2. Content
• What is electricty
• Types of elctricty
• What is volte
• What is current
• Ohms low
• Passive elements
• What is resistor
• Types of resistors
• How to read resistor code
• What is CAPACITOR
• Types of capctor
• How to read capctor code
• What is coil
• Types of coils
• Coils code
• what is fueses
• Types of fueses
• switches
• Relayes
• Condactors
• Measurements
• Semcondactor
• Diode
• Types diodes
• Zener diode
• Transistors
• Types of transistors
• Bjt
• Mosfit
• Thiarestor
• igbt
• Diac
• Triac
• ic
• Amplifiers
• Timers
• Coms
• 40xx family
• Logic gate
• Counters
15. Direct Current
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is
produced by sources such as batteries, power supplies, solar cells.
17. • Mathematics of AC voltages
1 = v Peak, also amplitude,
2 = Peak-to-peak,
3 = Effective value,
4 = Period
Alternating Current
Root mean square voltage
26. MULTIMETER
Avo meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can
measure voltage, current, resistance ,freq and capacitance.
28. CLAMPMETER
This allows measurement of the current in a
conductor without the need to make physical
contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion
through the probe. Current clamps are
typically used to read the magnitude
of alternating current (AC) and, with additional
instrumentation, the phase and waveform can
also be measured. Some clamps meters can
measure currents of 1000 A and more. Hall
effect and vane type clamps can also
measure direct current (DC).
29. FUNCTION GENERATOR
Function generator used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a
wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by the
function generator are the sine, square, triangular and samtooth shapes.
30. Oscilloscope
Device that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as
a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time. Other
signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed.
47. CARBON
Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid cylindrical resistive
element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead
wires are attached.
he resistive element is made from a mixture of finely powdered carbon
and an insulating material, usually ceramic. A resin holds the mixture
together. The resistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the
powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher concentrations of carbon, which
is a good conductor, result in lower resistance
48. Carbon Filem
A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a
long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with
the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m), can provide a wide
range of resistance values. Compared to carbon composition they feature low noise.
49. Wire Resistor
Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome,
around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or
welded to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected
with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature.
These resistors are designed to withstand unusually high temperatures of up to 450 °C
122. TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two
or more circuits through electromagnetic induction.
Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications.
128. Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch,
but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays.
130. solid-state relay
A solid-state relay (SSR) is an electronic switching device that switches on or off
when a small external voltage is applied across its control terminals. SSRs consist of
a sensor which responds to an appropriate input (control signal), a solid-
state electronic switching device which switches power to the load circuitry.
135. circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current, typically resulting from
an overload or short circuit.
Circuit breaker
136. fuse
fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent
protection of an electrical circuit including the source of power and the load.
139. Thermal fuses
A thermal fuse is often found in consumer equipment such as coffee
makers, hair dryers or transformers powering small consumer
electronics devices.
140. BREADBOARD
A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics.Because it does not
require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary
prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. For this reason, solderless
breadboards are also extremely popular with students and in technological education.
143. semiconductor
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of
a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Their resistance decreases
as their temperature increases.
145. Semiconductor Doping
In semiconductor production, doping is the
intentional introduction of impurities into
an intrinsic semiconductor for the purpose of
modulating its electrical properties.
ndoping This involves substituting Si by
neighboring elements that contribute excess
electrons. For example, small amounts of P or As
can substitute Si.
Since P/As have 5 valence electrons, they behave
like Si plus an extra electron. This extra electron
contributes to electrical conductivity, and with a
sufficiently
large number of such dopant atoms, the
material can displays metallic conductivity.
146. Semiconductor Doping
p doping This involves substituting Si by
neighboring atom that has one less
electron than Si, for example, by B or Al.
The substituent atom then creates
a “hole” around it, that can hop from one
site to another. The hopping of a hole in
one direction corresponds to the hopping
of an electron in the opposite
direction. Once again, the dominant
conduction process is because of the
dopant.
147. P-n junction
A diode is a device which only allows unidirectional flow of current
if operated within a rated specified voltage level.
148. The depletion region is formed from a conducting region by removal of all free
charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current.
P-n junction
151. Diode
A diode is a device which only allows unidirectional flow of current if operated
within a rated specified voltage level.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction while the reverse voltage is
within a limited range otherwise reverse voltage is blow breakdown voltage.
163. Clamper
A clamper is an electronic circuit that fixes either the positive or the negative peak
excursions of a signal to a defined value by shifting its DC value. The clamper does not
restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down
so as to place the peaks at the reference leveL
166. Voltage multiplier
A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a
lower voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically using a network of capacitors and diodes.
Voltage multipliers can be used to generate a few volts for electronic appliances, to
millions of volts for purposes such as high-energy physics experiments and lightning
safety testing.
168. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-
lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n
junction diode that emits light when activated.
When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence, and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)
is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor. LEDs are typically small (less than
1 mm2 ) and integrated optical components may
be used to shape the radiation pattern.
175. Bipolar junction transistor
A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses
both electron and hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-
effect transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two
junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type.
BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual
components, or fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers. The basic
function of a BJT is to amplify current. This allows BJTs to be used as amplifiers or
switches, giving them wide applicability in electronic equipment, including computers,
televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, industrial control, and radio transmitters
192. Class B
To improve the full power
efficiency of the previous Class
A amplifier by reducing the
wasted power in the form of
heat, it is possible to design
the power amplifier circuit
with two transistors in its
output stage producing what is
commonly termed as a Class B
Amplifier also known as
a push-pull
amplifier configuration.
193. Class AB
pre-biasing voltage either for a transformer or transformerless amplifier circuit, has the
effect of moving the amplifiers Q-point past the original cut-off point thus allowing each
transistor to operate within its active region for slightly more than half or 180o of each half
cycle. In other words 180o + Bias. The amount of diode biasing voltage present at the base
terminal of the transistor can be increased in multiples by adding additional diodes in
series. This then produces an amplifier circuit commonly called a Class AB Amplifier and
its biasing arrangement is given below.
206. Thyristor
A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with
four layers of alternating N and P-type materials. It
acts exclusively as a bistableswitch, conducting when
the gate receives a current trigger, and continuing to
conduct while the voltage across the device is not
reversed (forward-biased). A three-lead thyristor is
designed to control the larger current of its two leads
by combining that current with the smaller current of
its other lead, known as its control lead. In contrast, a
two-lead thyristor is designed to switch on if the
potential difference between its leads is sufficiently
large (breakdown voltage).
Some sources define silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
and thyristor as synonymous.Other sources define
thyristors as a larger set of devices with at least four
layers of alternating N and P-type material.
209. Thyristor
Uses of Thyristors
The most common use of thyristors is in AC circuits. In an AC circuit the forward current
drops to zero during every cycle so there will always be a turn off function. This does,
however, mean that the gate needs to be triggered every cycle just to turn it back on
again. It is in the relative timing of these two functions that the thyristor has it's most
important role, i.e. Power Control.
Thyristors are also used in motor speed controls, light dimmers, pressure-control
systems, and liquid-level regulators.
Today, thyristors are manufactured and sold as modules right upto 570 Amps.Also
discrete forms as Stud and disc types are available ,till 570 Amps modules dominate the
industry.
212. TRIAC
TRIACs are a subset of thyristors and are
related to silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
TRIACs differ from SCRs in that they allow
current flow in both directions, whereas an
SCR can only conduct current in a single
direction. Most TRIACs can be triggered by
applying either a positive or negative voltage
to the gate (an SCR requires a positive voltage).
Once triggered, SCRs and TRIACs continue to
conduct, even if the gate current ceases, until
the main current drops below a certain level
called the holding current.
214. TRIAC
Need to positive trigger
for every positive peak
and negative trigger for
every negative peak
215. DIAC
Diac’s have no control or amplification
but act much like a bidirectional
switching diode as they can conduct
current from either polarity of a
suitable AC voltage supply.
We can see from the above diac I-V
characteristics curves that the diac
blocks the flow of current in both
directions until the applied voltage is
greater than VBR, at which point
breakdown of the device occurs and
the diac conducts heavily in a similar
way to the zener diode passing a
sudden pulse of voltage. This VBR point
is called the Diacs breakdown voltage
or breakover voltage
