as well. The period is sometimes called that of
the Adoptive Emperors.
• Year 193- five different individuals were proclaimed as emperors. Severus wins out and
becomes the sole emperor. He established the Severen dynasty and ruled partially with his
two sons: Geta and Caracalla. After the death of Severus, Caracalla assassinated his brother
and later he himself was assassinated
• Distant relatives of Severus emperors- Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, they were the
grandchildren of Julia who was the wife of Severus. Interesting thing about these four
emperors is that they can all trace their roots to an individual named Julius Basianus (high
priest in Syria). This individual through unknown number of generations is thought to have
been a descendant of this priest king (also in Syria) and that priest king was a direct
descendant of Cleopatra and Mark Antony. So in this way we have four emperors who may
have been descendants of both Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
• The Crisis of the third century- It’s hard to get an exact count of emperors because some of
them named their sons as joint rulers but there was about 25 different emperors in a 50 year
period . In fact the year 238 is known as the year of six emperors which led to great
instability in the empire and there were even a few breakaway states for a while. .
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4. • Dominate- There were some loose family connections between the emperors of this
period but mostly they were just chosen by appointment. The Tetrarchy system
worked for a few decades, until an emperor named Constantine The Great. His father
was an emperor before him and three of his sons were emperors after him so
altogether they can be considered the Constantinian dynasty
• The Theodosian Dynasty- started with Valentinian The Great’s son-in-law Theodosius
who became Theodosius The Great. The Empire became permanently divided with
his son Honorius ruling the west and Arcadius ruling the east. In the west, both
Honorius and his nephew Valentinian III had fairly long reigns.
• Justinian Dynasty- most notable because it included the last really powerful and
noteworthy Roman emperor- Justinian The Great. Justinian is important for many
reasons but one of them is that he managed to take back the city of Rome, which
was at the time controlled by the Ostogoths. The Byzantines then went on to retain
control of the Rome until the time of Charlemagne. Not long after Justinian, the
Byzantine emperors switched from using Latin to using Greek.
• It could now be concluded that the Roman empire was ruled by quite limited number
of families , but they were all interrelated because of the fact that they inter married
heavily. Also the reason why the early emperors adopted heirs was because most of
them didn’t had biological sons.
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5. COIN TYPES
There have been majority of coins but the concept of their combined
version is divided into Obverse and Reverse types:
• Obverse: Not all Julio- Claudian coins, however bore an obverse
portrait type. At the time of Augustus, he used many Republican
conventions, these included the use of frequent non-portrait obverses,
also his Rome-struck coinage often lacked portraits (gold, silver and
aes, apart from the as). In some series under Augustus particularly,
imperial portrait faced either left or right and with identical treatment.
Portrait bearing obverse dies were probably produced not only in
scores, but in hundreds. However, the standards on the whole were
maintained at a remarkably high level of freshness and positive
character; sometimes finer details were done afterwards by the
engravers as they completed their individual dies by hand. The
number of certainly genuine obverse dies which survive is no more
than a handful.
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6. • Reverse: The reverse types of Julio- Claudian coins, like those of
the republic before them and those of the Flavian and later
periods of the empire, are astonishing in their variety. They
consist either of pictorial designs with a varying number of
supporting words, or of epigraphical design with no pictorial
element. In every case it could be said that the purpose of the
design was informative, or at least informatively suggestive.
Opinions have varied about the degree of information, or
information that was either intended or possibly intelligible; but
there can in fact be little doubt that a system of types at once so
varied and presented with such definition was followed with the
express purpose of publicizing the different aspects of that
imperial policy of which the coinage itself was an essential
element.
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7. TECHNOLOGY
Coining technology has always been keeping up with human’s
scientific and practical knowledge. Knowledge regarding production
technology is one important aspect to understand the ancient
metallurgy industry. In case of Romans, the technology was
incorporated by Greeks but was developed by them. Romans began
coin produced approximately around 326 BCE. The process involved
in the production of coin was:
1. Coins were made of pieces of metals (gold, silver, or bronze)
known as blanks. These were cast or cut to specific weight for
which a mold (made of clay and sand to resist high temperature)
was prepared to create number of blanks.
2. The blank was sandwiched between a pair of dies with engraved
designs.
3. It was then struck, or hit with hammer, which impressed the
designs on the obverse as well as reverse side of the coin.
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8. WEIGHT STANDARD
Like Greek coinage, Roman coinage was based on a weight standard.
Over time, new denominations were introduced as reforms of the coinage
system became necessary, particularly during the reign of the emperor
Nero, in A.D. 64, and under the emperor Diocletian, in A.D. 294. In these
reforms, the weights of precious-metal coins were reduced.
The weight standards of various rulers though vary and underwent
changes, but it seems that they were just adjusted to regulate economic
transactions. Roman weight standard is truly puzzling and are rarely
stable, rather followed descending scale of weights from gold issues of
Caesar, when the Aurei averaged 133.9 grains, to Triumvirate, when they
averaged 126.7 grains, to the beginning of Augustus’ reign, when they
averaged 120.7 grains (although certain of the heavy examples reach
122.5 or even 122.9 grains). Thereafter the weight dropped slowly until
the radical Neronian monetary reforms, when it was reduced to 114
grains.
Even in Indian context, the gold coinage underwent major change. In
case of Gupta Empire, gold pieces had been Dinaras and followed the
weight standard adopted by Kushana kings from Romans.
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9. • DENOMINATIONS OF ANCIENT ROMAN COINS:
The earliest silver roman coins were Didrachms. Soon the Dinarius replaced the
Didrachm as the main Roman silver piece, being equal to 10 bronze Asses. The
as, the basic unit, it functioned like penny. And like penny, through inflation, it
experienced a loss of buying power. During the time of Roman Republic, one
could buy a loaf of bread for ½ as or a liter of wine for one as. A year’s pay for a
commander in the Roman army around 133 B.C. was approximately 11 asses.
Under Augustus’s rule it was 74 Denarii, and by reign of Septimus Severus, it was
around 1500 Denarii.
1 As= one unit
8 Dupondii= 1 Denarius
2 Asses= 1 Dupondius
4 Sestertii= 1 Denarius
4 Asses= 1 Sestertius
1 Antoninianus= 2 Denarii
16 Asses= 1 silver Denarius
1 Aureus= 25 Denarii
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10. ART DEPICTED
As art species Roman coins are not as good as the best Hellenistic
ones but they survive in vast numbers and their iconography and
inscriptions form a crucial source for the study of Roman history. The
development of the art form could be encountered in the iconography
of the portraits on the obverse as well as through the designs on
Reverse.
• The Romans adopted the Hellenistic Greek practice of art by
putting portraits on their coins.
• For the reverse types, representations of the major gods formed
an important category.
• The reverses also recorded the personal qualities and
achievements of the emperor.
• Actual historical events concerning social, political, cultural and
religious life was also depicted.
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11. • SOCIO-POLITICAL: On one coin of Marcus Junius
Brutus, the representation of ancient Rome’s most
famous murder is depicted. Obverse shows, Marcus’
face in his honor and Reverse represents, the cap of
liberty to slaves who were freed.
• POLITICAL: On a coin of Augustus, the Obverse
shows, ‘head of Augustus’, and Reverse represents,
Gaius Caesar galloping and holding sword and
shield behind him. Augustus built a new political
arrangement called Roman Principate which
replaced previous political arrangements.
• RELIGIOUS-CULTURAL: The Religious culture of
Rome had deep connection with the animals. Such
depiction was common in almost coins of the
Emperor Hadrian. Sometimes, animals were
associated with provinces, at time in association with
god and goddesses, also to help transport goods or
people. On coins of Julius Caesar elephants were
often depicted.
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DEPICTION OF LIFE ON ROMAN COINS:

12. CIRCULATION
There has been large number of Roman coins found throughout in India. These
coins were issued from 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE. Roman coins were
imported to India as bullion for trade in exchange of Indian goods. The Roman
coins found in India are not evenly distributed rather they are reported from
approximately 130 sites in hoards and stray finds. Sometime these coins are
reported in abundance. The circulation of Roman coins in India could broadly
be characterized into three phases:
1. Initial phase- Roman silver Denarii were brought as bullion. Later Roman
imperial silver Denarii were also brought to India. It is notable here that no
Silver Denarii stuck after the initial year of Nero (fifth and last emperor of
Julio Claudian Dynasty) are found in India.
2. Intermediate phase- mainly gold coins were brought to India. After the Nero
civil war broke out in Rome for around two years, coins of this variety were
struck without names of the rulers.
3. Final Phase- Copper coins of Late Roman period and thin gold solid coins
are found is India in large number during final phase.
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13. The roman coin-find in India could be divided into three period:
1. Early Julio-Claudian period (up to the time of Nero)
2. Later Julio- Claudian period (Vespasian to Nerva)
3. Post- Julio- Claudian period
Circulation of coins into three geographical areas:
1. Southern peninsular region, that is, the land of Chera, Paydays, and
Cholas (Present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
2. South Deccan, that is, the kingdom of Andhra Satavahanas (Present
states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern
Maharashtra.
3. North Deccan and above, that is, northern part of the state of Maharashtra
and state of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and few portions in north.
.
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14. • Roman coins found in North India are very rare, compared to those found in the
south India. The numismatic discoveries in different parts of south India also
reveal that majority of Roman coins were found in the form of hoards from
several localities in south, and a few in stray ones in the Megalithic tombs and
others from excavations. Most of the finds came from Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu.
The circulation of early group belonged to Augustus and latest to Marcus
Aurelius.
• Most of the coins found in Kerala (South India) are Imperial coins and Republican
coins. Though the Republican coins are frequently less in number.
• Among Roman coin-finds, Nelloore in Andhra Pradesh is the earliest recorded
find in India. Roman coins are rarely found in North India because most of these
were melted and restruck by Kushana rulers (debatable). Also this could be noted
that the north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican Denarii and
Aurie in Buddhist stupas, this represents the remnants of transit trade across
north India.
• Roman merchants had trading settlements in South India, of these Arikamedu
and Muziris (probably modern Kodungallur) are most important trading stations.
Most of the Roman coins were in circulation here.
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15. • Bamanghati, (Singhbhum district) in eastern India has yielded a hoard of
Roman gold coins, it is the only known finding of Roman coins in this region
so far.
• In Maharashtra, a roman gold coin has been reported at the site of
Pedabankur, also at Adam in Nagpur district, a hoard of Roman gold coins has
been yielded, larger number of coin molds are also found here, possibly it was
a mint town.
• Large number of roman coins came from Cannannore in Malabar area.
• Certain imitation of roman coins like small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman
type are found at some places around Madura.
• The term Suvarna (gold piece), mentioned in Nasik inscription of the time of
Nahapana as exchangeable with local silver karshapanas at the rate of 1 to
35, may well indicate the use of Roman gold coins in local medium of
exchange in north-western Deccan during that time.
• The term Denarii, is referred in Nagarjunikonda inscription of 3rd century CE
may indicate the use of Roman coins.
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16. CRITICAL EVALUATION OF ROMAN COINAGE WITH
CHERA DYNASTY COINAGE
Roman coinage over a period of time has been discovered in large
number from the Coimbatore- Karur tract which formed part of the
ancient Chera county. These coins were mostly silver, issued by
Augustus and Tiberius.
• The Portrait coins of Chera dynasty are considered as imitation of
Roman coins. This was probably done to show their legitimacy. For
example- A Chera coin made of silver, with portrait of a Chera king
who is wearing a Roman-type Bristled crown helmet is shown on the
Obverse side, whereas on the Reverse, ‘Bow and arrow’ is depicted
which is symbol of Chera dynasty. Though, the coin is highly
corroded but the portrait is clear enough and shows resemblance
with the coin types of ancient Rome.
• The analysis of Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the
contemporary Roman silver coin.
• Roman coins were of the same weight as punch marked coins in the
Chera country.
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