This is the 4th lesson of the course Traditional Knowledge in Sri Lankan Agriculture taught at the Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

1. P.B. Dharmasena
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dharmasenapb@ymail.com , dharmasenapb@gmail.com
https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/contributions
http://www.slideshare.net/DharmasenaPb
Traditional Technology in Sri Lankan Agriculture
Lesson - 4
Traditional agricultural technologies:
their efficacies, and limitations
Course code: AS 3210 (2/ 25:10)
Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka,
Puliyankulama

2. 2
Systems of knowledge are many.
Among these, modern science is only
one, though the most powerful and
universal.
Rural people’s knowledge is in contrast
‘situated’, differing both by locality and
by group and individual, and differing in
its modes of experimenting and learning:
different people know different things in
different places, and learn new things in
different ways.
– Robert Chambers, 1994
Robert Chambers - British academic and development practitioner

3. What is Traditional Knowledge ?
• Unique to a given culture or society.
• Techniques, practices, customs,
traditions and beliefs in rural life
(agriculture, health care, food
preparation, education, natural
resource management, social unity
etc.)
• Information base
• Dynamic and changing (creativity,
trial and error).
• Wealth of the community established
over time
• Adapted to local culture and
environment.
3

4. • Rural people understand the soil
salinity by observing the plants
found in an area.
• Vetakeya (Pandanus kaida),
• Diwul (Feronia limonia),
• Keeriya (Acacia chundra),
• Indi (Phoenix zeylanica),
• Ikiriya (Hygrophila spinosa),
• Pothu-pan (Scleria poaeformis),
• Illuk (Imperata cylindrical).
• Good rains are expected if they
observe more flowers in wood apple
trees.
Very common Examples of Local Knowledge
4

5. Indigenous knowledge
• Indigenous knowledge has two powerful advantages
over outside Knowledge
• It has little or no cost and is readily available.
• Indigenous knowledge systems and technologies are
found to be socially desirable, economically affordable,
sustainable, and involve minimum risk to rural farmers
and producers
• Above all, they are widely believed to conserve
resources.
• There are situations in which modern science is not
appropriate, and use of simpler technologies and
procedures are required. Thus, indigenous
knowledge provides basis for problem solving
strategies for local communities, especially the poor.

6. Indigenous knowledge
• Indigenous knowledge has always placed human
being within the context of total environment.
• As such it pays attention to all living things
including plants, animals, water, soil and other
natural resources.
• It tries to achieve human wellbeing without
jeopardizing the environmental totality.
• For example, people are not permitted to destroy
woods haphazardly, although clearing jungles is
needed for cultivation.
• There is a jungle low to which people should obey.
Forests cannot be burned without following certain
rituals.

7. Indigenous knowledge

8. Indigenous knowledge

9. Traditional Agricultural Technology
FEATURES
• Understanding the
nature
• Water and moisture
• Social cohesion
• Leaving out
• Practicing agricultural
rituals

10. Main four resources in the traditional life
• Forest
• Water
• Cattle
• Children

11. Cosmo-spiritual
powers
Socio-cultural
dimension
Bio-physical process
Native agriculture

12. Periods of Sinhala Months
Sinhala month Period
Duruthu Mid December – mid January
Nawam Mid January – mid February
Medin Mid February – mid March
Bak Mid March – mid April
Wesak Mid April – mid May
Poson Mid May – mid June
Esala Mid June – mid July
Nikini Mid July – mid August
Binara Mid August – mid September
Wap Mid September – mid October
Ill Mid October – mid November
Unduwap Mid November – mid December

13. • Yala season (2017)
• Medin (mid Feb. – mid
March)
• 15th crescent – 12th March
• Yala commences with
rains and thunderstorms
on 11th crescent of the
moon month ‘Medin’ (8th
March 2017)
• Maha season (2017)
• Nikini (mid July – mid
August)
• 15th crescent – 7th August
• Maha commences with
Nikini palu wessa (rains
and thunderstorms) on
jalawaka (4th day after 15th
crescent of Nikini) – 11th
August
• Chena cultivation begins
with akwessa in pre maha
Understanding the Nature - Weather forecasting

14. 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Rainfall(mm)
Date
Daily rainfall data at Mahailluppallama – March 2017

15. 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Daily rainfall data at Mahailluppallama – August 2017

16. Understanding the Nature – Drought forecasting

17. 1. Leaves of many trees show wilting unusually.
2. When they receive relatively low rainfall in a maha
season, they expect a long drought until next maha
season. Dry winds blowing across the village
aggravates the drought condition.
3. Tanks go dry early. When they observe fast drying of
tanks they get prepared to face a drought.
4. Dark clouds are hardy observed and the wind speed
increases. Clouds do not move and hot condition
prevails. Wind carries dust and makes surrounding
warm.
5. Before a drought people will notify that the morning is
cold and it becomes warm gradually. People use to seek
for tree shades when they feel uncomfortable due to hot
condition during day time. The body is dehydrated due
to dry wing rather than from hot sun.
Understanding the Nature – Drought
forecasting

18. 5. People hear unusual shouts of lizards and hawks.
6. Poisonous ants (black ants, brown ants etc.) come
out of the ground.
7. Nonpoisonous small kinds of ants move along
ground surface with white eggs.
8. Elephants roam around the village.
9. Monkeys’ shout cannot be heard.
Understanding the Nature – Drought
forecasting

19. Understanding the Nature – Flood forecasting

20. 1. People can hear unusual thundering sounds. It seems to be
that the sounds come from underground. The sound makes
children frightened.
2. The surrounding shows strange dark look. It is darker than
the darkness one can see just before a usual rain spell.
3. Dogs bark for a long time without having a rest. They bark
as a group or from different locations in the village.
4. People observe that white ants move upward along trees as a
track.
5. The surrounding becomes colder than that they feel in
normal rainy days.
Understanding the Nature – Flood forecasting

21. 6. People observe some kinds of insects such as
grasshopper, dragonfly etc. move out of their places
and fly around.
7. Snakes attempt to creep into houses. People make
special attention about snakes when observed.
8. Ant tracks can be observed moving into houses.
9. Clouds appear becoming darker than usual.
10. People can observe lightning, but it does not follow
any rains.
Understanding the Nature – Flood forecasting

22. Rains come soon
• Cocks eat sand
• Swallow (wahi
lihiniya) flies at low
levels
• Rainbow appearance
• Bud of Daluk plant
becomes round
• Flowering midella
Understanding the Nature - Weather forecasting

23. Rains come soon
• Termite in coconut
spathe
• Lapwing (Kirala)
roaming in paddy fields
• Crow baths mud water
• Western sky is red
• Night misting
Understanding the Nature - Weather forecasting

24. If the bird (lapwing) lays eggs close to dead storage,
maha rains will be poor
If the bird lays eggs at the upstream end of the tank
bed, maha rains will be high
Weather forecasting

26. • If the weaver bird makes the nest at high level the tank
water level will be high
• If the weaver bird makes the nest at low level the tank
water level will be low

28. Maha Oya in 2013

29. Vavuniya in 2014

30. • If the tamarind tree buds early, maha rains will come early
• If the wood apple tree blooms more, maha rains will be
high
• If the Sept. rains are low, maha season rains will be high
• If the Sept. rains are high, maha season rains will be poor

32. 600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
September rainfall (mm)
Rainfall relationship between September and remaining maha
season (Oct. – Feb. ) Mahailluppallama (1905 – 2003)Oct.–Feb.Rainfall(mm)

33. Select the land during mid April - mid June
Clear land during mid June – mid August
Fence the land in mid August – mid September
Sow the crop in mid September – mid October

35. 10 commandments in the rural society
1) Diya paththayam thahanchiya – Regulations
for water security during drought
2) Niyama kanneta govithen bath – Correct time
of cultivation to reduce the risk
3) Gaha kola satha seepawa, Bnikare wathurai
aubowa – Use of environment without
destroying it
4) Hithe ispasuwata dan pin karannata peti pas
parane hadapan wadapan – Make your mind
free to attend religious events through raising 5
types of babies
5) Akahe wehi keten wev amunu puropan –
harvest rainwater and store for future use

36. 5 types of babies - peti pas parane

37. 10 commandments in the rural society
6) Ekathu paadaa nowi hari haman
wedak nokaran – Work as a team
7) Wee kurahan sambhare atu kotu
purawan rale – Store excess
grains for future use
8) Thel peni aththan kewumda
pangnan – What is impossible if
everything is with you?
9) Kem pahan denagan sanuhare
rekagan – Gain knowledge to
protect all
10) Kavi sindu ragan hithata
kawaddapan – Preserve the
cultural arts

38. Water Resources

40. Water resources of
Sri Lanka
River basins: 103
Major reservoirs and dams: 80
Minor tanks: 14,204
Minor anicuts 12,942
Malwathu
Oya
Deduru
Oya
Kala
Oya
Mahaweli
Ganga
Walawe
Ganga
12 mil. Ha.m

41. Reservoirs to store water
• Maha Wavi (damming
the river)
• Dana Wavi (Diversion)
• Gamika Wavi (tank
clusters)
• Gamika Wavi (tank
clusters)
• Gam wew (Vllage
tanks)
• Olagam wew (tanks
without village)
• Kulu wew (tanks in the
jungle)
• Kayan wew (sediment
tanks)
• Biso wew (stock tanks)

42. FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
• Understanding the nature
• Water and moisture
• Social cohesion
• Leaving out
• Practicing agricultural rituals

43. Social cohesion
• Working together – ‘Ekathu pada nowi hari haman wedak
nokaran’
• Sharing
• Hada beda ganeema and beda hada ganeema (grow and share
and share and grow)
• Bethma - It is a practice that temporarily redistributes plots of
land among shareholders (paddy landowners) in part of the
command area (territory) of a tank (reservoir) during drought
periods.
• ‘Pangu’ method—The tank had to be maintained properly to
avoid breach, leak, and excess seepage. Repair and desiltation
of tanks and cleaning of canals during dry periods are shared
tasks assigned to each farmer proportionately to land
ownership
• Village commons (common ownership)
• Micro-landscapes are utilized to reduce tank water losses,
mitigate salinity effects, prevent tank sedimentation and so on

44. Land sharing in chena
cultivation
Share equally the extent,
soil productivity and
security
Mulketa hena
Social cohesion (Sharing)

45. Social cohesion - Land sharing in chena cultivation
Land sharing in chena
cultivation
Share equally the extent,
soil productivity and
security
Irawili hena

46. Leaving out
• Chena cultivation – lands after cultivation are left out for
years. Reason behind is to rejuvenate the land productivity
• Kurulupaluwa – cultivation is left out for birds
• Village commons – ownership is left out
• Forest tanks are left out for wild life

48. Practicing agricultural rituals in sri
lanka
⪤Most of the traditional practices
are used extensively in the north
central, northwestern, southern
and Uva provinces.
⪤In the more developed provinces
these practices have largely
disappeared due to the extensive
use of chemicals.
⪤In the north and east they are
used as well, but with some
variations due to Tamil and Hindu
influence
48

49. Spirits and Supernatural Beings
⪤The majority of Sri Lankans are Buddhists (70%)
and 10% are Hindus. People believe in gods and
other deities and it is customary to invoke their
blessings.
⪤People also believe in a category of spirits that are
neither gods nor demons: bahirawas, who are
believed to live underground and within air space.
⪤When gods are angered or not treated properly,
people belive deaths, epidemics, quarrels, crop
failures, animal losses, and many more disasters
occur in society
49

50. Spirits and Supernatural Beings
⪤All matter is believed to exist in four
physical forms: solid (patavi), liquid
(apo), heat (thejo) or air (vayo).
⪤Rural people have learned to handle this
multitude of forces.
⪤local priests and hermits who live a
pious life can perform rituals at
auspicious times and at specific locations
during which mantras (sounds), yantras
(symbols), and plants are used to create
the good vibrations for plant and animal
life and human health
50

51. Astrology
⪤Astrology also plays a dominant role in agriculture,
especially in the cultivation of rice. Farmers believe
that certain days are good for beginning cultivation.
⪤Most farmers follow the astrological calendar or
pancha suddiya to ensure success and avoid bad luck.
⪤Pancha suddhiya involves the following five aspects
⪤Adherence to 'good' and 'bad' days
⪤The position of the moon in relation to the earth
⪤The auspicious hora or one -hour period
⪤Avoid facing certain directions on certain days
⪤The evil period
51

52. Eco-friendly practices
⪤Minimal tillage of the land
⪤Mixed cropping and seeding
wherever possible
⪤Fencing activities at auspicious
moments
⪤Crop protection like the
cultivation of a small portion of
land to attract birds for pest
management in paddy
⪤Use of plants or plant extracts
(bio-pesticides)
52

53. Spiritual practices
⪤Rituals have been used in Sri Lankan agriculture to
support crop growth and animal husbandry and to
chase away wild animals or pests that damage the
crops.
⪤Frequently they are being practiced away from the
eyes and ears of outsiders.
⪤One of the most important rituals is the pooja or
offering, carried out during the annual festival that
is called Mangalya.
⪤Pirith chanting is used to obtain protection for
crops and cultivation.
53

54. Spiritual practices – Yanthra manthra
⪤Farmers often chant pirith to prevent or obtain relief
from crop diseases, animal epidemics and evil effects.
⪤A mantra is a certain type of verse, a combination of
carefully selected sounds that together create a nucleus
of spiritual energy
⪤There are mantras to ask rats to leave the field, mantras
to enhance a healthy crop and mantras to reduce the
damage by paddy bugs.
⪤Yantras are used to secure protection from one s
enemies, the anger of the gods or evil spirits, ill effects
of planets, forces of nature, envy and the evil eye.
54

55. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤The term Kem is derived from the Sanskrit kshema
which means protection. The earliest references to
Kem are found in the thirteenth century literary works
Pujavaliya and Saddharmaratnavaliya but it is possible
that kem practices existed in society from earlier times.
⪤A kem is a kind of practice, technique or custom that
is followed in order to obtain some favourable effect
such as relief from a specific illness.
⪤Some kems are mechanical methods, like the lighting
of fire torches.
⪤There are various conditions that have to be met to
make the working of kems successful. For example,
the farmer should not visit the field being treated for a
specific period.
55

56. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤They believe that that plant diseases could
be remedied, pests could be controlled and
harvest could be protected by resorting to
certain Kem measures.
⪤14th – 15th centuries in some Tamil literary
texts it states that
⪤ Ashes of the burnt wood of a ruined house or
hut were spread on the ridges of the paddy field
to protect the crop from birds, insects and wild
animals.
56

57. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤At present spreading ash on paddy
plants in the morning
⪤ Before smearing ash, water is
drained from the field and after
smearing, the field is kept dry for
four days.
⪤ Due to the effect of ash, insects on
paddy plants move downwards from
the plant and on to the soil.
⪤The eggs of the insects are also
wiped out by the farmer with a
bundle of Keppetiya (Croton
laccifer) leaves. After four days the
field is inundated again and the
insects that moved down due to the
effects of ash die in water.
57

58. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤In remote areas of the
Kurunegala district, insects
that harm the paddy plants
were removed by burning
dried leaves of Gandapana
(Lantana camara),
Keppetiya, Dodampana
(Glycosmis pentaphylla)
and Sera (Cymbopogon
citrates).
⪤ It is believed that
fumigating would dispel
the flies and insects.
58

59. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤The Kem measures associated
with smearing the crushed
plant parts
⪤Madu (Cycas circinalis),
⪤Valdel (Atrocarpus
nobilis),
⪤ Kokkana or kokun
(Kokoona zeylanica),
⪤Godapara (Dillenia
retusa),
⪤Demata (Gmelina
asiatica)
⪤Kukuruman (Randia
dumetorum)
Most of these emanate a
strong smell which is
disliked by insects and so
they leave the paddy field.
59

60. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤juice obtained by crushing
roots or leaves of
⪤Katurumurunga (Sesbania
grandflora),
⪤Devata (Carallia brachiata),
⪤Kapparavalliya (Coleus
amboinicus),
⪤Daluk (Euphorbia
antiquorum),
⪤Vara (Calatropis giganta),
⪤Endaru or castor (Ricinus
communis),
⪤Niyangala (Gloriosa
superba),
⪤Keppetiya,
⪤Karanda (Pongambia glabra)
These are mixed with water
in the paddy field by
farmers to wade off the
pests. 60

61. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤In Nuvarakalaviya and
Tamankaduwa, farmers
prepare a concoction
(mixture) of
⪤Magnesium sulphate
(Sahinda lunu),
⪤ Potash alum
(Seenakkaran),
⪤Copper sulphate
(Palmanikkam)
Mixture is applied to
water of the paddy field
in order to get rid of
harmful pests.
61
⪤In Siyane Korale,
Hopitigam Korale, Alutkuru
Korale, Hanguranketha and
Kotmale farmers
⪤Wet a large piece of
cloth by soaking it with
a mixture of resins
(dummala) oil
⪤Fit on to a rope.
⪤Before sunrise the rope
was dragged through the
paddy field by two
persons holding the ends
and insects got trapped
in the sticky cloth.

62. Spiritual practices - Kem
• The oil lamp or torch Kem (pahan
kema).
• Tiny clay pots or seedless raw
papaya (Carica papaya) pieces
were used as lamps.
• The oils of either coconut (Cocos
nucifera), Kohomba, Mee
(Madhuka longifolia), Sesame or
Kekuna (Scutinanthe zeylanicum)
is poured into these lamps and the
wicks of the lamps were burnt for
three nights.
62

63. Spiritual practices - Kem
• The oil lamp or torch Kem (pahan
kema).
• Tiny clay pots or seedless raw
papaya (Carica papaya) pieces
were used as lamps.
• The oils of either coconut (Cocos
nucifera), Kohomba, Mee
(Madhuka longifolia), Sesame or
Kekuna (Scutinanthe zeylanicum)
is poured into these lamps and the
wicks of the lamps were burnt for
three nights.
63