40_Lecture_Presentation_Rev1_Notes_PC.ppt

LECTURE PRESENTATIONS
For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION
Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Basic Principles of Animal Form
and Function
Chapter 40

Overview: Diverse Forms, Common
Challenges
• _______________is the study of the biological
form of an organism
• _______________is the study of the biological
functions an organism performs
• The comparative study of animals reveals that
____________________ are closely correlated

Concept 40.1: Animal form and function
are correlated at all levels of organization
• ______ and _________ affect the way an animal
interacts with its environment
• Many different animal ________________have
evolved and are determined by the genome

Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
• ___________________laws constrain strength,
diffusion, movement, and heat exchange
• As animals increase in size, their
__________must be proportionately larger to
support their mass
• ________________________reflects different
species’ adaptations to a similar environmental
challenge

Exchange with the Environment
• Materials such as nutrients, waste products, and
gases must be exchanged across the _______
________________of animal cells
• Rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s
_____________ while amount of exchange
material is proportional to a cell’s ____________

• A ____________________ living in water has a
sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to
service its entire volume of cytoplasm
• ______________________with a saclike body
plan have body walls that are only __________
_____________, facilitating diffusion of materials

Figure 40.3
Exchange
0.1 mm
1 mm
Exchange
Exchange
Gastrovascular
cavity
Mouth
(b) Two layers of cells
(a) Single cell

• In ___ animals such as tapeworms, the distance
between cells and the environment is minimized
• More complex organisms have highly _______
__________________for exchanging materials

External environment
Food
Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
system
CO2 O2
Lung tissue (SEM)
Cells
Interstitial
fluid
Excretory
system
Circulatory
system
Nutrients
Digestive
system
Heart
Blood vessels in
kidney (SEM)
Lining of small
intestine (SEM)
Anus
100
m
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
50
m
250
m
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste)
Figure 40.4

• In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled
with ______________, which allows for the
movement of material into and out of cells
• A _________________helps an animal living in
a variable environment to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment

• Most animals are composed of specialized cells
organized into ___________ that have different
functions
• Tissues make up ___________, which together
make up ___________________
• Some organs, such as the ______________,
belong to more than one organ system
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans

• Different tissues have different structures that are
suited to their _______________
• Tissues are classified into four main categories:
_______________________________________
Exploring Structure and Function in
Animal Tissues

Epithelial Tissue
• _______________ covers the outside of the body
and lines the organs and cavities within the body
• It contains cells that are _______________
• The shape of epithelial cells may be __________
(like dice), _____________ (like bricks on end),
or ___________(like floor tiles)

• The arrangement of epithelial cells may be
__________(single cell layer), _____________
(multiple tiers of cells), or ________________ (a
single layer of cells of varying length)

Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple columnar
epithelium
Simple squamous
epithelium
Pseudostratified
columnar
epithelium
Stratified squamous
epithelium
Epithelial Tissue
Figure 40.5aa

Connective Tissue
• _______________________mainly binds and
supports other tissues
• It contains sparsely packed cells scattered
throughout an ____________________
• The matrix consists of _____________in a liquid,
jellylike, or solid foundation

• There are three types of connective tissue fiber,
all made of __________:
– ____________________ provide strength and
flexibility
– ____________________ stretch and snap back
to their original length
– ____________________ join connective tissue
to adjacent tissues

• Connective tissue contains cells, including
– ______________ that secrete the protein of
extracellular fibers
– ________________ that are involved in the
immune system

• In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine
to form six major types of connective tissue:
– ____________________ binds epithelia to
underlying tissues and holds organs in place
– ______________is a strong and flexible
support material
– Fibrous connective tissue is found in
_______________, which attach muscles to
bones, and ______________, which connect
bones at joints

– ______________ stores fat for insulation
and fuel
– ______________ is composed of blood
cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
– __________ is mineralized and forms the
skeleton

Figure 40.5ba
Blood
Connective Tissue
Plasma
White
blood cells
55
m
Red blood cells
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
Chondroitin sulfate
100
m
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
150
m
Bone
Central
canal
Osteon
700
m
Nuclei
Fibrous connective tissue
Elastic fiber
30
m
120
m
Collagenous fiber
Loose connective tissue

Muscle Tissue
• ______________ consists of long cells called
muscle fibers, which contract in response to
nerve signals

• It is divided in the vertebrate body into three
types:
– _______________, or striated muscle, is
responsible for voluntary movement
– _______________ is responsible for
involuntary body activities
– ________________is responsible for
contraction of the heart

Figure 40.5ca
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 m
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
Nucleus Muscle fibers 25 m Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m

Nervous Tissue
• ______________senses stimuli and transmits
signals throughout the animal
• Nervous tissue contains
– ____________, or nerve cells, that transmit
nerve impulses
– ______________, or __________, that help
nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons

Figure 40.5da
Nervous Tissue
Neurons
Neuron:
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
(Fluorescent LM)
40
m
Glia Glia
Axons of
neurons
Blood
vessel
(Confocal LM)
15 m

Coordination and Control
• Control and coordination within a body depend on
the ________________and the ____________
• The endocrine system transmits chemical signals
called ______________ to receptive cells
throughout the body via blood
• A _______________ may affect one or more
regions throughout the body
• Hormones are relatively ______________, but
can have long-lasting effects

• The ______________ system transmits
information between specific locations
• The information conveyed depends on
a__________________, not the type of signal
• Nerve signal transmission is very _________
• Nerve impulses can be received by _________,
_________ cells, ____________ cells, and
_____________cells

Concept 40.2: Feedback control maintains
the internal environment in many animals
• Animals manage their internal environment by
_________________or _______________ to the
external environment

• A _________________ uses internal control
mechanisms to moderate internal change in the
face of external, environmental fluctuation
• A ______________allows its internal condition to
vary with certain external changes
• Animals may regulate some environmental
variables while conforming to others
Regulating and Conforming

Homeostasis
• Organisms use ___________________to maintain
a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of
external environment
• In humans, ______________________________,
and ____________concentration are each
maintained at a constant level

• Mechanisms of homeostasis ________________
in the internal environment
• For a given variable, fluctuations above or below
a _____________serve as a __________; these
are detected by a _____________ and trigger a
________________
• The ________________ returns the variable to
the set point
Mechanisms of Homeostasis

Feedback Control in Homeostasis
• The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is
maintained by _______________, which helps to
return a variable to a normal range
• Most homeostatic control systems function by
__________________, where buildup of the end
product shuts the system off
• _____________________ amplifies a stimulus
and does not usually contribute to homeostasis in
animals

Alterations in Homeostasis
• Set points and normal ranges can change with
_________ or show ___________________
• In animals and plants, a _______________
governs physiological changes that occur roughly
every 24 hours

• Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external
environment, a process called _______________

Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for
thermoregulation involve form, function,
and behavior
• __________________ is the process by which
animals maintain an internal temperature within a
tolerable range

• __________________ animals generate heat by
metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
• __________________ animals gain heat from
external sources; ectotherms include most
invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian
reptiles
Endothermy and Ectothermy

• In general, _______________ tolerate greater
variation in internal temperature, while
__________________ are active at a greater
range of external temperatures
• ___________________ is more energetically
expensive than ectothermy

Variation in Body Temperature
• The body temperature of a ____________varies
with its environment
• The body temperature of a ________________is
relatively constant
• The relationship between heat source and body
temperature is ________________(that is, not all
poikilotherms are ectotherms)

Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
• Organisms exchange heat by four physical
processes: ______________________________
______________________________________

• Heat regulation in mammals often involves the
____________________: skin, hair, and nails
• Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
– _____________________
– _____________________ adaptations
– Cooling by ___________________________
– ___________________ responses
– Adjusting ______________________________

Insulation
• ______________ is a major thermoregulatory
adaptation in mammals and birds
• _____________________________ reduce heat
flow between an animal and its environment
• Insulation is especially important in _________
_______________________such as whales and
walruses

• Regulation of _____________ near the body
surface significantly affects thermoregulation
• Many endotherms and some ectotherms can
_____________________________between the
body core and the skin
• In ________________, blood flow in the skin
increases, facilitating heat loss
• In ___________________, blood flow in the skin
decreases, lowering heat loss
Circulatory Adaptations

• The arrangement of blood vessels in many
marine mammals and birds allows for
____________________________
• ____________________________ transfer heat
between fluids flowing in opposite directions and
reduce heat loss

• Some bony _________ and ________ also use
countercurrent heat exchanges
• Many ________________________ have
countercurrent heat exchangers that help
maintain a high temperature in the thorax

Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
• Many types of animals lose heat through
_______________________from their skin
• _______________ increases the cooling effect in
birds and many mammals
• _____________ or ___________ moistens the
skin, helping to cool an animal down

• Both endotherms and ectotherms use
________________to control body temperature
• Some terrestrial invertebrates have __________
that minimize or maximize absorption of solar
heat
Behavioral Responses

Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
• _______________is the adjustment of metabolic
heat production to maintain body temperature
• Thermogenesis is increased by ____________
such as moving or shivering
• __________________thermogenesis takes
place when _____________ cause mitochondria
to increase their metabolic activity
• Some ectotherms can also ____________ to
increase body temperature

• __________ and _______________ can vary
their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal
temperature changes
• When temperatures are subzero, some
ectotherms produce “___________” compounds
to prevent ice formation in their cells
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation

Physiological Thermostats and Fever
• Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of
the brain called the __________________
• The ________________ triggers heat loss or
heat generating mechanisms
• ____________ is the result of a change to the
set point for a biological thermostat

Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are
related to animal size, activity, and
environment
• ___________________is the overall flow and
transformation of energy in an animal
• It determines how much food an animal needs
and it relates to an animal’s ________________
________________________

Energy Allocation and Use
• Animals harvest ____________energy from food
• Energy-containing molecules from food are
usually used to make _________, which powers
cellular work
• After the needs of staying alive are met,
remaining food molecules can be used in
______________
• _______________ includes body growth and
repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat,
and production of gametes

• ____________________is the amount of energy
an animal uses in a unit of time
• Metabolic rate can be determined by
– An animal’s __________
– The amount of _______________ or _________
________________________
Quantifying Energy Use

Minimum Metabolic Rate and
Thermoregulation
• ___________________is the metabolic rate of an
endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature
• ___________________is the metabolic rate of an
ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
• Both rates assume a ___________________
__________________________animal
• Ectotherms have much _________ metabolic
rates than endotherms of a comparable size

• Metabolic rates are affected by many factors
besides whether an animal is an endotherm or
ectotherm
• Two of these factors are ______ and ________
Influences on Metabolic Rate

Size and Metabolic Rate
• Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the
power of _________________________
• _____________________ animals have higher
metabolic rates per gram than larger animals
• The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals
leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate,
breathing rate, heart rate, and greater
(relative) blood volume, compared with a larger
animal

• ______________ greatly affects metabolic rate
for endotherms and ectotherms
• In general, the maximum metabolic rate an
animal can sustain is _________________ to the
duration of the activity
Activity and Metabolic Rate

• Different species use energy and materials in
food in different ways, depending on their
____________________
• Use of energy is partitioned to _____________,
activity, ___________________, _________, and
_______________________
Energy Budgets

Torpor and Energy Conservation
• _______________ is a physiological state in
which activity is low and metabolism decreases
• Torpor enables animals to ____________ while
avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions
• _____________________ is long-term torpor
that is an adaptation to winter cold and food
scarcity

• Summer torpor, called _______________,
enables animals to survive long periods of high
temperatures and scarce water
• Daily torpor is exhibited by many __________
__________________ and _____________ and
seems adapted to feeding patterns

40_Lecture_Presentation_Rev1_Notes_PC.ppt

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to 40_Lecture_Presentation_Rev1_Notes_PC.ppt

Similar to 40_Lecture_Presentation_Rev1_Notes_PC.ppt (20)

More from Glaiza Valdez-Abucay

More from Glaiza Valdez-Abucay (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

40_Lecture_Presentation_Rev1_Notes_PC.ppt