This document discusses social entrepreneurship and the challenges around defining it, legitimizing social enterprises, and different schools of thought. It reviews literature on social entrepreneurship in terms of business definition, schools of thought, and legal forms. Key challenges identified are providing a unified definition, considering the special features of social enterprises in law, and developing more social enterprise studies and incorporating it into business education curriculums. The review aims to help develop more effective social businesses in Ethiopia.

1. SOCIAL ENTERPRISE
Cabalitazan, Dick D.
University of the Cordilleras
Garcia, Tubao La Union
+63 995 360 3880
kluuuuuuum@outlook.com
ABSTRACT
The fast rise of competitors and the resulting
competition between non-profit organizations required
the incorporation of creative methods in their operations.
Over the past twenty years, social movements have
started to promote social entrepreneurship. Due to
income gap, lack of a unified definition of social
entrepreneurship, and the legitimacy issue of social
enterprises, social injustice in developing countries
motivated the reviewer to conduct a literature review.
The aim of this review is to disclose the debatable
problems under the construction of social
entrepreneurship in terms of definition, legitimation, and
school of thought, and to move forward in Ethiopia in
the future. The reviewer tested titles and abstracts of 61
newspaper articles and found 42 appropriate papers with
ISSN or DOI, articles released between 2001 and 2013,
and articles published in indexed newspapers. Google's
scholar search engine used search phrases "social
entrepreneurship," "legitimization of social enterprises,"
"definition of social businesses" and "social businesses".
It is well known from the literature reviewed that the
challenge was to provide a unified definition and
framework for social entrepreneurship. Despite the
ideological distinctions between the school of thought,
the general field of social entrepreneurship will be
enriched by crossfertilization rather than competition
between the schools of thought. The special feature of
social enterprises needs to be considered by lawmakers
in Ethiopia and it is better to review existing legal forms
of organizations as there is no legal form for social
enterprises. Lastly, both academics and professionals in
Ethiopia need to work to develop scarce social enterprise
studies along with incorporating the notion of social
entrepreneurship into the curriculum of business
education.
Keywords: Legitimation, Social Enterprise, Social
Innovation.
Melinda A. Beninsig
Adviser
University of the Cordilleras
+63 917 795 2063
mel592559@yahoo.com
I. Introduction
II. Background
The fast rise of competitors and the resulting
rivalry between organisations required the incorporation
of creative methods in their operations. Innovative
strategy is becoming a key factor, according to
Weerawardena & Mort (2006), not only in for-profit
organisations but also in non- profit organisations (NFP)
for societal growth. In addition, the competitive climate,
together with the increasing amount of poor and scarce
donations, compelled NFPs to discover creative methods
to fill the gap in the fund. Entrepreneurship is a
systematic process where creativity and innovation are
applied to marketplace requirements and possibilities.
To develop a product or service that meets the
requirements of clients or solves their issues, it includes
applying concentrated approaches to fresh concepts and
fresh perspectives (Zimmerer & Scarborough, 2005).
Social entrepreneurship therefore derives from the
notion of entrepreneurship that implies the creative use
and mixture of resources to exploit possibilities for
facilitating and/or addressing social change (Mair &
Marti, 2006). While addressing and facilitating change
within society, social entrepreneurship activities can
have a positive impact on society's economic growth and
social development by reducing poverty and improving
economic development on a large scale (Zahra, et. al,
2009).
However, this concept was questioned by Nega
& Schneider (2013), who indicated that the micro-level
influence of social enterprise activity does not have a
major effect on poverty decrease. Using the word social
entrepreneurship is gaining worldwide popularity
(Weerawardena & Mort, 2006) in general and
specifically in Ethiopia. Different initiatives have
appeared in Ethiopia in latest years regarding the
establishment of social entrepreneurship. Thus, this
article attempts to review literature on the notion of
social entrepreneurship in terms of business definition,
school of thought, and legal form and identify key points
that can be used to create social businesses more

2. functional in Ethiopia.
Entrepreneurship has been a well-defined area
of economic theory since Schumpeter's seminal work
was released in 1911 (Swedberg 2000), but social
entrepreneurship was not a key component in such
general theory of entrepreneurship and was hardly
addressed or even cited in textbooks or review articles
on entrepreneurship.
Steyart and Hjorth (2006) stress that scholars
and experts who typically did not belong to the field of
entrepreneurship undertook research and development of
social entrepreneurship until recent years. While there
are variations between the ideas of "social company,"
"social entrepreneurship" and "social entrepreneurship"
(Defourny and Nyssens 2008), interest development in
this region is strongly linked to the reality that social
enterprises are the fastest increasing category of
organizations in the United States (Austin et al. 2003),
and the fact that universities and business schools
around the world are presently engaged in numerous
social entrepreneurship and social enterprise education
programmes. Thus, both scholars and professionals in
the region have a rapidly increasing interest in this sector
(Hulgård 2010).
Table 1. Research Areas In The Domain Of Social
Entrepreneurship
The Elderly Care
The aging of the workforce has been discussed
for centuries. There are legions on this topic of books,
articles, speeches and blogs. As America started to gray,
it was said that the 1990s would be the time when we
start taking care of the elderly seriously. But the nineties
have come and gone. Then it was said that the 2000s
would be the era when we start taking seriously the care
of the elderly — because the care of the elderly is a
change of match. It's also ending that decade now.
Then it was said that the 2000s would be the era
when we start taking seriously the care of the elderly —
because the care of the elderly is a change of match. It's
also ending that decade now. If ever there were an
indication that this issue is not a future reality—that the
future is now—it is a finding from the 2008 National
Study of the Changing Workforce (NSCW). In that
nationally representative study, we found that 42% of
employed Americans (nearly 54.6 million employees)
have provided elder care in the past five years. Forty-two
percent! That’s almost one in two of us. This is all the
more striking because the NSCW uses a very strict
definition of elder care.
We ask: “Within the past five years, have you
provided special attention or care for a relative or in-law
65 years old or older—helping with things that were
difficult or impossible for them to do themselves?”
Notice we limit this to relatives and in-laws who are 65
years old or older. And notice that we define elder care
as helping people with things that “were difficult or
impossible to do themselves.” Now that almost half of
us have experienced elder care, what have we learned?
What are the everyday experiences that worker family
caregivers have in providing this care with their other
family members, with the medical system and with their
employers? What are their wishes for change in each of
these areas? And, most importantly, what are their
wishes for themselves as they age? These are the
questions addressed in The Elder Care Study.
Although there are many important studies of
elder care conducted by a number of pioneers who have
blazed the way, we see The Elder Care Study adding to
this literature for two reasons. First, this study is unique
in its design. It is typical for research to have to make
tradeoffs between breadth and depth. For example, if the
study is a nationally representative study, it has breadth,
but may lack depth because cost and time constraints
limit the number of questions the researchers can ask or
the number of times they can repeat the study.

3. If the study is a qualitative study, it has depth,
but may lack breadth because the people in the study
may not be typical of caregivers. This study has both
breadth and depth. It is based on a nationally
representative sample of employed caregivers, drawn
from the Families and Work Institute’s ongoing National
Study of the Changing Workforce (NSCW). The NSCW
is a very comprehensive study with over 600 data points
on employees’ lives on and off the job. Based on the
1977 Quality of Employment Survey conducted by the
U.S. Department of Labor, the NSCW was first
conducted by Families and Work Institute in 1992 and
has been conducted every five to six years since then.
With its 54.6% response rate, it provides very
rich quantitative information on working family
caregivers of the elderly over the past 16 years. From the
2008 NSCW, caregivers—both those who were
currently providing care or who had provided care to
someone who had died within the past five years—were
invited to participate in an telephone interview, thus
providing a great deal of depth. This is the qualitative
part of our study. For more information on the overall
study methodology, see Methodological Note on page
45. The second reason that this study is unique is that we
ask these family caregivers a series of “one wish”
questions—one thing they would most like to see
changed in the way workplaces, other family members
and the health care system support them as caregivers.
And we asked them about their wishes for themselves as
they age.
HIGHLIGHTS OF FINDINGS
• Almost one in two individuals in the workforce (42%
or nearly 54.6 million employees) have provided elder
care over the past five years.
• Among those who have provided care in the past five
years, almost half (44%) have cared for more than one
person.
• 17% of workers in the workforce are currently
providing elder care.
• Among the entire workforce, women (20%) and men
(22%) are equally likely to have provided family care in
the past five years and equally likely to provide care at
the current time (9% versus 8%). Although women and
men provide care in roughly equal numbers, there are
many differences in the way that these experiences play
out in their lives.
• Women are more likely (44%) than men (38%) to
provide family care on a regular basis rather than on an
intermittent basis.
• In addition, women spend more time than men
providing care on average. Women spend 9.1 hours a
week providing care (an average of 6.4 hours providing
in-person care and an average 2.7 hours providing
indirect care), while men spend 5.7 hours as caregivers
(an average 3.4 hours providing in-person care and an
average 2.2 hours providing indirect care).
• Many of these caregivers are in the sandwich
generation—46% of women who are caregivers and
40% of men also have children under the age of 18 at
home.
• Just under half of the workforce (49%) expect to be
providing elder care for a family member in the coming
five years. • Family caregivers work as many hours on
average (45 hours) as those without caregiving
responsibilities (44 hours).
• Although most working caregivers (55%) report that
they would prefer to work fewer hours, only 23% have
actually reduced their hours. 3
• Not surprisingly, many are experiencing a time famine:
71% report not having enough time for their children,
63% report not having enough time for their
spouse/partner and 63% report not having enough time
for themselves. Interestingly, men who are providing
care are now more likely than women caregivers to
experience work-life conflict.
• 49% of men experience “some” or “a lot” of conflict
compared with 42% of women.
From the qualitative study, we find:
Family caregivers’ top wishes for the way in
which workplaces could better support them as
caregivers include:
• greater flexibility, more options for managing time;
• time off for elder care, especially paid time off without
having to use up vacation time; and
• more understanding of their situation from
management. As far as support for elder care from other
family members is concerned, caregivers have only one
wish—more active involvement and help from others in
the family. Though many family caregivers say others
do help them in providing care, the level of support from
other family members often falls short of the caregiver’s
needs and expectations. Since the selection of caregivers
we interviewed was random, one can only imagine that
the views of some other family members might also be
similar, with others feeling that he or she has an unfair
burden, too.
When it comes to health care, our findings
suggest that family caregivers need to play a very active
role in their elder’s medical care, serving as their elder’s
advocate within the health care system. One of the most
alarming findings in our survey is that 36% of former
family caregivers whose elder has passed away report
that medical mistakes were made by professionals. In

4. some cases, caregivers believe that these medical
mistakes were severe enough to contribute to their
relative’s death. Top wishes for the way in which
doctors, nurses and others in the health care system
could better support family caregivers include:
• more frequent and better quality two-way
communication with doctors and other medical
providers;
• less overworked, more compassionate staff at medical
and nursing facilities with the skills to listen and learn
from the caregivers and the elders; and
• a more user-friendly, easier-to-navigate and less costly
health care system.
In terms of their own aging, the caregivers
present a bleak picture. Having experienced the elders’
aging and ailments, family caregivers tend to be both
more aware of the challenges of growing old and more
discouraged about it. Many seem to find it too difficult,
too depressing to imagine themselves as being in the
care recipient’s shoes. Their wishes are more about what
they do not want to happen to themselves, than what
they do want. These are:
• not to be a “burden” to others, especially to their
children; 4
• not to burden themselves or others with unaffordable
expenses; and
• not to end up in a nursing home.
Among hopes for their own aging, family
caregivers most often cite being able to live in their own
homes, maintaining good health and remaining
independent for as long as they can. Yet, ultimately, far
too many wish to escape from aging as it now plays out
in America: I don’t even want to think about it. I want to
pass in my sleep of old age. It’s an ugly time of life—the
last few years of suffering. I would rather die in a car
wreck than put anyone through what I had to go through
taking care of my mother. Although there are some
inescapable difficulties that come with aging and illness,
there is huge room for improvement. As our country
grows older, we desperately need to use some of the
more effective models of care for the elderly that already
exist, and we need to develop and test new models. We
believe that this is not only possible, but doable. No one
should have to wish “just shoot me.” Instead, we must
be able to age and die with dignity.
Agricommunity
Agricultural research seems to be the oldest
form of organized research in the world. Agricultural
research can be broadly defined as any research activity
aimed at improving productivity and quality of crops by
their genetic improvement, better plant protection,
irrigation, storage methods, farm mechanization,
efficient marketing, and a better management of
resources. Since the middle of the 18th century attempts
were made to apply scientific knowledge to
improvement of agriculture. By the middle of the 19th
century, organized agricultural research was taking place
in the Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland
and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Moekern,
Saxony. During the first half of the 20th century, most
industrialized countries developed systems for
agricultural technology development. It is generally
believed that investment in agricultural research will
result in beneficial returns (Asopa and Beye, 1997). The
definition of the mission of agricultural research has
varied over the years. In the 1960s Aldrich (1966)
included in it: “To apply all possible sources of scientific
discovery to the solution of the technical and practical
problems of agriculture; to engage in basic research
where the lack of fundamental knowledge may impede
progress; and to solve the specific problems with which
agriculture is faced.” In essence, the mission of
agricultural research was to increase yields and stability
in yields over the years. During the last decade the
mission of agricultural research has been defined in
greater detail, considering not only yields, but also other
factors as sustainability of resources and effects on the
environment. Research aimed at better varieties, plant
nutrition, and water use as well as agricultural
economics and farm management is an important
component of agricultural research and the sustainable
utilization of resources for the benefit of humanity and
the environment.
Effective agricultural research, development,
and training are necessary to meet global food, feed, and
fiber needs on a sustainable basis. National governments
conventionally deploy public resources to their
capability for this purpose. However, their extent and
effectiveness is usually inadequate to meet the challenge.
Some countries have also engaged the private sector to
various extents to strengthen these efforts. The benefits
of this additional support vary depending upon the
extent and effectiveness of the public-private
partnership established for the purpose. This note
highlights the significance of such partnerships and
provides some guidelines on establishing them in
developing countries to effectively meet their
agriculture-based needs.
Keywords; policy reforms, public-private partnership,
NGOs, training of work force, international
collaborations

5. Innovation platforms initiated
through agricultural research and development projects
often have the ambition to have impact beyond the initial
target area or direct beneficiaries (Duncan et al., 2015).
Such processes of scaling innovation platform processes
and outcomes should be an integral design element of
innovation platforms and the manner in which they are
implemented. The literature (e.g. Hermans et al., 2017)
distinguishes between two types of scaling: outscaling
and upscaling. Outscaling refers to the horizontal
diffusion of innovations to individuals or organizations
at the same level (e.g., from one district to another
district). Upscaling refers to the embedding of
innovations at higher levels (e.g., institutionalization of
new cropping practices in policies).
Innovation platforms can fulfil an important
function in the pathway leading to the scaling of
agricultural innovations and can be more effective than
conventional extension approaches (Pamuk et al., 2014).
Through their participatory approach to identifying and
analyzing problems, and designing and testing
innovations to overcome those problem, they have a
higher likelihood to result in solutions that are not only
technically sound, but also affordable for farmers and
coherent with government policies and objectives.
Whether innovation platforms can support large-scale
diffusion or scaling of agricultural innovations also
depends on their institutional embedding.
A recent meta-review of mature innovation
platforms in Schut et al. (2018a) concluded that
innovation platforms need to be firmly embedded in
private or public mechanisms and broader networks that
have the capacity to reach target populations beyond the
original scope of the innovation platform. Innovation
platforms run the risk of staying as solitary initiatives if
they are not firmly linked to such existing mechanisms
and networks, which reduces the chance of having
impact beyond the direct beneficiaries.
During the 1960s and 1970s, agricultural
research and development agenda worldwide on
improving soil fertility was driven by a paradigm of
“external input.” The quantity, quality, and appropriate
use of external inputs, be it fertilizers, lime,
or irrigation water, was believed to alleviate constraints
to crop production (Vanlauwe, 2004). The associated
effects of this paradigm of external inputs with the use
of improved cereal germplasm, boosted agricultural
production in Asia and Latin America through the first
“Green Revolution” of the world. Organic resourceswere
considered less essential. However, the paradigmof
external inputs of the “Green Revolution” strategy
inSSA resulted only in minor achievements because of a
variety of reasons. Some of them were related to the cost
of external inputs (mainly fertilizers), coupled with the
abolition of the fertilizer subsidies imposed by structural
adjustment programs in SSA (Smaling, 1993).
Soil Fertility Analysis for the Cultivation of
Sugarcane and Rice:
Quality of soil is the significant characteristics
that determine crop procurement and its suitability.
Good soil is the one, which is suitable for all varieties of
plants to grow on it. It is also an indicator of a good
environment. To understand the soil health and to
conserve it, it is always better to subject that particular
soil for soil testing at least after every season. There are
about twenty five parameters available to check the
inherent health of any soil system but quantification of
all these parameters is highly expensive, laborious and
time consuming one. To resolve this issue one can make
use of any soil quality index. According to eminent
agricultural scientists and other experts of soil research,
minimum indicators are more than sufficient to check
the health of any soil system.
But the number and nature of parameters may
vary for different kinds of crops being grown on those
soils. Researchers in Bishop Heber College, India have
devised a Soil Quality Index called after their names as
Heber Soil Quality Index (HSQI)1. In the current
inspection, efforts have been made to exploit Heber Soil
Quality Index (HSQI) to examine the soil fertility of a
selected area for better farming of rice and sugarcane.
Though there are more than twenty five parameters
available to ascertain the suitability of a soil for the
cultivation of sugarcane and rice, only twelve parameters
are considered to be more than adequate to determine the
quality according to the valuable suggestions offered by
agricultural scientists, soil chemists and other experts.
These are as available N, P, K, pH, water holding
capacity (WHC), texture, bacterial content (BC), soil
organic matter (SOM), electrical conductance (EC), bulk
density (BD), Cl- content, total hardness (TH).
One of the major aims of HSQI is to sort out the
nutrient undersupplied areas from non-deficient ones.
This message is vital to ascertain whether the soils could
provide enough nutrients for best possible crop
production or not. As farmers try to boost their
procurement, one of the issues they ought to ask is
whether the supply of fertilizer will raise the yield and
whether it will be beneficial. The national concern
would be to get the highest yield from the area under
farming while the farmer’s concentration would be to
make lucrative yields and not essentially the high yields.
Haphazard use of fertilizer is not a solution to anyone of
the issues as this not only will increase the value of crop

6. production however additionally consequences in
harmful effects on soil fertility.
The idea of unprejudiced nourishment of plants
additionally supervises the utilization of crop nutrients in
an exceedingly explicit quantity as needed by the crops
that is feasible provided that one is aware of the
accessible nutrient condition of soils. Soil testing helps
in knowing the intrinsic fertility status of the soils. In
addition to this, several aspects apart from poor soil
fertility might also be answerable for poor procurement
and therefore, soil fertility assumes as a greater
significance. Every fertilizer prescription supported a
soil analysis ought to take into consideration the soil
takes a look at value gained by the accurate soil analysis,
the research work carried out on a crop retorts to
fertilizer addition in an exceedingly specific area, the
practices and level of soil administration of the
concerned farmer1 . Soil testing is aimed at soil fertility
analysis with resulting fertilizer recommendation is,
therefore, the actual connecting link between the
agronomical analysis and its usage to the farmers’ field.
The major objective of this article is to enlighten the
readers about how HSQI is useful to provide information
about the inherent health of any soil system with
reference to the cultivation of sugarcane and rice. Also it
is strongly hoped that this article will instill an interest in
young researchers to frame such soil quality indices to
other crops thereby helping the farmers to improve the
yield at low cost
CONCLUSIONS
The primary objective of Social Enterprise
research is to gauge the current state of empirical
research on social entrepreneurship and to highlight
potential areas for future theory building and theory
testing. We review a number of articles and summarize
their analyses on a general methodological level and on
a content level. In addition, we explore the most
important schools of thought on social entrepreneurship
to unveil definitional ambiguities and to provide a
background against which to interpret the articles. The
summary confirms the stage of infancy of social
entrepreneurship research as a field of scientific inquiry.
The findings at this level can be summarized as follows:
there are a limited number of empirical studies with a
limited quantitative research approach mainly of an
exploratory type; rigorous hypothesis testing is lacking;
little variety in research design is applied; the use of
primary data prevails; and research is based on relatively
small sample sizes. 46 In an attempt at using the only
generalized measurement of social entrepreneurship
across countries that we know of, i.e. the Global
Entrepreneurship Monitor, we show an indicative level
of activity in Sweden. Estimated in this way the level of
social entrepreneurship activity in Sweden is reasonably
high.
On the issue of Elderly Care, if there ever were
a call to action, the wishes from working caregivers
about aging and their own future care should be that call.
It is common knowledge that ours is an aging society,
and yet this study finds far too many of us in denial or
depressed about what this means in our country. What
can be done? First, we can and should heed the
suggestions made by the working caregivers to: Improve
the workplace by providing:
• greater flexibility, including more options for
managing time;
• time off for elder care, especially paid time off without
having to use up vacation time; and
• more understanding of their situation from
management. Improve the support we receive from
family and friends. Improve the health care system by
providing:
• more frequent and better quality two-way
communication with doctors and other medical
providers;
• less overworked, more compassionate staff at medical
and nursing facilities with the skills to listen and learn
from the caregivers and the elders; and
• a more user-friendly, easier-to-navigate and less costly
health care system. Continue to focus on healthy living
for all.
But, most of all, as our country grows older, we
desperately need to use ensure that some of the best
practices in caring for the aging become more
widespread and we need to create new models of aging
beyond the ones we have now. In this study, one family
caregiver spoke of creating a group living arrangement
where friends could care for each other. This could be a
good solution for some. We need to continue to surface
other such ideas and then experiment with them.
On the other hand, in the Agricommunity. the
chief basis of earnings for the farmers residing in
Thiruvarur district, India, depends on the growth of cash
crops like sugarcane and rice. Highly useful and newly
formulated HSQI was exploited in this study to rate the
soil samples collected from fifteen places of Thiruvarur
district as excellent, good or bad with special orientation
to sugarcane and rice cultivation. The ultimate HSQI
values of soils studied were found to be between 72.36
and 83.83 revealing that they are in good quality.
Therefore, this newly designed HSQI table is useful as it
is less time consuming and more interpretable by soil
experts so that they can offer appropriate and
constructive suggestions to the local farmers. This work
is believed to be really beneficial and may result in

7. better farm management through more cost effective
nutrient decisions. Not only that, this sort of a work may
serve as an eye opener for the young researchers to take
up a similar soil index work for other crops.
References:
Journal
[1]Soil Fertility Analysis for the Cultivation of
Sugarcane and Rice in Thiruvarur Area
By: M. Shanmuganathan and A. Rajendran
Websites:
[1] Agricultural Research and Development - an
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[2] Social Entrepreneurship – A survey if current
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[3] Social Entrepreneurship: Literature Review and
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322021324_So
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Practice_in_Ethiopia Access | By: Abdulnasir
Abdulmelike| Access Date: July 31, 2019
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For Change | 2008 National Study of the Changing
Workforce
https://familiesandwork.org/TheElderCareStudy.pdf
Access Date: July 31, 2019