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1. MEMORY
MEMORY
AND
AND
FORGETTING
FORGETTING

2. MEMORY
MEMORY

3.  In
In psychology
psychology,
, memory
memory is an organism's
is an organism's mental
mental
ability to store, retain and recall information.
ability to store, retain and recall information.
(Wikipedia)
(Wikipedia)
 Memory is the retention of, and ability to recall,
Memory is the retention of, and ability to recall,
information, personal experiences, and procedures
information, personal experiences, and procedures
(skills and habits).
(skills and habits).
(Skeptic’ Dictionary)
(Skeptic’ Dictionary)
 ‘
‘Memory’ is a label for a diverse set of cognitive
Memory’ is a label for a diverse set of cognitive
capacities by which humans and perhaps other
capacities by which humans and perhaps other
animals retain information and reconstruct past
animals retain information and reconstruct past
experiences, usually for present purposes.
experiences, usually for present purposes.
(Stanford Encyclopedia)
(Stanford Encyclopedia)

5. Brain Areas Included in Memory
Brain Areas Included in Memory
 The
The hippocampus
hippocampus, a primitive structure deep in the
, a primitive structure deep in the
brain, plays the single largest role in processing
brain, plays the single largest role in processing
information as memory.
information as memory.
 The
The amygdala,
amygdala, an almond-shaped area near the
an almond-shaped area near the
hippocampus, processes emotion and helps imprint
hippocampus, processes emotion and helps imprint
memories that involve emotion.
memories that involve emotion.
 The
The cerebral cortex
cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain,
, the outer layer of the brain,
stores most long-term memory in different zones,
stores most long-term memory in different zones,
depending on what kind of processing the
depending on what kind of processing the
information involves: language, sensory input,
information involves: language, sensory input,
problem-solving, and so forth.
problem-solving, and so forth.
In addition, memory involves communication among
In addition, memory involves communication among
the brain’s
the brain’s network of
network of neurons
neurons, millions of cells
, millions of cells
activated by
activated by brain chemicals called
brain chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
neurotransmitters.

7. Types Of Memory
Types Of Memory

8. Short term Memory
Short term Memory
Short-term memory—closely related to
Short-term memory—closely related to
“working” memory—is the very short time
“working” memory—is the very short time
that you keep something in mind before
that you keep something in mind before
either dismissing it or transferring it to
either dismissing it or transferring it to
long-term memory. Short-term memory is
long-term memory. Short-term memory is
shorter than you might think, lasting less
shorter than you might think, lasting less
than a minute. It’s what allows you to
than a minute. It’s what allows you to
remember the first half of a sentence you
remember the first half of a sentence you
hear or read long enough to make sense
hear or read long enough to make sense
of the end of the sentence. But in order to
of the end of the sentence. But in order to
store that sentence (or thought, fact, idea,
store that sentence (or thought, fact, idea,
word, impression, sight, or whatever else)
word, impression, sight, or whatever else)
for longer than a minute or so, it has to be
for longer than a minute or so, it has to be
transferred to long-term memory.
transferred to long-term memory.

9. Long term Memory
Long term Memory
long-term memory is anything you
long-term memory is anything you
remember that happened more than
remember that happened more than
a few minutes ago. Long-term
a few minutes ago. Long-term
memories aren’t all of equal
memories aren’t all of equal
strength. Stronger memories enable
strength. Stronger memories enable
you to recall an event, procedure, or
you to recall an event, procedure, or
fact on demand—for example, that
fact on demand—for example, that
Paris is the capital of France. Weaker
Paris is the capital of France. Weaker
memories often come to mind only
memories often come to mind only
through prompting or reminding.
through prompting or reminding.

10. Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory
 Sensory
Sensory memory
memory is the ability to retain
is the ability to retain
impressions of sensory information after
impressions of sensory information after
the original stimulus has ceased. It refers
the original stimulus has ceased. It refers
to items detected by the sensory receptors
to items detected by the sensory receptors
which are retained temporarily in the
which are retained temporarily in the
sensory registers and which have a large
sensory registers and which have a large
capacity for unprocessed information but
capacity for unprocessed information but
are only able to hold accurate images of
are only able to hold accurate images of
sensory information momentarily. The two
sensory information momentarily. The two
types of sensory memory that have been
types of sensory memory that have been
most explored are
most explored are iconic memory
iconic memory and
and
echoic memory
echoic memory.
.

11. Declarative Memory
Declarative Memory
 Declarative memory
Declarative memory is the aspect
is the aspect
of human
of human memory
memory that stores
that stores facts
facts.
.
It is so called because it refers to
It is so called because it refers to
memories that can be consciously
memories that can be consciously
discussed, or
discussed, or declared.
declared. It applies to
It applies to
standard
standard textbook
textbook learning
learning and
and
knowledge
knowledge, as well as memories that
, as well as memories that
can be 'travelled back to' in one's '
can be 'travelled back to' in one's '
mind's eye
mind's eye'.
'.

12. Procedural Memory
Procedural Memory
 Procedural memory
Procedural memory is the long-
is the long-
term
term memory
memory of
of skills
skills and
and
procedures, or "how to" knowledge (
procedures, or "how to" knowledge (
procedural knowledge
procedural knowledge).
).
It is considered a form of
It is considered a form of
implicit memory
implicit memory.
.

13. Models of Memory
Models of Memory

15.  The
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model
Atkinson-Shiffrin model (also
(also
known as the
known as the Multi-store model
Multi-store model,
, Multi-
Multi-
memory model
memory model and the
and the Modal model
Modal model) is
) is
a
a psychological
psychological model
model proposed in 1968
proposed in 1968
by
by Richard Atkinson
Richard Atkinson and
and Richard
Richard Shiffrin
Shiffrin
as a proposal for the structure of memory.
as a proposal for the structure of memory.
It proposed that human
It proposed that human memory
memory involves
involves
a sequence of three stages:
a sequence of three stages:
 Sensory memory
Sensory memory (SM)
(SM)
 Short-term memory
Short-term memory (STM)
(STM)
 Long-term memory
Long-term memory (LTM)
(LTM)

16. Memory Span
Memory Span
 Memory span:
Memory span: The number of items,
The number of items,
usually words or numbers, that a person
usually words or numbers, that a person
can retain and recall. Memory span is a
can retain and recall. Memory span is a
test of working memory (short-term
test of working memory (short-term
memory). In a typical test of memory
memory). In a typical test of memory
span, an examiner reads a list of random
span, an examiner reads a list of random
numbers aloud at about the rate of one
numbers aloud at about the rate of one
number per second. At the end of a
number per second. At the end of a
sequence, the person being tested is
sequence, the person being tested is
asked to recall the items in order. The
asked to recall the items in order. The
average span for normal adults is seven to
average span for normal adults is seven to
nine.
nine.

17. Memory Process
Memory Process
 Human memory, like memory in a
Human memory, like memory in a
computer, allows us to store
computer, allows us to store
information for later use. In order
information for later use. In order
to do this, however, both the
to do this, however, both the
computer and we need to master
computer and we need to master
three processes involved in
three processes involved in
memory.
memory.
2.
2. Encoding
Encoding
3.
3. Storage
Storage
4.
4. Retrieval
Retrieval

19.  Encoding:
Encoding:
The process we use to transform
The process we use to transform
information so that it can be stores.
information so that it can be stores.
 Storage:
Storage:
It simply means holding onto the
It simply means holding onto the
information.
information.
 Retrieval:
Retrieval:
It is bringing the memory out of
It is bringing the memory out of
storage and reversing the process of
storage and reversing the process of
encoding. In other words, return the
encoding. In other words, return the
information to a form similar to what
information to a form similar to what
we stored.
we stored.

20. Methods of Improving Memory
Methods of Improving Memory

21.  RECALL:
RECALL:
This involves digging into the memory and bringing back
This involves digging into the memory and bringing back
information on a stimulus/response basis, e.g., "What is the
information on a stimulus/response basis, e.g., "What is the
capital of New Zealand?" Answer: "Wellington". Recall
capital of New Zealand?" Answer: "Wellington". Recall
often needs prompting with cues to help us retrieve what we
often needs prompting with cues to help us retrieve what we
are looking for. It is not a reliable form of memory and
are looking for. It is not a reliable form of memory and
many of us experience the feeling that we know the answer
many of us experience the feeling that we know the answer
but simply can't dig the information out. This is the
but simply can't dig the information out. This is the
technique we use to remember people's names, hence we
technique we use to remember people's names, hence we
often forget them. There are three types of recall:
often forget them. There are three types of recall:
• Free recall
Free recall: when no cues are given to assist retrieval
: when no cues are given to assist retrieval
• Serial recall
Serial recall: when items are recalled in a particular
: when items are recalled in a particular
order
order
• Cued recall
Cued recall: when some cues are given to assist retrieval
: when some cues are given to assist retrieval

22.  Recognition
Recognition (re+cognition)
(re+cognition) is a
is a
process that occurs in thinking when
process that occurs in thinking when
some event, process, pattern, or
some event, process, pattern, or
object recurs. Coming from the base
object recurs. Coming from the base
cognition; cognition has various uses
cognition; cognition has various uses
in different fields of study and has
in different fields of study and has
generally accepted to be used for the
generally accepted to be used for the
process of awareness or thought.
process of awareness or thought.

23.  RELEARNING
RELEARNING:
:
Another means of remembering is
Another means of remembering is
through relearning. Relearned
through relearning. Relearned
information may return quickly, even
information may return quickly, even
if it hasn't been used for many years.
if it hasn't been used for many years.

24. Tips for memory improvements
Tips for memory improvements
 Brain exercises
Brain exercises
Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use
Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use
it or lose it” proposition. The more you
it or lose it” proposition. The more you
work out your brain, the better you’ll be
work out your brain, the better you’ll be
able to process and remember
able to process and remember
information.
information.
 Aerobics:
Aerobics:
The best way to improve our memories
The best way to improve our memories
seems to be to increase the supply of
seems to be to increase the supply of
oxygen to the brain, which we can do by
oxygen to the brain, which we can do by
aerobic exercising. Walking for three
aerobic exercising. Walking for three
hours each week suffices, as does
hours each week suffices, as does
swimming or bicycle riding.
swimming or bicycle riding.

25. General guidelines to improve memory
General guidelines to improve memory
 Pay attention:
Pay attention:
You can’t remember something if
You can’t remember something if
you never learned it, and you can’t
you never learned it, and you can’t
learn something — that is, encode it
learn something — that is, encode it
into your brain — if you don’t pay
into your brain — if you don’t pay
enough attention to it.
enough attention to it.
 Involve as many senses as
Involve as many senses as
possible.
possible.
 Relate information to what you
Relate information to what you
already know.
already know.
 Organize information.
Organize information.

26.  Understand and be able to
Understand and be able to
interpret complex material.
interpret complex material.
 Rehearse information frequently
Rehearse information frequently
and “over-learn”.
and “over-learn”.
 Be motivated and keep a positive
Be motivated and keep a positive
attitude.
attitude.

27. Healthy habits to improve memory
Healthy habits to improve memory
Regular exercise
Regular exercise
3.
3. Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes
Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes
and cardiovascular disease.
and cardiovascular disease.
4.
4. Increases oxygen to your brain.
Increases oxygen to your brain.
3. May enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells.
3. May enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells.
Managing stress
Managing stress
8.
8. Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the stress is
Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the stress is
unrelieved.
unrelieved.
9.
9. Stress makes it difficult to concentrate.
Stress makes it difficult to concentrate.
Good sleep habits
Good sleep habits
12.
12. Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation.
Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation.
13.
13. Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea leave you tired and unable to
Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea leave you tired and unable to
concentrate during the day.
concentrate during the day.
Not smoking
Not smoking
16.
16. Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause stroke and
Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause stroke and
constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain.
constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain.

28. Memory and aging
Memory and aging
Several factors cause aging brains to experience
Several factors cause aging brains to experience
changes in the ability to retain and retrieve
changes in the ability to retain and retrieve
memories:
memories:
 The hippocampus
The hippocampus is especially vulnerable to
is especially vulnerable to
age-related deterioration
age-related deterioration, and that can affect
, and that can affect
how well you retain information.
how well you retain information.
 There’s a relative loss of neurons with age
There’s a relative loss of neurons with age,
,
which can affect the activity of brain chemicals
which can affect the activity of brain chemicals
called neurotransmitters and their receptors.
called neurotransmitters and their receptors.
 An older person often experiences
An older person often experiences
decreased blood flow to the brain
decreased blood flow to the brain and
and
processes nutrients that enhance brain activity
processes nutrients that enhance brain activity
less efficiently than a younger person.
less efficiently than a younger person.

29. FORGETTING
FORGETTING

30.  Forgetting
Forgetting (retention loss) refers to
(retention loss) refers to
apparent loss of information already
apparent loss of information already
encoded and stored in an individual's
encoded and stored in an individual's
long term memory. It is a
long term memory. It is a
spontaneous or gradual process in
spontaneous or gradual process in
which old
which old memories
memories are unable to be
are unable to be
recalled from memory storage.
recalled from memory storage.

31. AMNESIA
AMNESIA
 “
“Amnesia is loss of ability to
Amnesia is loss of ability to
memorize information or to recall
memorize information or to recall
information stored in memory.”
information stored in memory.”


32. WHAT CAUSES
WHAT CAUSES
AMNESIA?
AMNESIA?
Amnesia is most commonly
Amnesia is most commonly
associated with either brain damage
associated with either brain damage
through injury or degeneration of
through injury or degeneration of
brain cells in dementia.
brain cells in dementia.

33. FORMS OF AMNESIA
FORMS OF AMNESIA
✂ ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:
In Anterograde amnesia patient cannot
In Anterograde amnesia patient cannot
retain any new memory.
retain any new memory.
✂ RETROGRADE AMNESIA
RETROGRADE AMNESIA:
:
In Retrograde amnesia the patitent
In Retrograde amnesia the patitent
cannot recall the past events.
cannot recall the past events.

34. FORMS OF AMNESIA
FORMS OF AMNESIA
(cont.)
(cont.)

35. Repression:
Repression:
Refers to the inability to recall information,
Refers to the inability to recall information,
usually about stressful or traumatic events in
usually about stressful or traumatic events in
persons' lives, such as a violent attack or rape.
persons' lives, such as a violent attack or rape.
The memory is stored in long term memory, but
The memory is stored in long term memory, but
access to it is impaired because of psychological
access to it is impaired because of psychological
defense mechanisms. Persons retain the capacity
defense mechanisms. Persons retain the capacity
to learn new information and there may be some
to learn new information and there may be some
later partial or complete recovery of memory.
later partial or complete recovery of memory.
This contrasts with e.g. anterograde amnesia
This contrasts with e.g. anterograde amnesia
caused by amnestics such as benzodiazepines or
caused by amnestics such as benzodiazepines or
alcohol, where an experience was prevented from
alcohol, where an experience was prevented from
being transferred from temporary to permanent
being transferred from temporary to permanent
memory storage: it will never be recovered,
memory storage: it will never be recovered,
because it was never stored in the first place.
because it was never stored in the first place.
Formerly known as "Psychogenic Amnesia"
Formerly known as "Psychogenic Amnesia"

36. Interference theory
Interference theory
 Interference theory
Interference theory (also known
(also known
as
as retrieval interference
retrieval interference (Roediger
(Roediger
& Karpicke, 2006)) refers to the idea
& Karpicke, 2006)) refers to the idea
that forgetting occurs because the
that forgetting occurs because the
recall of certain items interferes with
recall of certain items interferes with
the recall of other items. In nature,
the recall of other items. In nature,
the interfering items are said to
the interfering items are said to
originate from an over stimulating
originate from an over stimulating
environment.
environment.

37. TYPES OF INTERFERENCE
TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

38.  Proactive interference
Proactive interference
Underwood (1957) provided early
Underwood (1957) provided early
evidence that things you've learned before
evidence that things you've learned before
encoding a target item can worsen recall
encoding a target item can worsen recall
of that target item. In a meta-analysis of
of that target item. In a meta-analysis of
multiple experiments, he showed that the
multiple experiments, he showed that the
more lists one had already learned, the
more lists one had already learned, the
more trouble one had in recalling the most
more trouble one had in recalling the most
recent one. This is
recent one. This is proactive interference
proactive interference,
,
where the prior existence of old memories
where the prior existence of old memories
makes it harder to recall newer memories.
makes it harder to recall newer memories.

39.  Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference occurs when
Retroactive interference occurs when
later learning interferes with
later learning interferes with
previous learning; i.e., learning new
previous learning; i.e., learning new
things somehow overwrites or
things somehow overwrites or
obscures existing knowledge.
obscures existing knowledge.

41.  Output interference
Output interference
Output interference occurs when the
Output interference occurs when the
act of retrieving interferes with the
act of retrieving interferes with the
retrieval of the actual information
retrieval of the actual information
needed in the first place. Primarily,
needed in the first place. Primarily,
this is caused by the limited capacity
this is caused by the limited capacity
of the short-term memory.
of the short-term memory.

42.  Cue-dependent forgetting:
Cue-dependent forgetting:
It is the failure to recall a
It is the failure to recall a memory
memory due to missing
due to missing stimuli
stimuli or
or
cues that were present at the time the memory was
cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded
encoded.
.
It is one of five
It is one of five cognitive psychology
cognitive psychology theories of
theories of forgetting
forgetting.
.
It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten
It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten
purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can
purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can
bring it to mind. A good
bring it to mind. A good metaphor
metaphor for this is searching for a
for this is searching for a
book in a library without the
book in a library without the reference number
reference number, title, author
, title, author
or even subject. The information still exists, but without
or even subject. The information still exists, but without
these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good
these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good
retrieval
retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding
cue must be consistent with the original encoding
of the information. If the sound of the word is
of the information. If the sound of the word is emphasized
emphasized
during the encoding process, the cue that should be used
during the encoding process, the cue that should be used
should also put emphasis on the
should also put emphasis on the phonetic
phonetic quality of the
quality of the
word
word