This is lesson 6 of the course on Research Methodology conducted at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities of the Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

1. Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
P.B. Dharmasena
0777-613234, 0717-613234
dharmasenapb@ymail.com, dharmasenapb@gmail.com
6. Research Methodology
Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
P.B. Dharmasena
0777-613234, 0717-613234
dharmasenapb@ymail.com, dharmasenapb@gmail.com
https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/contributions
http://www.slideshare.net/DharmasenaPb
LESSON
SIX
EMGT 3172 (1:15)
B.A. (Special) Degree Program
Monday 12.30 pm – 2.00 pm
Hall: EML

2. 2
1. Define the problem ( Characteristics)
2. Specify the objectives (Hypothesis)
3. Select design or type of study
4. Select study population
5. Collect data
6. Analyze data
7. Determine conclusions
Anatomy of Research
LESSON
SIX

3. Research Methodology
Lesson-6

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Learning objectives
1.Learn about the types of study
designs
2.How to select a study design?
3.Identify the pertinent questions to
consider when developing the
methodology of a research proposal
4.Describe and understand the various
components of the methodology
section in a research proposal
Lesson-6
LESSON
SIX
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5. Lesson-6

6. Types of Research
From the view point of
Application
Pure
Research
Applied
Research
Objectives
Exploratory
Research
Descriptive
Research
Correlation
Research
Explanatory
Research
Type of Information
Sought
Quantitative
Research
Qualitative
Research
6

7. 7
TYPE OF STUDIES
Observational
1. Correlational study
2. Case reports and case series
3. Cross sectional survey
4. Case-control study
5. Cohort study – about a particular community
Experimental
1. Community trials
2. Clinical trials – individuals

8. Types of Study Designs
(intervention and non-intervention)
• Non-intervention (Observational) studies in
which the researcher just observes and analyses
researchable objects or situations but does not
intervene (alcoholism and family cohesion)
• Intervention studies in which the researcher
manipulates objects or situations and measures
the outcome of his manipulations (e.g., by
conducting an awareness programme and
measuring the improvement in non-smoking
rates)
Lesson-6

9. Types of Study Designs
(exploratory , descriptive or analytical)
An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively short
duration, which is carried out when little is known about a
situation or a problem. It may include description as well
as comparison.
Example: Need assessment for water supply - interviews
with different groups (male, female, farmers, non-
farmers , etc.) , stakeholder agencies – needs of various
categories, differences and reasons for differences
If the problem and its contributing factors are not well
defined it is always advisable to do an exploratory study
before embarking on a large-scale descriptive or
comparative study.
Lesson-6

10. Types of Study Designs
(exploratory , descriptive or analytical)
• Descriptive studies may be defined as studies that describe
the patterns of disease occurrence and other health-related
conditions by person, place and time.
– Personal variables include: basic demographic factors, such as
age, sex marital status or occupation, as well as the consumption
of various types of food or medication use.
– Characteristics of place refer to the geographic distribution of
disease, including variation among countries or within countries,
such as between urban and rural areas.
– With regard to time, descriptive studies may examine seasonal
patterns in disease onset etc.
• Uses of descriptive studies
– They can be done fairly quickly and easily.
– Allow planners and administrators to allocate resources
– Provide the first important clues about possible determinants of a
disease (useful for the formulation of hypotheses)
Lesson-6

11. Types of Study Designs
(exploratory , descriptive or analytical)
Types of descriptive studies:
1. Case reports and case series
– Case report: a careful, detailed report by one or more clinicians of the
profile of a single patient.
– The individual case report can be expanded to a case series, which
describes characteristics of a number of patients with a given disease.
2. Ecological studies:
– data from entire populations are used to compare disease frequencies
between different groups during the same period of time or in the same
population at different points in time.
3. Cross-sectional studies:
– A cross-sectional (prevalence) study provides information concerning the
situation at a given time.
– Usually involve collection of new data.
– In general, measures prevalence rather than incidence
Lesson-6

12. Types of Study Designs
(exploratory , descriptive or analytical)
• Analytical (causal) Studies: Analytical
studies may be defined as studies used to
test hypotheses concerning the
relationship between a suspected risk
factor and an outcome and to measure the
magnitude of the association and its
statistical significance.
• Two types of Analytical Studies
– Observational studies
– Intervention Studies
Lesson-6

13. How to Select a Research Design?
• What is the nature of the problem being
investigated?
• Is the problem being investigated
subjective (particular) or objective
(general)?
• What type of research method?
– Quantitative
– Qualitative
– Mixed
– Critical and action oriented
Lesson-6

14. Selecting a Research Design
1. Level of knowledge
2. Nature of the research phenomenon
3. Nature of the research purpose
4. Ethical considerations
5. Feasibility
6. Validity and availability of data
7. Precision
8. Cost
14

15. Study Designs
15
1. Descriptive Studies
2. Cross-Sectional Studies
3. Cohort (population) Study
4. Case Control
5. Randomized Controlled Trials
6. Survey Research

16. Cross-Sectional Study on Coronary
Heart Disease (CHD)
16
ineligible
physically active
&
CHD
physically active
&
no CHD
physically inactive
&
CHD
physically inactive
&
no CHD
participation no participation
eligible
Farmers

17. Case-Control Study
17
ineligible
exposed unexposed
bad outcome
(cases)
exposed unexposed
good outcome
(controls)
participation no participation
eligible
Source Population

18. CASE-CONTROL STUDIES
SOME KEY POINTS
18
• Frequently used study design
• Participants selected on the basis of whether or
not they are DISEASED (remember in a cohort
study participants are selected based on
exposure status)
• Those who are diseased are called CASES.
• Those who are not diseased are called
CONTROLS.

19. Survey research
• Survey research is often used to assess thoughts,
opinions, and feelings
• Psychologists and sociologists often use survey
research to analyze behavior, while it is also used to
meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as,
in evaluating political candidates, public health
officials, professional organizations, and advertising
and marketing directors.
• A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions
that is given to a sample.
• Every day you find in TV and Radio?
19

20. Survey design types:
• Evaluative
• Comparative
• Short-term
• Long-term
• Longitudinal
• Cross-sectional
• Cross-cultural
20

21. Questions to Ask Before Doing Survey
Research
21
• Do you have a clear
hypothesis?
• Do your questions focus
on that hypothesis?
• Will participants answers
provide accurate answers
to your questions?
• To whom will your results
apply?

22. Planning a Survey
23
• Deciding on a research question
• Choosing the format of your questions
• Choosing the format of your interview--if you
use an interview
• Editing your questions
• Sequencing your questions
• Refining your survey instrument
• Choosing a sampling strategy

23. Editing Questions: Nine Mistakes to Avoid
24
1. Avoid leading
questions
2. Avoid questions that
invite the social
desirability bias
3. Avoid double-barreled
questions
4. Avoid long questions
5. Avoid negations (-ve)
6. Avoid irrelevant
questions
7. Avoid poorly worded
response options
8. Avoid big words
9. Avoid ambiguous (not
clear) words &
phrases (half
sentence)

24. Survey researchers should carefully
construct the order of questions in a
questionnaire
25

25. Case Study
• Explores in depth a program, event, activity,
process, or one or more individuals
• Bounded (separated out for research) by time,
place and activity
• Researcher collects detailed information using a
variety of data collection procedures over a
sustained period of time (Stake & Creswell)
• A method of learning about a complex instance
based on a comprehensive understanding of that
instance obtained by extensive description and
analysis of that instance taken as a whole
26

26. Case Study/Reports
• Detailed presentation of a single case or handful
of cases
• Generally report a new or unique finding
• e.g. previous undescribed disease
• e.g. unexpected link between diseases
• e.g. unexpected new therapeutic (treatment)
effect
• e.g. adverse events
27

27. Case Series
• Experience of a group of patients with a
similar diagnosis
• Assesses prevalent disease
• Cases may be identified from a single or
multiple sources
• Generally report on new/unique condition
• May be only realistic design for rare disorders
28

28. Case Series
• Advantages
• Useful for hypothesis generation
• Informative for very rare disease with few
established risk factors
• Characterizes averages for disorder
• Disadvantages
• Cannot study cause and effect relationships
• Cannot assess disease frequency
29

29. Historical Study
• Focuses primarily on the past
• Pursuing documents of the period
• Examining relics (left over)
• Interviewing individuals who lived during that time
• Reconstruct what happened during that time as
completely as possible
• Systematic collection and evaluation of data to
describe, explain, and thereby understand actions or
events that occurred in the past
• No manipulation or control of variables
30

30. RESEARCH DESIGN EXAMPLE
Lesson-6

31. RESEARCH DESIGN EXAMPLE
– Descriptive Survey Research Design
Lesson-6

32. RESEARCH DESIGN EXAMPLE
– Empirical Research Design
Lesson-6

33. RESEARCH DESIGN EXAMPLE
– Development Research Design
Lesson-6

34. RESEARCH DESIGN EXAMPLE
– Descriptive Qualitative Research Design
Lesson-6