This document provides information on codes and conventions used in factual television programs. It discusses the different genres of factual programs like news, documentaries, and reality television. It explains that codes are systems of signs that create meaning, and conventions are generally accepted ways of doing things in a genre. Technical, symbolic, and written/audio codes are described. Examples of codes for news include studio news readers and report structure, while codes for documentaries include film, script, music and camera angles. Conventions for both genres are also outlined, such as expectations for on-location broadcasts and graphics in news, and use of interviews, narration and archive footage in documentaries. Different documentary styles like expository, observational, and interactive are also

1. CODES AND CONVENTIONS OF FACTUAL PROGRAMMING - UNIT 27
SLIDE 1
What are Factual Programs?
Factual programs are a genre of non-fiction programmes and TV broadcasts that
document real events and people, primarily for the purposes of education,
maintaining a historical record and to present these facts to the audience so that
they can either agree or disagree with them.
The genre includes news, documentary, educational, magazine, discussion, review,
chat show, special interest (hobby, makeover, and how-to formats), ‘reality’ TV and
other sub-genres.
Factual programmes aim to:-
Record important events and ideas
Inform viewers
Convey opinions
Create public interest
Record, reveal, or preserve
Analyse or interrogate
Express
Persuade or promote
60% of all TV programmes are factual programmes. All inform and some entertain as
well.
Examples of factual programs are BBC News, Bargain Hunt, Graham Norton, Loose
Women and Big Brother.
SLIDE 2
Positive values of factual programmes
 Educate the viewer through a variety of point of views. Different interviewees
on the news in a good example of this.
 Inform the viewer on issues that they are unaware of.
 Create empathy: urge the audience to help.
 Encourage social/political change by bringing the issues to the public arena.
 Accurate, balanced and neutral material so audience can be confident that
information is correct and that it shows both sides and not favoured towards
one side.
SLIDE 3
Negative values of factual programmes
 Carefully edited programmes to show the writers biased opinion of the facts in
order to provoke a response from its intended audience. For example, Benefit
Street, (a programme about residents of James Turner Street in Birmingham
claiming benefits), was seen as demonising the poor and unemployed by
some viewers, the residents claim that they have been misrepresented and

2. others like Richard McKerrow (director of production company) insists. "It's a
very honest and true portrayal of life in Britain and people are frightened of it.”
 No impact on society due to a niche audience – for example Super High Me
(2007) - The director in this documentary decided to smoke cannabis for 30
days to investigate the effects that it would have on his body.
SLIDE 4
Two examples of factual programs in more detail: –
NEWS
 The news is a type of factual programming.
 It consists of facts and statistics that are based on current topics that are
occurring around the world.
 The news has a contract with the viewer to portray news that is accurate and
real.
DOCUMENTARY
 Documentaries are another type of factual programming and one of the
earliest forms of cinema and television and still one of the most important.
 Documentary has come to mean a single film or programme (sometimes part
of a series) which concentrates on a single subject, and is presented in a
factual way.
 Documentaries tell us something important about our world - and in the best
examples, make us think about the world in a new way.
 Documentaries cover a huge range of topics including historical events,
science, current affairs, the arts, social and political issues, nature and
wildlife.
 Authenticity is the key to successful documentary film-making. The
information must be presented as 'real', and must convince the audience that
what they are seeing is genuine.
In order for factual programmes to portray information in a professional manner,
there are codes and conventions that must be followed. Codes and conventions are
used together in any study of genre.
SLIDE 5
What are codes?
 Codes are systems of signs, which create meaning.
 Codes must consist of a set of agreed rules for combining those signs
together.
Codes can be divided into three categories – Technical, Symbolic and Written and
Audio
Technical
Technical codes are every single way equipment is used to tell the story in a media
text, for example the camerawork in a film.

3. Technical codes are: Camera techniques, framing, layout (mise en scene), lighting,
editing and sound.
Symbolic
Symbolic codes show what is beneath the surface of what we see, for example, a
character's actions to show the audience how the character is feeling.
Symbolic codes are: Objects, setting, body language, clothing, colour.
Some codes fit both categories – music for example, is both technical and symbolic.
Written and Audio
Written & Audio consists of the music, text, narrator and silence in programs
Written and Audio codes: Headlines, captions, speech bubbles and language
style.
SLIDE 6
Codes in News:
 Studio news readers
 Field reporters
 Links to studio
 Mode of address to viewer
 Interviewing
 Experts and witnesses
 Report structure
 Actuality footage
Codes in Documentary:
 Film
 Script
 Music
 Costumes
 Camera angles
 Lighting
SLIDE 7
What are conventions?
 Conventions are the generally accepted ways of doing something. There are
general conventions in any medium, such as the use of interviewee quotes in
a print article, but conventions are also genre specific.
 It is the way that the codes are used (which is known as conventions) that
helps the audience understand which roles each character is playing in the
story. The exact way directors use these tools can encourage us to like or
dislike a character and also help us to understand how important each
character is in the story.

4. For example, if a character in a film was seen entering a building at night with low
lighting and frightening music was heard at the same time, then we would probably
assume that the character was either a criminal or villain of some sort.
But if the lighting was changed to a bright light and pleasant music was heard, then
we would probably assume this character worked or was visiting someone in the
building and there was a legitimate reason for them being there.
SLIDE 8
News conventions - What do we expect to see?
 Broadcasts from outside the studio
 Newscasters smartly dressed e.g. wearing a suit
 Graphics Bulletin
 Narrative structure
 Theme tune
 Multi camera set up
 Camera shots (mid shots)
SLIDE 9
Documentary Conventions - What are they?
Different purposes – to entertain, inform, educate, ridicule, shock, satisfy, provide
morbid pleasure and for propaganda purposes
 Actuality footage – This may be a recording of an actual event which is
documented with real people involved and not actors. An example of this is
the London riots http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Qmks0QVI40
 Archive footage is used to show a variety of views on a topic. A sound track
may accompany the visuals. This helps the audience to learn about historical
knowledge and show past events which are important to subject matter.
Archive footage is used to support filmed scenes.
 Presenter - A presenter is used to move the narrative along. They also are
used to push an idea or a view on the topic forward. A narrator is important to
hold the narrative together. The gender of the narrator depends on the topic
and target audience. The tone of voice, accent and vocabulary of the narrator
all depends on who the programme is aimed at. A celebrity may be used to
present a program.
 Voice over – An unseen commentator who explains or tells a story during the
documentary, as an audience we are encouraged to believe what they say
and claim it to be true. Many documentaries use one or more voice overs.
Often during an interview, the film will cutaway to show what the interviewee
is talking about whilst the voice carries on as a voice-over. Another common
type of voice-over is 'the narrator', whose voice continues throughout the
whole documentary telling the audience 'the story'. The narrator often remains

5. invisible and their voice is usually male, disembodied and well-informed,
almost like the voice of God. This style has been rejected by documentary
makers in recent times as it is considered as being masculine and
manipulative. An example of this was Channel 4 documentary 'Terror at Sea:
the Sinking of the Costa Concordia'.
https://youtu.be/sU3g82ycpu0
Voice overs can also be a voice-of-authority commentary (the speaker is
heard and also seen). An example of this is David Starkey's 'Monarchy'
documentary series for Channel 4.
https://youtu.be/Q76j0h1eCTk
 Camera work – Hand-held camera work can be uneven and wobbly but used
for realism and truth. Camera work can be handheld, multi or single camera
shots.
 Single strand narrative to communicate (events or experiences) in narrative
form, in order to better understand them. They are often single stranded,
linear – one subject is often the topic and with a shorter slot than non-fiction
feature films.
 Graphics can be used on screen to note down an interviewee's name and
relation to the subject. Graphics are normally just two lines and in a simple
font, so that they do not distract the audience. End credits are also used to
acknowledge everyone involved in the production of the documentary.
 Interviews are a key element of documentaries, they bring the story together,
usually talking heads/interviews with eyewitnesses, experts and persons
related. This allows people being filmed to speak directly about events
prompted by specific questions. Interviews in a documentary give viewers a
sense of realism. Interviewees generally answer questions looking at the
interviewer, this is done to gain emotion, and it is proven that a person will
give far more emotion looking into the eye of someone rather than looking into
a camera. During interviews, the camera remains static so the audience aren't
distracted away from the interview by any movement. Eye line of the
interviewee is in line with the top 3rd of frame. Interviews are mostly in close
up or a medium close-up shot filmed on a left or right alignment. Cutaways
are edited into an interview to illustrate what the interviewee is talking about.
Interviews are central to all modern documentary films. Interviews can show
both the interviewer asking questions and the interviewee responding.
 Real people are used in a documentary. They are often hyperreal,
exaggerated stereotypes e.g. Charlton Heston and Michael Moore himself in
Bowling for Columbine.
 The Mise-en-scene has to be consistent throughout the documentary, and
can be portrayed through the interviews, archive footage and narrator. E.g. a
concert venue or studio may be the setting of the interview for a documentary
about a band. An establishing shot is used in most documentaries to set the
scene.

6.  Re-enactments/dramatizations - This is the reconstruction of an event played
by actors which is used to give the audience a further insight into the real
event which occurred.
 Text – The insert of information, dates or time. New programmes commonly
use this to their advantage; it’s a quick way of conveying and reiterating
information or can be used to give further information which may not have
been previously presented.
 Diegetic and non-diegetic sound is used to represent emotion or a topic.
Diegetic (actual) sound can be on and off screen and can be from characters
voices, sounds made by objects in the story or music represented as coming
from instruments in the story space. Non-diegetic (commentary) sound is
when it is not visible on screen or not in the action of the film. Voiceover
narration, sound effects which is added for dramatic effect and mood music
are non-diegetic sound. For example in ‘Supersize Me’ they use childish
music to undermine and degrade McDonalds as a business.
 Documentaries contain lots of editing cuts because there is such a variation of
interviews and archive footage. Conventional editing is used, which means in
the final production only answers and no questions will be on screen.
Selective editing is crucial to constructing meaning in the documentary.
Intercutting and cross cutting editing are used to link key scene.
 Realism - Documentaries may achieve this through: archive footage,
interviews, location shooting and following the action.
 Lighting is used to create different moods, tone and affects. For example, low
key lighting creates social realism, mood, tone and artistic reasons, High key
lighting creates moral, idealistic realism and encodes POV and key and fill
lighting creates documentary realism.
SLIDE 10
Conventions are easier to understand if grouped by the documentary styles rather
than by the separate conventions previously mentioned above.
Documentary formats
The styles of documentary were developed by American theorist Bill Nichols. The
concept was created as he wanted to distinguish the particular traits and different
conventions used in documentaries.
There are six different modes used to create documentaries. They are:-
1. Expository
2. Observational
3. Interactive
4. Reflexive
5. Performative

7. 6. Poetic
SLIDE 11
Expository (Voice of God)
A classic form of documentary that exposes a story that most people are not aware
of in order to engage the viewer. They are often biographical, natural world, historical
or talk about a certain event or topic.
What are the main conventions of expository documentaries?
 A commentator talking over the images or videos shown to explain the story,
speaking directly to the audience: The voiceover may be a ‘voice of God’
commentator (heard but not seen) or ‘voice of authority’ (seen and heard,
usually an expert in the relevant field);
 Graphics & animations are used to illustrate (or sometimes counterpoint) the
voiceover;
 Rhetorical questions are used in order to persuade and challenge the views of
the audience;
 Editing is used for continuity, to link together images which support the
argument put forward in the voiceover;
 Include factual information and figures; a variety of footage, interviews, stills,
archive material to support the argument of the documentary;
 Persuasive techniques - Attempts to persuade the audience to a particular
point of view, often by appealing to logic and the idea of a common sense
response;
 Legal and ethical considerations are particularly important in this mode as the
documentary has to be accurate and show a good representation. Accuracy is
important as you can't provide the incorrect facts on a voiceover and it is
important to not unfairly represent someone or a group of people.
Examples are:
 America’s Most Wanted http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EMCVH3wdU2w
 Inside Job” By Charles H Ferguson and Audrey Marrs. About the 2008
financial breakdown, that infuriated the world because it revealed government
officials using public spending money unnecessarily.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzrBurlJUNk
SLIDE 12
Observational (Fly on the wall)
The observational mode allows viewers to observe the subject’s life as if they were
currently witnessing it, under the pretence of the subjects not being aware of the
cameras being there. This leaves each person free to complete their role without any
interaction. The ‘Fly-on-the-wall’ basically means to observe but do not intervene.
These documentary types are popular with viewers because they are interested to
see what other people are doing with their lives and they allow viewers to reach their
own conclusions on the documentary. However, they are not a true representation of
events, only a constructed version for three reasons: Firstly, people act differently
around cameras because they are on their best behaviour. Secondly, hours of
footage is edited to provide a small representation of the documentary. Therefore
because most of the footage is not shown, it doesn’t give a true reflection of events.
And lastly, consent and privacy regarding who and what is allowed to be recorded, is

8. a major factor because a personal family argument may be edited out to protect their
privacy.
What are the main conventions of observational documentaries?
 Filmed on location;
 Equipment is usually informal like hand held cameras;
 Long takes dominate to capture as much as the subject’s life as possible;
 Synchronous (direct) sound recording;
 No voiceover - dialogue or music is the only source of sound in order to show
real life situations.
 No interviews;
 Crew are neutral observers – their presence is hidden from camera. The
filmmaker is normally out of shot so they are unable to influence events. They
are ‘from the outside looking in’;
 No rehearsals or staged events - camera crew have to follow subject and be
able to move without notice. This can result in poor, shaky looking footage;
Examples are:
 Big Brother http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3VCb6z__Pk
 David Attenborough’s Oasis http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_9sfXIhe9U
 16 and pregnant is a good example of using long shots because the camera
follows them round throughout their pregnancy, while they get on with their
everyday life. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLiXS02Mj7U
SLIDE 13
Interactive (Participating)
The filmmaker is visible within the documentary, contribute as the voiceover and
become the subject of the documentary. The main section is them actively engaging
with the situation they are documenting asking questions and sharing experiences.
They are reliant on the honesty of the witnesses. This format focuses on the
engagement of the individuals without using classic interview styles. This type of
documentary allows the audience to inform their own opinion through different points
of views. However, the film maker's opinions are shown during their exchanges with
subjects, which may result in the events or situations presented being influenced and
altered by the presence of the filmmaker.
What are the main conventions of interactive documentaries?
 Filmmaker (and sometimes crew) is visible to the audience. They interact and
participate with subject;
 Interviews dominate but tend to be formal, ‘on the run’ questioning;
 Use of archive material - stills, news, footage, emails, newspaper headlines,
web information and letters;
 Location shooting - handheld camera;
 Long takes dominate;
 Synchronous (direct) sound recording – clips showing real sound (diegetic);
 Voiceover- usually by the documentary maker;
Examples are:

9.  Supersize me is a good example because the film maker is in most of the
shots being filmed whilst he eats only fast food for 30 days.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOvrkkj_T-I
 Living with Michael Jackson http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kl0uqobeVDM
SLIDE 14
Reflexive (Awareness of the process)
Reflexive documentaries are usually associated with experimental documentaries,
where the audience is just as interested about the making of the film as they are the
actual content. This may include such things as talking to the camera/audience,
filming the filmmakers and allowing audience participation. The film maker
acknowledges their presence in front of the camera and provides a narrative to the
documentary. This makes the audience more aware of the problems the film maker
faces while they make the film. The emphasis is on the encounter between film
maker and audience rather than film maker and subject. They are based on real life
moments and objects and these types of documentaries are based more on
suggestions and opinions rather than facts. They show the constructive nature of the
documentary showing not necessarily the truth, but a reconstruction of the truth - ‘A’
truth, not ‘the’ truth. However, because the audience are aware that it has been
constructed, it's like a representation of the film maker’s own work, which makes this
style very subjective.
What are the main conventions of reflexive documentaries?
 Borrows techniques from fiction film for an emotional, subjective response;
 Emphasise on the expressive nature of film, anti-realist techniques e.g., re-
enactments in part of the documentary if not in all of it, expressive lighting,
dramatic music may be included to keep the documentary alive;
 Voiceover is questioning and uncertain – rather than authoritative;
 Reliance on suggestion rather than fact;
 Crew and equipment are clearly seen – filming process is not hidden.
Examples are:
 Kidulthood was about following a group of London youths on a day off from
school. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdoKD4gTQ2c
 Human Trafficking http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4237pS55h4
 A man with a movie camera http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00ZciIC4JPw
 Louis Theroux gambling in Las Vegas. He discusses gambling with his
subjects while sitting at the tables gambling. https://youtu.be/b-ex8bAnl5U
SLIDE 15
Performative
Performative documentaries are personal and focus on a subject’s experience and
emotional outlook in the real world. They can include hypothetical re-enactments of
past events to portray the ideas and opinions of the past to allow the audience to
understand the subject’s life and experiences. They include the film maker and crew
interacting with the subject they are filming. As in the reflective style, the camera
crew are seen and there is usually hand held camera work to follow the action. The
film maker is in the centre of the documentary and we see them behind the scenes

10. arranging interviews and commenting on his/her feelings about producing the
documentary and about the topic. They are often shaped into the narrative of an
investigation or search where there may be no acceptable conclusion, which creates
suspense throughout the documentary. The documentary itself will address the
audience in a direct and emotional way, which forms a connection between the
documentary and the audience. Performative documentaries usually connect
personal accounts or experiences to larger political or historical realities and they are
autobiographical in nature.
What are the main conventions of performative documentaries?
 Documentary maker (and crew) interact with subject;
 An investigation or search which there may be no satisfactory conclusion;
 Addresses the audience in an emotional and direct way;
 Documentary maker comments on the process of making the documentary;
 Subject matter often about identity (gender, sexuality, ethnic minorities) rather
than factual subjects;
 Subjective views of the film maker;
 Hypothetical re-enactments.
Examples are:
 Fahrenheit 9/11 by Michael Moore. https://youtu.be/yg-be2r7ouc
 Look but don't touch. Alesha Dixon interviews different people giving varied
opinions on airbrushed images in magazines. She also rings the magazines in
an attempt for a magazine to take part in an un-airbrushed photo shoot. Her
personality and opinions are shown. https://youtu.be/QgjOqNGR0yY
 Aileen: The life and death of a serial killer allows the audience to glimpse at
Aileen’s life and form an opinion as to whether she is guilty or innocent.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rExhihAZGxg
 Tongues United. http://www.pbs.org/pov/tonguesuntied/#.UO7fkaVqK0s
SLIDE 16
Poetic
Poetic documentaries are a subjective and artistic representation of reality. The
topics are personal to the subjects involved, usually the presenter and interviewees.
It explores the complex editing within a documentary, such as juxtaposing, linking
images, video clips and music together, camera shots and angles are artistic and
music is vital as it develops the mood/tone of the story being told, including the
messages and beliefs hidden within the story. Overall the documentary is presented
in an artistic manner.
What are the main conventions of poetic documentaries?
 Filmmaker gives subjective view;
 Not in typical narrative structure;
 Particular mood/tone is created - enhanced by music;
 Some light rhetoric but not always;
 Events are under-developed and situations can be left unsolved;
 Unrelated shots edited together - linked by a mood/music;
 Perceived as Avant-garde - innovative, experimental and pushes boundaries;

11. Examples are:
 Man With A Movie Camera: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bk_u_8ajoo0
The three main conventions seen in any of the six documentary modes above are as
follows:-
SLIDE 17
Realism
Realism documentaries have an interest in the real world and show real footage.
They are based on real life people and their lives, and show what their lives or the
people themselves are like. Some documentaries go into detail of the subject’s
experiences using re-enactments of events to show this. They may include handheld
camera, interviews with people involved in the topic/accident, statistics and graphs to
support the facts. They may also show the setting up of the equipment and camera's
before the filming takes place.
Observational, reflexive, interactive and poetic documentaries use realism
conventions.
SLIDE 18
Dramatisation
These documentaries are also known as ‘Docudramas’ are a genre of radio and
television programming, feature film and staged theatre, which features dramatized
re-enactments of actual events. On stage, it is sometimes known as documentary
theatre. They may include cliff hangers, voice overs, music and computer generated
imagery (CGI).
Expository, interactive, performative and poetic documentaries all use dramatization
conventions.
SLIDE 19
Narrativisation
These try to communicate factual events/experiences in a narrative form to gain a
greater understanding. They often take on an expositional approach, detailing events
but keeping in mind the narrative. A prime example of this would be re-enactments
on television to tell the story.
Interactive, performative and poetic documentaries use narrativisation conventions.
SLIDE 20
How documentaries use conventions to advise or determine audience
responses
The verbal conventions
 The presenter or voice over may attempt to persuade audiences to a
particular point of view.
 Certain language is used to guide the audience to a particular way of thinking.
 By the type of interviewees used, can influence the audience, as experts
would be perceived as more believable than ordinary people being
interviewed.

12.  Music or sound effects are used to suggest a particular point of view or set a
certain mood.
The visual conventions
 The audience would form an opinion on a presenter or interviewees by their
outer appearance of clothes, physical image, location and body language.
 The camerawork can affect your point of view by whom or what is being
filmed as more airtime might be given to subjects or topics to be subjective.
 Editing can be used to affect the judgement of the audience or subject matter.
This is achieved through cutaways, contrasting scenes to emphasise a point
and length of scene/shot that is aired on the program.
The documentary conventions
 The documentary style may affect how the audience thinks about the people
portrayed in the documentary if they are shown in a particular way.
SLIDE 21
Codes and conventions and how I will use them in my documentary:
Expository
 Film maker - The filmmaker remains hidden behind the camera, ignored by
the surrounding environment. They neither change nor influence the
actions/events being captured: parts of my documentary will conform to this
convention.
 Camera - The filmmaker moves with the action resulting in rough, shaky, often
amateur-looking footage. Since nothing is staged for the camera, the camera
rushes about to keep up: I will challenge this convention; as I want to have a
'professional' look to my documentary.
 My exposition will include a montage of images relating to my documentary
topic. The exposition will give an overview of what I am going to be looking at.
I will also include a voiceover; to explain the images the audience shall
witness in my documentary.
 Editing - I shall edit my documentary to link together images which support my
narrative in my voiceover.
 Accuracy – The facts and figures have to be accurate so that I do not
misrepresent information on Buckingham Palace.
Interactive
 Filmmaker is visible to the audience – I shall be filmed speaking and
participating in the action.
 Hidden crew - I shall be shown in the documentary; however I will change the
convention and not show any other member of crew as I am filming this
documentary by myself using a tripod instead of camera crew.
 Location shooting - handheld camera and tripod; Hand held camera for
walking around London and static camera for subject shots and when I talk on
camera.
 Voiceover – I shall be speaking in the documentary.
 Use of archive material - stills, footage, emails and web information.
 Long takes.

13. Poetic
 Filmmaker gives subjective view – my facts are limited due to my time
constraints.
 Music – to enhance the mood/tone of the documentary.
 Unrelated shots edited together - linked by a mood/music
 Camera shots/angles – interesting camera shots and camera angles to give
depth to the documentary.
 Complex editing within a documentary, such as juxtaposing, linking images,
video clips and music together.
My documentary uses realism and narrativisation conventions.
Research Portfolio
First I researched what exactly a factual program was, and discovered all the
different genres of factual programming from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factual_television
I watched the following programs on television to create my own opinion as to what a
factual program actually was: - BBC News, ITV news, Benefit Street, Super-Size Me,
Super High Me, Loose Women and Graham Norton.
I thoroughly looked on the BBC website www.bbc.com for statistical information,
genres and information on documentaries and news.
Looked at the college handout and on the online Wikipedia and YouTube websites
below, for all the codes and conventions information
www.barb.co.uk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_film_techniques
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Qmks0QVI40
Researched the Wikipedia page below as well as the college handout for information
on all the document formats https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_mode
Found further examples of documentary conventions on the following YouTube
websites to be used as evidence alongside my information.
https://youtu.be/sU3g82ycpu0
https://youtu.be/Q76j0h1eCTk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EMCVH3wdU2w
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzrBurlJUNk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3VCb6z__Pk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_9sfXIhe9U
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLiXS02Mj7U
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOvrkkj_T-I
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kl0uqobeVDM

14. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4237pS55h4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00ZciIC4JPw
https://youtu.be/b-ex8bAnl5U
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdoKD4gTQ2c
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rExhihAZGxg
https://youtu.be/yg-be2r7ouc
https://youtu.be/QgjOqNGR0yY
http://www.pbs.org/pov/tonguesuntied/#.UO7fkaVqK0s
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bk_u_8ajoo0