Managing at the same time too much and not enough water in Accra, Ghana

HafenCity Universität Hamburg
M. Sc. Resource Efficiency in Architecture and Planning (REAP)
Urban Water Cycle
Summer Semester 2015
Final Report
Managing at the same time too much and not enough water in
Accra, Ghana
Submitted to: Professor Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Dickhaut
On: Wednesday, September 30th
, 2015
Contributing Authors
Asiedu-Danquah, Kwadwo : 6028962
Troutman, Heather : 6028601
Abstract
This paper offers a critical review of the state of water in Accra, Ghana. The paper explores the
climatic, cultural, political and historical situation of Accra offering understanding and explanation
for the current state of practice. The paper discusses the means in which water cycles through Accra
including storm water, flowing water, waste water, and the constant interplay these subdivisions have,
highlighting their interdependencies. Contemporary water projects both large- and small-scale are
detailed and criticized. The paper concludes with a suite of theoretical recommendations for
improved water management in Accra through the implementation of small-scale, low-tech and
decentralized proven water management techniques that the authors prescribe to be suitable for the
climatic, cultural, economic and political context in Accra.

Urban Water Cycle: Accra, Ghana 2
Table of Contents
1.Introduction…….....……………………………………………...………………………………..03
2. Accra, Ghana: an Overview………….…………………………………………………….…….03
2.1.
Climate………………………………………………………………………….……………...……..04
2.2. Demographics………..…………………………………………………..……………………05
2.3. Urbanism……...………..………………………………………………..……………………06
3. Storm Water……………………………………………………………………….………………07
3.1. Precipitation Events………………………..…………………………………………...…….09
3.2. Causes of Floods…………………………….………………...…………………………..….09
3.3. Recent Projects…………………………….…….………………….……………….……….11
4. Flowing Water……...……………………………………………….…………………………….12
4.1. Hydrological Features…………………..…………………………………………...……….12
4.2. Current System.……………………………………………………………...……...………. 13
4.3. Recent Projects.…………………………...……………………………………………..….. 14
5. Waste Water………………………………………………………………………………….……16
5.1. Existing Infrastructure and Trends……………………………………………………..……16
5.2. Recent Projects….…………………………………………………………….…………..….17
5.3. Performance Overview………………………………..…………………..……………...…..19
6. Conclusions and Recommendations..…….………………………………………………….…..19
6.1. Solid Waste…………………………………………..…………………………………...…..20
6.2. Urban Agriculture………………………………………..……………………………….…..20
6.3. Storm and Flowing Waters………………………………………………..…………………21
6.4. Waste Water………………………………………………..…………………………….…..22
Figures, Graphs and Tables
Figure 1: Annual precipitation data for Accra for 6 statistical period …………………………….…04
Table 1: Comparison of extreme rainfall events between Accra and Hamburg………………….…..04
Table 2: Projected annual 1day, 2 – 5 consecutive day’s maximum rainfall for Accra.............……..05
Figure 2: Urban growth of Accra from 1985 – 20002……………………………………………….06
Figure 3: Representing the various basins in Accra………………………………………………….07
Figure 4: Schematic of drainage system in Accra, Ghana……………………………………….…...08
Figure 5: Return periods for precipitation events in Accra, Ghana……………………................…..09
Table 3: Historical rainfall events in Accra……………………………………………………….….10
Figure 6: Waste-clogged drains……………………………………………….……………………...10
Figure 7: Odaw Drainage Improvement Works……………………………………………………...12
Figure 8: a. catchment areas, b. discharge rates, and c. runoff concentrations……...…………….…13
Table 4: Total discharge of basins within the study Area…………………………………………....13
Table 5: Phases of the Korle Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project………………………………..14
Figure 9: Odaw River Dredging as part of the Korle Lagoon Restoration…………………………..15
Figure 10: Systematic diagram of the UASB reactor wastewater treatment plant……….…………..17
Table 6: Characteristics of sewage at different treatment stages……………………...………….…..18

1. Introduction
Water is an important resource that is needed by all living things for survival. Its manifestation on
planet earth and availability to humans as a resource is varied with the great diversity of the natural
world. In the urban environment, rainwater is often a primary source for fresh water, but it can also
accumulate at raid speeds bringing devastation to urban infrastructures and posing threat to human
health and safety. A number of countries have enough water throughout the year but are still faced
with problems related to water. These problems are most prevalent in the developing countries where
water is mismanaged leading to long-term environmental degradation, which results in degraded
quality of life for inhabitants of such urban areas.
Major challenges in these countries include problems related to water supply, wastewater treatment
and periodic flood events. It is however clear that these factors are interdependent and cannot be
easily separated from each other. Accra, which is currently fast growing and having a larger portion
of its population living in informal settlements, cannot be detached from this problem. The city and
the entire water bodies suffer from pollution and contamination normally from industries and these
informal settlements. This is because the city’s drainage system is designed in a way that leads most
of the waste from households and industries directly into the lagoons without any treatment before it
finally empties itself in the ocean.
During flood events, most of these lagoons and drainage systems overflow their banks and affect the
low-income informal settlement dwellers. In addition, insufficient storm water infrastructure coupled
with poor waste management and improper planning are other principal causes for floods in Accra.
What makes the situation worse is the fact that most of the population depends on these water bodies,
which are mostly contaminated, as their primary source of drinking water. It is essential that the city
of Accra take immediate investment into identifying appropriate measures to deal with the seasonal
flood events. To achieve this, the city must consider proper ways of solid waste collection and
treatment to minimize the amount of waste that is directly discharged into the water bodies.
The paper examines the interdependencies that exist between storm water, flowing water and waste
water. It begins with a general overview of the nature of storm water in Accra, its current state and a
current project that has been undertaken to deal with storm water. The subsequent section gives a
description of the current flowing water situation and the final section highlights the nature of
wastewater treatment and some current projects.
2. Accra, Ghana: an Overview
Accra is a city located along the coast of Ghana on longitude 0° 1′W and 0° 15′ E and latitudes 5° 30′
N and 5° 50′ N, respectively. It is situated within the Greater Accra Region that covers a total land
area of approximately 1,261 km2
and serves as the capital city of Ghana and at the same time the
capital of the Region of Greater Accra. It is the smallest of the 10 regions in Ghana.
The city is generally low lying and relatively flat with few hilly areas in some parts of the city. The
groundwater level ranges between approximately 4.80 meters to about 70 meters below sea level
(Nyarko, 2002). The city has 8 drainage basins designed to serve as channels for most storm water.
These basins include Kpeshie, Korle, Densu, Sakumo, Lafa, Osu, Songo Mokwe and Chemu Basins
(Asumadu, 2015).

2.1. Climate
Ghana experiences two main rainy seasons; one major and a minor with the former occurring between
the months of March-July and the latter between September-November. The mean annual rainfall of
Accra is about 800 mm (Amoako & Boamah, 2014). Figure 1 shows the mean precipitation for Accra
recorded over 6 statistical periods with 10-years intervals (from 1962 - 2012). From the data, it is
observed that the city of Accra receives most of its rainfall normally between March and July having
mean precipitation values greater than 150 mm/month. In September and October, precipitation levels
again increase but only slightly with mean precipitation values below 100 mm/month. The general
pattern for the various precipitation events over the various months from 1962 – 2012 seem to be
quite uniform apart from 1962 where the month of June experienced an extreme increase in
precipitation of about 700 mm. The months of January-February, November-December and August
receive the lowest rainfall in Accra with mean levels below 50 mm/month. Even though differences
exist in the various rainfall amounts, precipitation of 200mm/hour is possible during the highest
rainfall seasons (Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan, & Rooijen, 2011). The months before
the rainy season (February and March) is the time the region experiences its hottest temperatures. The
mean temperature around this time is about 27 degrees Celsius while June to August experiences the
coolest (Nyarko, 2000).
Historical overview of rainfall events of Accra gathered by Okyere et.al (2012) from different sources
were compared to that of Hamburg. These rainfall events were daily rainfall precipitations that were
recorded by the Ghana Meteorological Agency and gathered by Dickhaut (2015) for Accra and
Hamburg respectively. The data shows the precipitation events recorded for 20 minutes and on both
annual and daily basis (24 hours).
Table 1: Comparison of extreme rainfall events between Accra and Hamburg
Event Accra Hamburg
Year of most Extreme
Precipitation
4th
July,1995 18th
August, 1994
Highest hourly rainfall 82mm 46.6mm
Highest 20 minutes rainfall 42mm 38.8mm
Most Extreme one day rainfall
occurrence
243mm 68mm
Sources: Dickhaut (2015), Okyere et.al (2012) and Morden Ghana (n.d)
Figure 1: Annual precipitation data for Accra for 6 statistical periods Source: Waylen & Owusu, 2013

From the table, it was observed that the highest daily precipitation in Accra was recorded in 1995.
The amount of rainfall received during this period was about 243 mm, which is about 3.5 times of the
most extreme daily rainfall event recorded of about 68mm in 1994 for Hamburg. In Accra, about 82
mm of rainfall was received within one hour in 1995 (modern Ghana, n.d) compared to Hamburg’s
value, which is relatively lower. Accra and Hamburg’s 20 minutes precipitation were recorded to be
42mm and 38mm respectively. From these figures compared, it can be seen that Accra has received
higher precipitation amounts than Hamburg. A comparison between extreme precipitation
occurrences between Accra and Hamburg is show in Table 1.
As rainfall is one of the major causes of flooding in Accra, it is important to identify the trend of
rainfall and make some meaningful projections in order to put in place measures to reduce impacts of
flooding. Table 2 presented by Kwaku and Dave (2007) as cited by Amoako & Boamah (2014, p. 7)
gives a projection of the return periods of rainfall intensity in Accra.
Table 2: Projected annual 1day, 2 – 5 consecutive days’ maximum rainfall for Accra
Source: Adopted from Kwaku & Duke (2007)
The table presented shows that a maximum of 84.04mm, 91.60mm, 100.40mm, 105.67mm and
109.47 mm of rainfall amounts can be received on days 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively after every 2 years.
In the same way, maximum amount of rainfall of 230.97mm, 240.49mm, 272.77mm, 292.07mm and
296.54 mm can be received on days 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively after every 100 years. At the end of
their study, they came out with the conclusion that a period from 2 to 10 years return period is enough
for the “natural soil, water conservation measures, construction of dams and storm water management
to take place”.
Inter-tropical convergence zone
Rainfall patterns in Ghana and for that matter Accra is brought about by the movement of the Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The harmattan wind (North East Trade Winds), which is dry, hot
and dusty, moves from the Sahara and later comes into contact with the cool and most air (South
West Monsoon Winds) from the Atlantic Coast (Kankam-Yeboah, Dapaah-Soalwam, Nishigaki, &
Komatsu, 2003). During the months from December to February, the ITCZ moves along the Gulf of
Guinea and brings about harmattan in all parts of the country and between March and November; it
shifts significantly and moves across Ghana (Kankam-Yeboah, Dapaah-Soalwam, Nishigaki, &
Komatsu, 2003). The ITCZ moves along the southern areas along the coast two times and it is
because of this movement that the coastal areas in Ghana receive two rainfall seasons.
2.2. Demographics
Population
According to the 2010 population census, out of the region’s total population of about 4 million
inhabitants (GhanaStatisticalService, 2012), approximately 2.7 to 3 million of them live within the

city of Accra (Amoako & Boamah, 2012) as at 2012. The statistics from the statistical report showed
that more than 90 percent of the region’s population is urban with the remaining being rural.
Age and sex distribution
The city as well as the region is made up of youthful population with the average age of the region’s
population is estimated to be 26 years and has more female population than male (GSS, 2012). It is
also estimated that about 51 percent of Accra’s population is female with the remaining 49 percent
being male (AMA, 2006).
Wealth distribution
There exists a high level of discrepancy in wealth distribution among the population of Accra even
though Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan, & Rooijen (2011) report that; more than 70
percent of Accra’s population is estimated to be non poor. This value gives a general impression that
Accra’s population is generally rich even though a significant number of poor populations exist.
2.3. Urbanism
Rapid growth
Over the past years, the city has been transformed as a result of increasing population and
urbanization. The city of Accra was previously just the area known as the Accra Metropolitan
Assembly (AMA). According to Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan, & Rooijen (2011), as at
the year 2002, the city Accra had developed and expanded outwards to include the “the Ledzekuku-
Krowor Municipal Area (previously part of AMA), the Tema Metropolitan Area (TMA), the
Ashaiman Municipal Area (previously part of TMA), the Ga East Municipal Areas, the Ga West
Municipal Area and the Ga South Municipal Area (formerly part of Ga West)” as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: Urban growth of Accra from 1985 – 2002 Source: (Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan, &
Rooijen, 2011)
Informal settlement
The city is said to be the fastest growing city in Ghana having a population of about approximately 3
million inhabitants (Amoako & Boamah, 2014) and an annual growth rate of about 3.1 per cent
(Asumadu, 2015). The city currently covers a total land area of about (1,261 km2
) as already

mentioned. This fast growing nature of the city is attributed to the fact that the city serves as the
administrative, political and commercial hub of Ghana.
Over the past decades, the city of Accra has experienced the influx of migrants who come normally in
search of jobs. This influx coupled with weak building regulations have led to improper and poor
building structures in most of the areas. These are the places within the region which have developed
to become slums and the informal settlements. Protected and ecologically sensitive areas have been
converted into places of residences. According to Okyere et. al (2012), the number of people per
kilometer square increased from 79 to 103 persons in the year 2010. It is therefore evident that this
increase in the population is likely to have exerted excess pressure on the existing infrastructure as the
population increases.
3. Storm Water
Within the last decades, Accra has experienced a number of periodic floods and during this time, a
number of lives and properties have been affected. This same situation persists every year when the
country experiences rainfall. In such a situation, it is prudent to evaluate the current system and
develop measures to minimize the impact of flood on life and property (Asumadu, 2015).
The city of Accra has been experiencing successive floods over the past decades. Nyarko (2000) as
cited by Okyere et. al (2012) stated that more than 40 percent of the area of Accra lies in the high and
the very high risk zones with only a small portion not affected.
Figure 3: Representing the various basins in Accra
From Figure 4 it can be observed that of the various storm water infrastructure that exists within
Accra, there are a number of partially lined drainage pipes, which include Chemu, Odaw, Kpeshie
and the Songo drains. The drainages are designed for heavy rainfall events that happen one time after
every 25 years (Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan, & Rooijen, 2011). The artificial
drainages mostly allow fast discharge of storm water (Nyarko, 2000) into the lagoons before they are
finally discharged into the ocean.

From all the catchment areas, the Sakumo II basin has the highest peak run off of about 3230 m3
/s
which is followed by the Korle basin having a peak run off of about 2032 m3
/s with the Mokwe-
Songo basin having the lowest peak run off of about 218 m3
/s. The run-off is dependent on factors
such as the size of the basin, the amount of rainfall, the storage coefficient and the coefficient of run-
off. According to (Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan, & Rooijen, 2011), the run-off
coefficient for Accra lies between 0.7 and 0.95 and is estimated to increase as the rate of urbanization
increases.
Figure 4: Schematic of drainage system in Accra, Ghana
This indicates that Accra’s problem of storm water is and will still remain a challenge for the city to
deal with if nothing is done about the current rate of urbanization. There is however an increasing
number of areas situated around the catchment areas which are liable to flooding in case of any storm
water event. Figure 4 also includes the flood risk map of Accra and this flood risk map categories the
area into high flood risk area and low flood risk area. From this flood risk map, it was observed that
the areas located around the Sakumo II basin are the areas that are most prone to flooding even
though the entire area is generally low lying and prone to flooding. It is however interesting to
observe the nature of development around these flood prone areas. Most of the areas situated within
the catchments are built up and paved areas that reduces the areas ability for water retention but on
the other hand increases surface run off.
Buildings are also constructed along waterways, preventing the free flow of water. The number of
drainage systems is inadequate and the few drainage systems are in most cases chocked with waste.
These are some factors that add up to the increased frequency of flooding in Accra. As the city keeps
expanding, the sealing of the ground is increasing as well and the problem of flooding will become
increasingly exacerbated as permeable land area is lost (Adank, Darteh, Moriarty, Osei-Tutu, Assan,
& Rooijen, 2011).

Aside the negative effects rainfall has on Accra; there is as a major benefit that some people of the
city gain from it. The most important use of the rainfall in Accra is for rural farmers for agricultural
purposes. Agriculture activity could be beneficial if properly practiced since these areas could reduce
surface run-off during storm events.
3.1. Precipitation Events
From the mid 1950’s to 2015, properties valued more than GH¢300 billion have been destroyed by
flooding while a lot more lives have been affected during and after the various flood events whiles
others have also been displaced from their homes as a result (Asumadu, 2015). Floods form a portion
of the natural hazards that occur in Ghana aside drought, earthquake and bush fires. Among the
various occurrences of natural hazards reported in Ghana, floods have occurred most and have killed
more than the other natural hazards.
Figure 5: Return periods for precipitation events in Accra, Ghana
3.2. Causes of Flooding in Ghana
Most of Accra’s drains that connect directly to the lagoons are left uncovered, leaving the system
vulnerable to waste pollution. The drainage systems mostly get chocked by the plastic non degradable
waste which makes flow of water almost impossible. Inadequate drainage systems together with
dumping of waste into water bodies are part of the causes of the seasonal flooding in Accra.
The Problem of Waste Management
Accra’s nature of growth and urbanization has made sanitation a huge problem to deal with as it is
witnessed to be one of the major causes of flooding in Ghana. The Accra Municipal Assembly is
managing waste in Accra. The management includes the collection of the waste as well as its
disposal. The waste is dumped around the area of the Odaw River (UNEP, 2011). The collection of
waste in Accra was privatized at the end on the 1990s. The majority of the city is serviced by one
waste collection company Zoomlion (Thompson, 2013)

Table 3: Historical rainfall events in Accra
Date Amount of daily
Precipitation (mm)
Comments
1955 The first significant flood recorded in Accra
27th
June, 1960 98
29th
September, 1963 96
22nd
June, 1973 175
14th
July, 1991 157
4th
July, 1995 243 The city received the highest flood event in 49 years.
The number of deaths was recorded to be about 30 and
properties worth about 50 billion old Ghana cedis lost
(Danquah, 2013).
27th
June, 2001 81 11 lives were claimed and 100,000 of the population
homeless. Several properties damaged (Amoako,
2014).
9th
June, 2002 123
26th
March, 2007 59
25th
October, 2011 157 14 people killed and 17,000 people displaced (Okyere,
2012).
3rd
July, 2015 263 35 settlements were affected, 9,200 people were
affected and 150 lives were claimed (UNCT Ghana,
2015).
Accra has a number of informal settlements that have
developed in most of the flood prone areas and these
informal settlements lack waste management. According to
Amoako and Boamah (2014), more than 90 percent of the
flood prone areas are made up of informal settlements. The
increase urban growth has, come along with the increase in
waste generation which the city of Accra has not been able
to deal with. The high cost charged for waste management
prevents people from having access to proper waste
collection methods, which in turn encourages the urban
poor to poorly dispose off their waste. Most of these
informal settlements are haphazardly built which makes
accessibility into these areas difficult. This is a fact that
makes most areas here inaccessible by waste collection
trucks. Not all the areas within Accra are easily accessible
and as a fact, there is the difficulty of proper collection of
waste to the dumpsites. This problem of poor accessibility
is typical of areas located the Odaw river and the Korle
lagoon (UNEP, 2011). Solid waste management is one of
the most difficult problems the city has been forced to
handle. According to Amoako & Boamah (2014), the
principal causes of flooding in Accra includes the nature of
rainfall, impervious surfaces created as a result of increased
Figure 6: Waste-clogged drains

urbanisation, poor waste management, insufficient drainage systems, poor urban planning and
informal settlement development.
3.3. Recent Projects
Urban Environmental Sanitation Project
The Urban Environmental Sanitation Project was put in place because sanitation and waste
management were identified to be environmental issues that need quick attention. The urban
Environmental Sanitation Project was a project not just related to sanitation but flood management
and protection. The main idea behind this project was to provide the poor with access to urban
services as well as other urban development. Institution building, pollution management and
environmental health were also matters of concern (UNEP, 2004).
The project started in 1994 under the Ghanaian Ministry of Finance and Government and the Ministry
of Local Government and Rural Development. Other partners included the Nordic Development Fund
(NDF), VNG and the Agence francaise de Developpement (AFD).
The Odaw drainage pipe that travels through the heart of Accra was one of the major targets for this
project, with subsidiary projects focused on the Chemu West, Osu Klottey and Kpeshie drainage
canals (UNEP, 2004). Focus was on these areas because of the basins high contamination level. The
project was in five different categories. The first was related to storm water drainage improvement
while the other four were towards sanitation and solid waste management.
In Accra, the project related to storm water was to dredge and reconstruct the Odaw drainage (7
kilometers), which is one of the city’s principal drainage paths. The project also aimed to reconstruct
a number of other minor drains to serve 13 neighborhoods (UNEP, 2004). However, the Odaw project
changed a little bit since the budget kept increasing and as a result, just a part of the Odaw channel
was reconstructed. The initial design was to construct an “earth lined trapezoidal channel to a
concrete lined trapezoidal channel and finally to a reinforced concrete rectangular design” (UNEP,
2004). The reason for the changes in the design was to conserve enough space and to ensure that the
project did not affect (through relocation) the population around the project area. This phase of the
project was completed by the end of 2004. The drain was designed to withstand once in 25 years
rainwater events.
It was reported at the end of this project that the project’s aim was achieved by reducing the impact of
flooding on the low-income group living in the low lying and highly densified areas of Accra.
According the report from UNEP (2004), it was made clear that at the end of the project, the number,
intensity and the length of flooding events reduced considerably.
Odaw Drainage Improvement works
The Odaw Drainage Improvement works
project was an extension of the Odaw
drainage project under the Urban
Environmental Sanitation Project of Ghana.
The project continued again from 2004 to
2007 which was still under the Ministry of
Local Government, Rural Development and
Environment. The estimated budget for the
project was approximately 16 million Euros
and was constructed by a company from the

Netherlands known as the BAM International bv. The principal aim of the Odaw Drainage
Improvement works was to alleviate flooding and to reconstruct the drainage into a rectangular or
trapezoidal shape in order that it could stand flood events that occur once in every 25 years (BAM
International, 2009). The Odaw drainage was lined and was about 3.4 kilometers in length, 23 meters
in width and a depth of about 5 meters.
4. Flowing Water
Accra has various water bodies that flow through it. Two main rivers that can be mentioned in Accra
are the Odaw and Onyasia rivers. The main source of Accra’s supply of water is the Weija Dam,
which is located on the Densu River. The description of flowing water in Accra will not be complete
if the existing lagoons are not taken into account. The Korle lagoon is one of the city’s main and the
world’s most popular lagoon. However, a number of rural populations depend on rainfall and on these
flowing waters for their agricultural activities. Detailed description of flowing water in Accra is
explained below.
4.1. Hydrological Features
Accra has been partitioned into four main
catchment areas, which are Korle-Odaw catchment,
Densu River catchment, Kpeshie catchment and
Songo-Mokwe catchment (UNEP, 2011) even
though other smaller ones do exist as shown in
figure 1. These catchment areas are made up of
other rivers, which are either partly or not lined.
The Korle-Odaw is the biggest catchment of all
these catchments in Accra and the river together
with its tributaries within this catchment area
normally experiencing the greatest impact during
storm water events. According to Baffour (n.d),
Odaw is “centre most” basin that has a lot of water
flowing through it during the rainy periods. The
Odaw River flows through a natural drainage channel where it later empties itself in the Korle lagoon,
which is extremely polluted from urban and industrial wastes dumping. The storm water finally enters
Figure 7: Odaw Drainage Improvement Works Source: (BAM, 2009)

the sea. This channel of storm water through natural drainage systems to the sea is the most common
system most storm water drainage systems in Ghana follow. An example of this can be seen in the
figure 4.
4.2. Current System
The Korle lagoon will be used as a case study in this paper since it has received lot of attention on the
nation and global scale.
Overview of the Korle Lagoon
The Korle lagoon located along the coast of Ghana in past used to be a wetland that supported the
lives of various kinds of species. Currently, it is named to be one of the most polluted water bodies
existing in the world (Boadi & Kuitunen, 2002). It is one of the main channels for most of Accra’s
storm water discharge and it is directly connected to the sea. According to (DailyGuide, 2012), it
occupies a total surface area of about 0.6 km2
and serves a total catchment area of approximately 400
km2
. The Odaw drain is one of the major drains which have one of the fastest discharges as seen in
table 4. The largest basin in terms of area is the middle Sakumo (155 km2
) and also has the fastest
discharge (1825 m3
/sec).
Table 4: Total discharge of basins within the study Area Sources: (Nyarko, 2002)
Figure 8: a. catchment areas, b. discharge rates, and c. runoff concentrations in Accra Sources: (Nyarko, 2002)

The problem that exists is that with these basins is that, despite the large nature of the Odaw and
Middle Sakumo basins, they normally over flow their banks during the slightest rain events as a result
of the pollution by the low income settlement inhabitants and industrial waste discharges. The Korle
lagoon is identified to have lost its primary role in improving water quality as it formerly use to help
remove sediments, nutrients and other harmful substances. It currently supports almost no ecosystem
as a result of the pollutants it has accumulated over the past years. According to (Boadi & Kuitunen,
2002), it has been found out that the lagoon’s main source of pollution includes sewage and garbage,
which are made up of about 70 to 80 percent organic matter. It is again estimated by (Boadi &
Kuitunen, 2002) that the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is about 10500 kg day−1 and comes
mainly from the informal settlements living around the Korle lagoon and the Odaw river.
Current policies or programs to protect the water
Over the past years, there have been supports by donor agencies to improve sanitation in order to
protect the water bodies. The KLERP was one major project supported by BADEA/Kuwati
Fund/OPEC. According to OCIN (2005), reviews from the program indicated that, there were
inadequate facilities in terms of space. The only option was therefore to extend the water borne
sewage to possible areas to minimize the impact of pollution on water bodies. During the Accra
Waste Project (AWP) and the KLERP, fund was given to fix the treatment plant in order to reduce the
amount of untreated waste discharge into the lagoon. Less than 10 percent of the waste treatment
plants in Accra are operational (AMA, 2014). From this point, it can be concluded that the program
might have not fully achieved its aim in terms of untreated waste discharge into the water bodies.
KLERP (Korle Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project)
The project started in the year 2000 has received funding from international bodies including the
OPEC fund for International Development and the Arab bank for Economic Development in Africa.
The KLERP was part of the city’s sustainability projects to restore the ecology of the lagoon even
though it also aimed at improving Accra’s drainage and sanitation problems. It focused both on the
Korle lagoon and the Odaw River since the lagoon receives lot of pollutants from the river. The
project was divided into four main phases. During the first phase, the lagoon was dredged to remove
the unwanted sediments. It also aimed at removing swamps to reduce flooding. The second phase
dealt with the construction of inceptors. The third phase was also geared towards dredging of the
lagoon and the final phase was to execute the necessary environmental impact assessment.
The details of each phase are explained in table 5.
Table 5: Phases of the Korle Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
Dredging of the
lagoon
Construction of an
inceptor
Sediment removal
and re-dredging of
the lagoons
Design, supervise
and construct bulk
services including
roads, water , sewer,
storm water,
drainage
Creation of storm
water canals
Construction of a
pump station
Sediment removal in
the canals and drains
Execution of the
require

Environmental
Impact assessment
Removal of swamps
to reduce flooding
Outfall install works Fencing and
beautification works
Creation of green
areas
Infrastructure works
Source: (PMI, n.d)
KLERP: Source: (PMI, n.d)
Figure 9: Odaw River Dredging as part of the city’s sustainability project towards the Korle Lagoon Restoration

Evaluation of the project
Report from (DailyGuide, 2012) indicated that, there had been commitment on the part of the
informal settlements in making the project successful. It was again stated that the authorities of the
city ordered a 50 meter buffer distance around the lagoon, therefore, some settlements needed to be
demolished.
5. Waste Water
5.1. Existing Infrastructure and Trends
“Over the years there has been a lack of political will in Ghana to implement basic sanitation and this
is reflected in the amount of resources allocated for wastewater management, the main reason being
the phenomenal investment in the physical infrastructure of wastewater treatment plants. This coupled
with rapid industrialization and urbanization have generated increasing amount of [untreated]
wastewater, resulting in environmental deterioration and frequent outbreak of water-borne diseases”
(Awuah & Abrokwa, 2008).
With a population of approximately 3 million, it is estimated that Accra produces roughly 80 million
liters of wastewater per day (Lydecker & Drechsel, 2010). A nationwide assessment of the state of
wastewater and fecal sludge in Ghana by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
(2009) concluded that there were 30 wastewater plants in Accra, with only 10 percent operating as
designed. The majority of these plants service small communities and institution, such as hospitals,
universities and the military base indicating that the wastewater treatment system in Accra is largely
decentralized. Even if working properly, the combined capacity of these plants is only sufficient to
service 5-7 percent of Accra’s total population (Obuobie et al., 2006). The IWMI estimated that
nearly 90 percent of all wastewater generated in Accra is discharged directly into the river basins,
without treatment, and most of this pollution ends up in the Korle Lagoon.
According to the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) (2014) “Accra currently has a sewerage
system that covers only 15% of the city, but it is in complete state of disrepair giving rise to serious
environmental pollution and degradation and the concrete sewers are completely eroded at certain
sections of the network. It was laid about four decades ago. This situation calls for a complete
overhaul of the system.”
Only 30 percent of the houses in Accra have toilets that flush with water and only 20 percent have
running water. The majority of the other 70 percent of the population are serviced by public toilets,
which are considered “accessible” at a rate of one toilet per ten people (Thompson, 2013). The public
toilets are open-pit latrines that are emptied by a vacuum cess truck often only when they become full
or backed up. By design these trucks should transport the fecal sludge to a treatment facility, but due
to the incapacity and debilitated state of the current system they often empty directly into the rivers
(Kathijotes, 2012). Worst still, open defecation is commonly practiced as the public toilets are
insufficient to serve the population and often highly unsanitary and unsafe, especially during the night
hours and for women. The occurrence of high concentrations of human feces on the landscape and all
throughout the open and flowing water system results in extreme human health risks. Mosquitos favor
such conditions and Malaria is the leading cause of death in Accra. The open and flowing waters are
a primary source of drinking water for many of the city’s informal inhabitants and the only irrigation
source for the 750 ha of urban agricultural land informally worked around the city. Hygiene related
diarrhea claims over 20,300 lives every year in the city (Thompson, 2013)(Obuobie et al., 2006).

The James Town Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) was designed by a Chinese engineering
firm and constructed in 2000. The plant operates as an anaerobic microbial digester with a design
capacity of 16,120,000 liters of wastewater per day. At a per capita rate of 50 liters of wastewater per
person per day, this system was designed to 322,400 people living in the surrounding area, or 10
percent of the city’s population and to offer greatly needed reduction of direct effluent discharge into
the Korle Lagoon, which the plant is located adjacent to, 0.5 km from the Gulf of Guinean.
The plant was an integral part of the Accra Waste Project, one of the first of a series of multi-million
dollar international investment projects aimed at improving sanitation and alleviating flooding in
Accra. The plant was “designed and built on sustainable principles including optimized process
efficiency for tropical conditions, minimizing the consumption of electricity and using appropriate
technology” (Awauh & Abrokwa, 2008).
The Jamestown UASB is relatively simple technology, but considered robust for an African nation.
As shown in Figure 10, the influent is sent through a series of nine stages requiring 4 to 6 hours of
retention time for treatment and an additional 9 hours retention time for liquid effluent and 60 days
drying period for sludge effluent (Awauh & Abrokwa, 2008).
Screening – First the influent coming from the Central Accra Pumping Station (CAPS), where all
collected sewage from the metropolitan convenes, is pumped through a series of course-grit screens to
ensure uniformity of substrate before it enters the reactor.
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Distribution Boxes – Next, the influent is pumped though a series of
three distribution boxes that ensure an even proportional flow to the reactors. The tertiary distribution
box feeds into the bottom of the UASB reactors.
Anaerobic Primary Treatment Stage (UASB reactors) – The UASB reactors are maintained at a
temperature of 29°C ± 2 and operated in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic). The wastewater flows
from the bottom of the reactor “upward through a sludge blanket composed of biologically formed
granules” (Awauh & Abrokwa, 2008). The microbes digest the organic material releasing gases,
predominately methane and carbon dioxide, which cause internal circulation and keep the reactor
Figure 10: Systematic diagram of the UASB reactor wastewater treatment plant Source: (Awauh & Abrokwa, 2008)

operating evenly and encourages formation and maintenance of the biological granules with minimal
energy inputs. The free gas particles rise to the top of the chamber where it is collected and used for
energy production.
Aerobic Fixed Growth Reactor (Trickling Filters) – After passing through the UASB reactor the
effluent flows by force of gravity to the trickling filters where further biological treatment takes place.
Final Settling Tanks – The effluent should be allowed to settle for no less than 9 hours in the final
settling tank where further organic reduction is achieved through a series of fine filters before the
liquid effluent is discharged into the Korle Lagoon.
Sludge Thickeners – The remaining solids are pumped into the sludge thickeners for further settling
and drainage for a period no less than 60 days for effective pathogenic treatment.
Sludge Drying Beds (24) – Final treatment of solid effluent is dislodged from the sludge thickeners
and spread across 24 drying beds to lie and back in the sun for a period of 3-6 months allowing UV
radiation to further destroy pathogens to an appropriate level of 10-100 no./100ml for use in
agriculture. Liquids from the effluent are drained through sand filters and collected in a system of
under-drains.
The effectiveness of the UASB treatment process is detailed by common parameters used to measure
water quality and in comparison with EPA Ghana 2000 guidelines in Table 6. The reader should
observe two trends represented in this table. First, there is no significant improvement of water
Source: (Awauh & Abrokwa, 2008)
Table 6: Characteristics of sewage at different treatment stages in comparison with EPA Ghana 2000 Guidelines

quality from the final settling tank stage to the final effluent values (post drying beds), even for fecal
coliform, which is the parameter to be treated in this phase. Second, the plant has worrisomely low
efficiency values in 6 of the 11 measured parameters: ammonia-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, heavy
metals, phosphate-phosphorus and fecal coliform. Please note, fecal coliform removal is rated at
99.9% efficiency, but the value is more than double of the acceptable limits set by the EPA Ghana
2000 guidelines.
5.3. Performance Overview
Sadly, the Jamestown UASB wastewater treatment plant has a track record similar to all of the other
large infrastructure projects that have been implemented in Accra over the past two decades. It is
reported that the plant was completely out of operation by 2004. During this time sewage collected at
the Central Accra Pumping Station was directed to an emergency discharge outlet into the Gulf of
Guinean. Later investigation determined that the emergency outlet piping had cracked in multiple
locations and all untreated effluent was leaking directly into the Korle Lagoon, frustratingly at the
height of the Korle Lagoon Restoration Project thwarting all attempts to improve the ecological
capacity and sanitation quality of the lagoon (Lydecker & Drechsel, 2010). At the time of the
performance evaluation conducted by Awauh & Abrokwa (2008) 3 of the 6 reactor chambers were in
proper working order. Further, their analysis identified that the plant was operating below design
capacity and efficiency rating because (1) employees had a lack of technical training, (2) plant
operators had not been successful in attempts to acquire operation manuals for the plant by the
engineers, and (3) there was no one employed on staff with the technical training to oversee
operations of such an intricate system. No literature was found evaluating the plant’s performance
post 2008.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
It is clear that Accra, as a whole, is unfortunately well below an acceptable level of public service and
sanitation, leading to poor health and general social degradation. This report should have made clear
the myriad of infrastructural problems that have resulted in a degraded urban environment and
highlighted the capacity of one deficiency to amplify other deficiencies.
In this section, we will focus on integrated and holistic methods that could be employed in Accra to
synergistically improve the state of water in the city, ultimately improving the environmental, human
health, social and economic capacity of the area.
During this section the reader should keep in mind that Accra has been the recipient of hundreds of
millions of dollars from international investment banks for massive infrastructure projects to improve
the state of water in Accra. These include The Accra Waste Project (AWP) (1996-2002), Korle
Lagoon Environmental Restoration Project (KLERP) (1995-2005), Urban Environmental Sanitation
Projects (UESPI-1996-2001 and UESPII-2003-2015) and the Teshie Faecal Treatment Plant (1194-
1995). However, despite two decades of construction, nearly a billion in loaned funds and ample
design, construction and training support from European, American and Chinese firms, Accra is still
subject to annual catastrophic floods and toxic water quality. Future solutions must analyze the failure
of these previous projects and encourage solutions that match the existing technical, social,
economical and educational capacity of the administration and available workforce in Accra.

6.1. Solid Waste
It is the strong opinion of the authors that a desirable, productive and healthy environment in Accra is
not possible without first managing solid waste. A report concluded in 2014 by the Accra
Metropolitan Assembly estimates that 2,200 tons of garbage is generated daily, but the existing waste
management system only has the capacity to manage 1,500 tons per day. The remaining 700 tons
accumulate in the natural environment – every day – to provide breeding environments to mosquitos,
the prime vector of Malaria, and to clog essential storm water drainage infrastructure.
Currently, approximately 20% of households in Accra are serviced by household waste collection,
and these are all high-income areas (Thompson, 2010). The remaining 80% are asked to dispose of
waste at Central Collection Containers (CCC) free of charge.1
This solution is seemingly non-
effective as the accumulated litter is evident. Partially this is due to the backlog of 700 tons of waste
per day that the AMA lacks the capacity to manage, but it is notable that these backlogs are
concentrated in the poorest and most under-developed and informal areas of the city, which have
densely encroached upon the banks of the rivers and storm drains over time (Thomas, 2010). AMA
(2014) claims this is nearly unavoidable as the road infrastructure (or lack there of) prohibits regular
access to such communities with massive waste vehicles. Thomas has offered an interesting
observation that may lead to tangible, place-specific solutions finding.
“It seems poignantly incongruous that there exist simultaneously so many people seeking work and
also so much potential for physical labor to raise basic environmental health standards. Labor is one
of the most available inputs in Ghana’s waste management sector. It is certainly more readily
available than capital stock and imported technologies.”
One possible solution is to have segregated waste streams collected separately directly from people’s
homes with small carts that can be pushed by hand or pulled by bike. Separating the waste streams
would result in a drastic reduction of material sent to open dumpsites2
as 65% of the waste generated
in Accra is organic, and could be composted (Thompson, 2013). A waste characterization study and
market analysis are needed to determine if such a system could be self financing based on revenues
from recovered commodities, such as metals, plastics and compost material for agriculture. If the
system cannot sustain itself, AMA could consider imposing a manufacturing fee for hard to handle
materials, such as Styrofoam and plastic films. Such an analysis should also consider saved expenses
related to avoided flood damages by preventing solid waste from clogging storm drains.
6.2. Urban Agriculture
Lydecker & Drechsel (2010) have proposed that urban agriculture is a viable option to mitigate
flooding, littering, erosion, informal settlement development in buffer zones, and reduce human waste
discharge into the open waters of Accra. The study found that lands that are currently being used for
urban agriculture are clean from litter, informal developments and are not used as sites for open
defecation or privy dumping as the general population show a level of respect to the farmers as the
authority of the land, although the farmers are typically squatting on the land themselves.
1
AMA attempted to enact a pay-as-you-throw scheme to fund the public collection sites, but the initiative
resulted in greater accumulation of pollution in the surrounding areas as residents avoided the CCCs in order to
avoid the associated dumping fee.
2
There are no engineered landfills in Accra. Waste is piled in old rock quarries, abandoned mines and into
naturally occurring holes where lechate and emissions are uncontrolled and unmonitored (Thompson, 2013).

Collectively, 931 hectares, or nearly 7 percent of the total land area of Accra is being used for urban
agriculture, providing subsidence to 80,000 farmers (AMA, 2014).3
The AMA could grant temporary
rights to urban farmers to cultivate lands around open drains and rivers. In addition to the previously
mentioned benefits, organic matter accumulation from compost applied to the site and the grasp of
roots from vascular plants, especially maize, would significantly reduce runoff into the drains and
rivers, which is sited as the second leading cause of flooding, after waste accumulation.
6.3. Storm and Flowing Waters
A continuous history of massive drainage projects, such as the Odaw Drainage Improvement Project
with storm drains 5 meters deep and 8 meters wide, followed by catastrophic flooding events as
recent as May 2015 should highlight that building ever bigger and lined drainage systems does not
seem to be the appropriate solution for Accra. As flooding often starts at the overwhelmed Korle
Lagoon and then backs up into the city, the primary focus should be on restoring the lagoon, which is
in progress, and retaining storm waters upriver by providing opportunities for absorption into the
ground. Lined drainage systems are not a means of achieving retention. Portions of the drainage
system that are not yet lined should receive a partial covering of various rock sizes along the bed of
the drains to prevent runoff and the build-up of sedimentation, and to eventually offer habitat to
species that can prosper once the ecological capacity has been restored via other measures (Dickhaut,
2015).
As the rivers are – terrifyingly – a source of drinking water for many and for irrigation, water cisterns
sufficient in quantity to meet the needs of the 80 percent of the population lacking access to running
water would offer substantial relief to the volumes of water entering the drainage system during
heavy rain events if strategically placed (AMA, 2014). In depth spatial analysis of the informal
settlements and drainage basins is needed to quantify the potential volume of water that could be
stored in this fashion, but the AMA admits that the two existing waterworks servicing Accra leave a
daily short fall in the demanded drinking water of 130,000 m3
.4
Possibly the most vital component for mitigating flooding risk in Accra is by preventing litter build-
up in the drainage system. Referring back to the conundrum of environmental degradation and vast
unemployment articulated by Thomas (2010), a large workforce should be employed to maintain the
drainage systems as designed by manually clearing waste and removing accumulated sedimentation.
The cost of this system should be calculated as saved damages from proven flooding risk.
6.4. Waste Water
There are two complementary approaches that could be taken in unison to improve the current system
of wastewater management in Accra, improvement of the centralized wastewater treatment facilities,
and development of viable treatment options for septic sludge from household pit latrines and public
toilets. First, the existing sewage system must be repaired and all existing wastewater treatment
facilities brought up to operational capacity. Improvements will only be sustained with adequate
training of personnel including regular continuing education workshops and monitoring of
performance (Ewag – Sandec, 2006). However, this will cover no more (if operating at full capacity,
which has not yet happened) than 30 percent of the daily wastewater generated (AMA, 2014).
3
One hectare is the equivalent of one-tenth of a square kilometer.
4
This value is suspiciously small as it reflects that only 24 percent of the daily sanitary water demand is not
met, as 80 percent of residences, both formal and informal, do not have running water (Thompson, 2013).

Septic tank emptying services were privatized in Accra in the late 1990s (Thomas, 2010). As the city
lacks sufficient capacity to treat the vast majority of wastewater-generated daily, a fee is imposed on
septic haulers to empty at wastewater treatment facilities. This cost is passed down to the customer
prohibiting families from building pit latrines and in lei use pots and buckets in the closets of their
homes, which they empty on the landscape or in the rivers. The AMA has attempted to thwart haulers
attempts to avoid disposal fees by illegal dumping through heavy fines and legal persecution, but the
AMA admits that its attempts have been futile (2014). Kathijotes (2010) documents numerous
effective projects implemented in developing countries using a “flux reversal” system, which pays
fecal sludge haulers a standard rate for every truckload emptied at an accredited facility.
Again, this circles back to the conundrum of having a dramatic lack in proper wastewater treatment
facilities. Lydecker & Drechsel (2010) in coordination with the International Water Management
Institute and Eawag-Sandec (2006) have conducted and reviewed numerous studies on the health
impacts of using human wastes as a compost material. They argue that the organic matter greatly
improves the holding capacity of the soil, preventing erosion – something that inorganic fertilizers do
not accomplish – and that systems have been proven to properly prepare the material. The authors
argue that systems have been proven to safely handle and measure the material by allowing it to settle
for one to two months in a tank in the sun, and then to spread the material in thin layers over a nylon
lining over the ground, to prevent percolation of contaminants into the soil, for 3-6 months, or until
the material measures nematode eggs at quantities at or below 3-8/g treated sludge (Xanthoulis &
Strauss, 1991) as modified from the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 1989 recommendation of 1
nematode egg/liter of treated wastewater used to irrigate vegetables at a rate of 2-3 tons of treated
sludge per hectare per year.
Frankly, their results are questionable as they submit that vegetables grown in human waste composts
have alarmingly high rates of pathogens, often measured by the WHO standard of helm eggs, and has
been attributed to 120,000 lost healthy life years (DALYS, disability adjusted life years) every year in
Ghana from the consumption of vegetables irrigated with wastewater. Further research is needed to
verify the safety of using human biosolids as a soil conditioner.
Conclusion
Ultimately, there are a multitude of small-scale, decentralized, low-tech solutions that could be
readily employed in Accra to greatly improve that state of water in the city. Identification of any
specific technology or system will require holistic and scrutinous research into the case-specific
characteristics, opportunities and limitations.
“An array of tools from which stakeholders can choose has been identified. They comprise
 systematic planning based on stakeholder identification and their cooperation (integrated with
urban sanitation planning);
 regulations on services provision and management procedures;
 fee structuring and money fluxes (flux reversal!);
 development of services to private entrepreneurs;
 rules to secure a competitive market;
 [case specific]appropriate treatment options;
 securing markets [such as for biosolids, food waste and plastics].
Potential solutions suiting local conditions and needs should be further developed and tested in
pilot/demonstration projects. They should be monitored and evaluated in order to establish practical,
action-oriented recommendations complemented by capacity building programs “ (Kathijoles, 2012).

References
Adank, M., Darteh, B., Moriarty, P., Osei-Tutu, H., Assan, D., & Rooijen, D. V. (2011). Towards
integrated Urban Water managment in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. Current Status
and Strategic Directoins for the future. Accra: SWITCH/RCN Ghana.
AMA – Accra Municipal Assembly (2014) The Composite Budget of the Accra Municipal
Assembly for the 2014 Fiscal Year <www.mofep.gov.gh>
AMA. (2006). Know more about the AMA. Abgerufen am 9. September 2015 von Accra Metropolitan
Assembly: Ghana Districts: http://ama.ghanadistricts.gov.gh/?arrow=atd&_=3&sa=3004
Amoako, Clifford; Boamah, Frimpong (2014) “The three-dimensional causes of flooding
in Accra, Ghana” International Fournal of Urban Sustainable Development.
BAM International (2009) “Project Overview: Odaw drainage improvement works
(lot 3), Accra, Ghana”
Awuah, E., Abrokwa, K.A. (2008) “Performance evaluation of the UASB sewage
treatment plant at James Town (Mudor), Accra” 33rd
WEDC International Conference,
Accra, Ghana: Access to Sanitation and Safe Water – Global Partnerships and Local Actions
Boadi, Kwasi Owusu; Kuitunen, Markku (2012) „Urban waste pollution in the Korle
Lagoon, Accra, Ghana“ The Environmentalist (22) 301-309, Netherlands
Boadi, K. O., & Kuitunen, M. (2002). Urban waste pollution in the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana. The
Environmentalist: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 301.
Cofie, Olufunke; Adamtey, Noah (2010) “Nutrient Recovery from H (UNEP, 2011)uman Excreta
for
Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture.” International Water Management Institute (WWMI)
Daily Guide. (2. June 2012). Modern Ghana. Abgerufen am 11. September 2015 von Dying Korle
Lagoon: http://www.modernghana.com/news/399206/1/dying-korle-lagoon.html
Danquah, I. O. (September 2013). Thesis: Climate change and its impacts on flooding in Accra -
Greater Accra Metropolitan Assembly. Kumasi, Ashanti Region, Ghana.
Dickhaut (2015) “Urban Water Cycles” Resource Efficiency in Architecture and
Planning M.Sc. – HafenCity University Hamburg
Eawag – Sandec (2006) “Urban Excreta Management – Situation, Challenges and
Promising Solutions.” 1st
International Faecal Sludge Management Symposium and
Workshop
Ghana Statistical Service. (2012). Population and Housing Census: Summary report of final results.
Accra: Ghana Statistical Service.
IWMI – International Water Management Institute (2009) Wastewater Irrigation and
Public Health: From Research to Impact – A Road Map for Ghana
Kankam-Yeboah, K., Dapaah-Soalwam, S., Nishigaki, M., & Komatsu, M. (March 2003). The
Hydogeological Setting of Ghana and the Potential for Underground Dams. Journal of the
Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, 39.

Kathijotes, Nicholas (2012) “Wastewater Management in Developing Countries:
Nutrient Input Control in Coastal Cities” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. (42)
p. 259-263
Logah, F. Y.; Obuobie, E.; Ofori, D.; Kankam-Yeboah, K. (2013) “Analysis of Rainfall
Variability in Ghana” International Journal of Latest Research in Engineering and
Computing (IJLREC). Vol. 1 (1) p. 1-8
Lydecker, Mary; Drechsel, Pay (2010) “Urban agriculture and sanitation services in
Accra, Ghana: the overlooked contribution” International Journal of Agricultural
Sustainability. Vol. 8 (1-2) p. 94-103
Monney, I.; Odai, S.N.; Buamah, R.; Awuah, E.; Nyenje, P.M. (2013) “Environmental
impacts of wastewater from urban slums: case study – Old Fadama, Accra” International
Journal of Development and Sustainability. Vol. 2 (2) p. 711-728
Nyarko, B. (2002). Application of a rational model in GISfor flood risk assessment in
Accra, Ghana. Journal of Spatial Hydrology, 3.
Obuobie, E., Keraita, B., Danso, G., Amoah, P., Cofie, O., Rischid-Sally, L., Dreschel, P.
(2006) Irrigated Urban Vegetable Production in Ghana: Characteristics, Benefits and Risks.
IWMI/RUAF/CPWF, Accra, Ghana.
OCIN. (October 2005). Ghana: Accra Sewerage Improvement Project. Abgerufen am
11. September 2015 von African Development Fund:
http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Ghana_-
_Accra_Sewerage_Improvement_Project_ASIP_-_Appraisal_Report.pdf
Okyere, Yacouba & Gilgenbach (2012) “The problems of Annual Occurrences of Floods in
Accra: An Integration of Hydrological, Economical and Political Perspectives” Centere for
Development Research, Universität Bonn
Silverman, Andrea; Akrong, Mark O.; Drechsel, Pay; Nelson, Kara L. (2014) “On-farm
treatment of wastewater used for vegetable irrigation: bacteria and virus removal in small
ponds in Accra, Ghana” Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination. Vol. 4 (4) P. 276-286
SWITCH / Resource Centre Network Ghana (2011) “Towards integrated urban water
management in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area: Current status and strategic directions
for the future”
Thompson, Ian. (2013) Domestic Waste Management Strategies in Accra, Ghana and
Other Urban Cities in Tropical Developing Nations
UNEP. (2011). Rapid Disaster Waste Management Assessment. 20 October Flash Flooding, Central
Accra - Ghana. Switzerland: UNEP/OCHA Environmental Unit.
Waylen, Peter; Owusu, Kwadwo. (2014) „Changes in expectations and extremes in
rainfall climatology of Accra, Ghana, 1895-2005“ Applied Geography. (52) p. 99-109
WHO – World Health Organization (1989) “Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater
in Agriculture and Aquaculture” Report of a Scientific Group. World Health Technical
Report Series 778
World Bank (1996) Staff Appraisal Report: Republic of Ghana: Urban Environmental

Sanitation Project
World Bank (2006) Staff Appraisal Report: Republic of Ghana: Urban Environmental
Sanitation Project: Phase 2
Xanthoulis, D. and Strauss, M. (1991) “Reuse of Wastewater in Agriculture at
Ouarzazate, Morocco” (Project UNDPF/FAO/WHO MOR 86/018). Unpublished
mission/consultancy reports.

Managing at the same time too much and not enough water in Accra, Ghana

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (13)

Similar to Managing at the same time too much and not enough water in Accra, Ghana

Similar to Managing at the same time too much and not enough water in Accra, Ghana (20)

More from Heather Troutman

More from Heather Troutman (19)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (18)

Managing at the same time too much and not enough water in Accra, Ghana