This is the 5th lesson of the course - Foundation of Environmental Management taught at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

1. Lesson 5 – History of Environmental Management
P.B. Dharmasena
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Foundation of Environmental Management
Course code: EMGT 2114

2. Course Content
1. Concepts of Ecology and Environmental Biology
2. Biogeochemical Cycles (C, N, P etc.)
3. Ecosystems and Energy Flow
4. Ecosystem Functions and Ecosystem Services
5. History of Environmental Management
ASSIGNMENT
Visit an ecosystem you are familiar with and discuss its functions and services. The
report will include:
1. Cover page, 2. Content, 3. Introduction, 4. Components of the ecosystem, 5. Human
intervention, 6. Ecosystem functions and services, 7. Reference (if any)
Date of Submission: 8th March 2019

3. • Poverty is the lack of
basic necessities that
all human beings
must have: food and
water, shelter,
education, medical
care, security, etc.
• A multi-dimensional
issue, poverty
exceeds all social,
economic, and
political boundaries.
• As such, efforts to
alleviate poverty
must be informed of
a variety of different
factors.

4. World Status
• 4.4 billion people live in developing countries.
• Of these three-fifths lack basic sanitation
• Almost one third have no access to clean water
• A quarter do not have adequate housing
• A fifth have no access to modern health services
• Percentage of people living below the poverty line:
Europe and Central Asia - 3.5%
Latin America and Caribbean - 23.5%
Sub-Saharan Africa - 38.5%
Middle East and North Africa - 4.1%
South Asia - 43.1%

5. Undernourished due to poverty
Sri Lanka
2000 2015
30 % 22 %

6. History - Technological Changes and Environment
Hunter-
Gatherer
Societies
Survival based by gathering edible plants and killing
animals.
Little accumulated economic and food surplus.
Small numbers, decentralized and little use of resources.
Strong linkage with nature.
Agricultural
societies
Produce larger and more stable food supplies.
Larger settlements and populations.
First major environmental degradation.
Decline or collapse of civilizations linked with the
degradation of the soils and resource bases.
Human domination of nature (anthropocentric view).
Industrial
societies
Substitution of human and animal labor by machines.
Urbanization (population outside natural surroundings).
Began to change attitudes toward the environment.
Exploitation of resources exacerbated (aggravated) many
environmental problems and created new ones.
Pollution exacerbated by the use of synthetic materials.

7. Climate change and the collapse of civilizations
Civilization Issue
Akkadian Empire
(2,170 BC)
Established between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers. Collapsed because
climate change destroyed its agricultural
base. Cooling of the North Atlantic Ocean
influence rainfall in the Middle East.
Mayan Civilization
(900 AD)
Located in the Yucatan Peninsula.
Collapsed after 200 years of lower
precipitations.
Roanoke
settlement, North
America (1587)
First permanent British colony vanished
after 4 years. Corresponded to the worst
drought on the East Coast in 700 years

8. Environmental Movements (1960s and 1970s)
Rising affluence
(prosperity)
Growth of leisure and tourism (pristine
environments).
Rising levels of
education
Better-educated people developed greater
awareness of environmental problems
Environmental
organizations
Many environmental organizations founded.
National Wildlife Federation (1936); United
Nations Environment Programme (1972);
WorldWatch (1974).
Pollution Water pollution, waste disposal and acid rain
became the first widely noticed hazards
Scientific
evidence
“Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson (1962) and “The
Population Bomb” by Paul Ehrlich (1968)
Politics Decade when environmental issues began to
become politicized. Green parties: Political parties
focusing primarily on environmental issues

9. Environmental Movements (1960s and 1970s)
■ Legislations
• Regulatory laws were passed in the USA and elsewhere.
• Enforcement agencies were created:
• EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) in the USA
was created in the early 1970s.
• Most states created their own environmental protection
agencies.
• Legislation was passed to help correct environmental
hazards already created.
• Prevent additional problems from arising.
• Air quality improved in many areas; cleaner water
reappeared.

10. Environmental Movements (1960s and 1970s)
■ Environmentalism and the global crisis
• Carried the roots of environmentalism beyond local and national
scales to the global scale.
• Transnational dimensions of many environmental problems:
• Many environmental problems do not recognize boundaries.
• Acid rain in Western Europe (Sweden) and North America.
• First UN Conference on the Human Environment:
• Stockholm, 1972.
• Creation of the UN Environmental Programme.
• Rise of the neo-Malthusian perspective:
• Rising concern over population growth.
• Formation of the Club of Rome (1972).
• Publication of the Limits to Growth and the formation of ZPG (Zero
Population Growth).
Neo-Malthusianism refers to the belief that population control through the use of
contraception (sterility) is essential for the survival of the earth’s human population. It
rests on the observation that resources are limited, and that growing populations could
rapidly exceed the provision of resources including land and food.

11. Environmental Retreat (1980s)
■ Retreat (withdrawal)
• Retreat for the environmental movement in the USA.
• The oil crises helped weaken public support for
environmental programs.
• Conservative agenda of de-regulation.
• Weakening of some environmental controls in the USA:
• Onslaught on the National Forests of the USA.
• Clear cutting regulations were weakened.
• Easier exploitation by timber companies, especially in the Pacific
Northwest.
• Emphasis shifted from conservation efforts to increased resource
exploitation.
• Expand drilling into several protected areas.

12. Environmental Sustainability (1980s)
■ Creation of a sustainable development ideology
• Carbon Dioxide was found to cause global warming
(1983).
• A hole in the ozone layer was found over the Antarctic
(1985).
• Brundtland Report “Our Common Future”:
• ‘Sustainable’is used for the first time.
• Maintenance of life support systems.
• Working to reduce the threats to those systems represented by
erosion, pollution, deforestation, etc.
• Preservation of genetic diversity.
• Providing us with insurance for the future by guarding against the
ravages of crop diseases.
• Investment for future crop-breeding or pharmaceutical
development.
• Sustainable development of species and ecosystems

13. Environmental Ethics (1980s)
■ Environmental ethics
• “We have not inherited the earth
from our parents; we have
borrowed it from our children.”
• Development is often viewed in
materialistic terms.
• Focusing on resource utility
through conservation.
• Environmentalism as a cultured
attitude intended to prevent
development in the South.

14. Environmental Globalism (1990s)
■ UN World Conference on Environment and
Development
• Rio de Janeiro (1992):
• Largest such gathering ever (100 heads of state).
• Placed the environmental agenda at the center of the world stage.
• Development made possible by the end of the Cold War.
• Establish “Agenda 21”, a blueprint for action.
• Europe and Japan:
• World leaders in environmental affairs.
• USA:
• Role of obstructionist.
• Objected to any negative references concerning consumption
patterns in the developed countries.
• Had the most to lose.

15. Environmental Globalism (1990s)
■ The Rio Declaration
• “development must occur on a sustainable basis to meet
the needs of present and future generations.”
• Lack of detail and no operational aspects are considered.
• Have relatively little meaning.
■ Global Warming Treaty (Agreement)
• “Stabilization of the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere at a level which would prevent dangerous
interference with climate systems.”
• Lacks a specific timetable for decreasing emissions.
• No mandatory maximum levels for emissions.
• Most countries other than the USA endorsed guidelines to
reduce CO2 emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000.

16. Environmental Globalism (1990s)
■ Biodiversity Convention
• Guarantees the protection
and conservation of plant
and animal species
threatened with extinction.
• Declares who has the right
to develop and market
products based on such
species.
• The USA opposed this
treaty (biotechnology
sector).
Loris

17. Environmental Globalism (1990s)
■ Agenda 21(Blueprint for Action)
• Commitment to sustainable development through a set of
four program areas.
• 1) Promoting sustainable development through trade.
• 2) Making trade and environment mutually supportive.
• 3) Providing adequate financial resources to developing
countries:
• Committed to 0.7% of GNP.
• Currently stands at around 0.5% of GNP (Gross National Product)
for most European countries, Canada, and Japan.
• Just 0.25% for the USA.
• 4) Encouraging economic policies conducive to
sustainable development

18. Environmental Globalism (1990s)
■ Kyoto Protocol
• The Global Warming Treaty was not working.
• 2000 goals would not achieved.
• High profile meeting in Kyoto in 1997.
• 160 nations formally adopted the protocol:
• Legally committing industrial countries do reduce Carbon Dioxide
emissions.
• Reduce climate-altering gases by 5.2% below 1990 levels between
2008 and 2012.
• Developing countries, mainly China and India, objected:
• Meeting the target would cripple their economies leaning on coal.
• Developing countries were thus exempted.

19. Characteristics of the Kyoto Protocol
Issue Characteristics
Commitments Reductions of 60 to 80% below 1990 levels are
required to stop global warming. Developing countries
not included
Flexibility Consideration of “carbon sinks” such as forests.
Does not address CO2 emissions
CO2 trading Nations can trade CO2 allowances (1990 levels) with
other nations. Russia, Ukraine (sellers) and the US
(buyer) are candidates.
Ratification Treaty in force if ratified by 55% of countries
responsible for emissions. The US did not ratify
(2001).

20. The Vicious Circle
PopulationPoverty
Environment
Instability

21. • More children to compensate high
mortality.
• More children to help domestic
tasks and cultivation.
• Lack of protection in view of
disease or old age.
• Lack of education plays against
family planning.
• Women status and poverty forbid
access to education.
• Unemployment and low incomes,
dilution of gain.
• Division of property among several
children.
• Overburden of health and social
services and utilities.
Population
Poverty
The Vicious Circle

22. The Vicious Circle
■ Increase of pressures over
marginal land, overexploitation,
and deforestation.
■ Erosion and floods.
■ Increase use of fertilizers,
pesticides and water.
■ Migration to shantytowns.
■ Erosion, salination and floods
lower agricultural yields,
employment and incomes.
■ Overpopulation increases health
problems and lowers
productivity.
Population
Environment

23. The Vicious Circle
■ Short term needs are a priority
and forbids environmental
protection.
■ Development wins over
environmental issues.
Poverty
Environment

24. The Vicious Circle
■ Fall back of democracy, repression and
dictatorship.
■ The army takes most of public spending.
■ Bad investment environment, loss of
tourism incomes.
■ Disorganization of health and education
services.
■ Disorganization of trade and limited
development opportunities.
■ National and international resources
towards urgencies.
■ Social divisions and political problems.
■ Refugees.
■ Terrorism?
Instability

25. THE GLOBAL FOOD SITUATION
• According to the United Nations, the world population reached
7 billion on October 31, 2011. The world’s population is
forecast to reach 9.3 billion by 2050.
- UN Dept. Economic & Social Affairs, 2012.
• Food prices rose rapidly after 2006 and peaked in 2012.
• Rising food prices have driven an estimated 44 million people
into poverty
- World Bank, 2011.

26. CONTRIBUTORS TO FOOD
INSECURITY
A growing population
Intensive farming
Climate change and severe weather
events

27. POPULATION GROWTH
– The world population continues to increase but this growth
is slowing
– Population growth = demand for more food making it
harder to feed everyone
– The planet has been unable to feed its growing population
– Threat of food insecurity
– The rich have been over eating while the poor have been
starving

28. INTENSIVE FARMING
• Intensive farming practices were designed to produce sufficient
food for a growing population.
• Produces high-yield crops, using fertilisers and pesticides.
• Food production is increased but there are unwelcome side
effects:
• Land degradation
• Soil erosion due to deforestation
• Environmental pollution
• Reduced biodiversity due to growing limited crop
varieties
• Potential harm to health
• We need to increase our use of sustainable production methods
– but this will produce less yield - so how do we feed a growing
population?

29. CLIMATE CHANGE - CONTEXT
– Thinking positively, it had been thought we could restrict
global temperature increases to 2oC.
– According to the World Bank, if global temperatures
increase by 4oC: “There will be water and food fights
everywhere” [Jim Yong Kim – World Bank President]
– Currently we expect global temperature increases of 1.1oC
- 6.4oC by the end of the 21st century
• We need to act urgently and radically

30. CLIMATE CHANGE & SEVERE WEATHER EVENTS
• Climate change has increased carbon dioxide levels, which
has increased desertification and caused water-supply
problems.
• Rising ocean levels could flood low-lying farmlands with salt
water and affect rice/wheat production.
• Extreme weather events like floods, hurricanes, storm surges,
and tsunamis have increased - extreme flooding could affect
global distribution of food.
• Some food-producing regions could become too hot to grow
conventional crops, affect livestock growth and increase crop
contamination.
• Agricultural prices will be affected by climate change –
reduced food supply will increase prices.

31. FOOD POVERTY: Globally
• The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates
that about 795 million people of the 7.3 billion
people in the world, or one in nine, were suffering
from chronic undernourishment in 2014-2016.
• Direct action against hunger is essential
• Increase in the need for Food Aid.

32. Why Poverty? …?? ….???
• ... In 1997 the richest fifth of the world’s population had 74
times the income of the poorest fifth.
• ..The top three billionaires have assets greater than the
combined GNP of all least developed countries and their 600
million people.
• Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the
health and well-being of him/(her)self and his/(her) family,
including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services... Everyone has the right to
education. - Universal Declaration of Human Rights

33. Causes of third world poverty
• Trade - Third world countries lose out through unfair trade
agreements, lack of technology and investment, and rapidly
changing prices for their goods.
• Work and globalisation - Better communications and
transport have led to a “globalised” economy. Companies look
for low-cost countries to invest in. This can mean that, though
there are jobs, they are low-paid.
• War or conflict - When a country is at war (including civil
war) basic services like education are disrupted. People leave
their homes as refugees. Crops are destroyed.

34. Causes of third world poverty
• Debt
Third world countries have to pay interest on their debts. This
means they cannot afford to spend enough on basic services
like health and education; nor on things like transport or
communications that might attract investment.
• Land
If you have land you can grow your own food. But many
people in the Third World have had their land taken over by
large businesses, often to grow crops for export.

35. Health
Affordable or free health care is necessary for development.
In poor countries the percentage of children who die under
the age of five is much higher than in rich countries.
HIV/AIDS is having a devastating effect on the Third World.
HIV is now the single greatest threat to future economic development
in Africa. AIDS kills adults in the prime of their working and
parenting lives, decimates the work force, fractures and impoverishes
families, orphans millions...
- Callisto Madavo, vice-president of the World
Bank, Africa region 1999
Causes of third world poverty

36. Food and education
Affordable, secure food supplies are vital. Malnutrition causes
severe health problems, and can also affect education. Without
education it is difficult to escape from poverty. This becomes a
vicious circle – people who live in poverty cannot afford to send
their children to school.
Gender
When we measure poverty we find differences between the level
experienced by men or boys, and women or girls. Women may
be disadvantaged through lack of access to education; in some
countries they are not allowed to own or inherit land; they are
less well paid than men.
Causes of third world poverty

37. Environment
• A child born in an industrialised
country will add more to pollution
over his or her lifetime than 30-50
children born in the Third World.
• However, the third world child is
likely to experience the consequences
of pollution in a much more
devastating way.
• For example, annual carbon dioxide
emissions have quadrupled in the last
50 years. This contributes to global
warming, leading to devastating
changes in weather patterns.
• Bangladesh could lose up to 17% of
its land area as water levels rise.
Causes of third world poverty

38. Poverty Targets
2015 poverty targets
Members of the Organisation for Co-operation and
Development (OECD) agreed these after the 1995
Copenhagen summit. They aim to reduce poverty in third
world countries by at least one half by 2015.
20/20 initiative
At the same summit some governments agreed that 20% of aid
and 20% of the budget of the developing country receiving
that aid would be spent on basic services.
·

39. Aid
Access to basic services for everyone would cost
approximately $US40 billion more per year than is spent
now. This is 0.1% of world income. World military
spending is $US780 billion per year. US$50 billion is
spent on cigarettes in Europe every year.
Fair trade
Fair trade guarantees higher, more stable prices for third
world producers. Look out for products with a Fairtrade
Mark.

40. “The amount of money the
UK spends
On chocolate each year
could make Africa
NOT live in poverty”