BeowulfOLD ENGLISH POEM – ANALYZING THE LITERATURE, PART 3

Beowulf
OLD ENGLISH POEM – ANALYZING THE LITERATURE,
PART 3
Analyzing the Literature
• Epic: a long narrative poem, sometimes developed orally, that
celebrates a hero’s deeds.
• Epics from different languages and time periods do not always
have the
same characteristics. For example, Homer’s epics The Iliad and
The
Odyssey do not use some of the literary elements used in
Beowulf.
A Guide to Life
• The earlier folktales and Beowulf were combined to include
the
Christian beliefs.
• This is why there is a blending of old Celtic beliefs with the
new
Christian beliefs.
• The poem shows the struggle between the old gods and the
new

Christian God.
• The bravery, loyalty, and evil in Beowulf taught the Anglo-
Saxons the
values that their culture wanted them to have.
Actions of the Hero
• All epics, however, concern the actions of a hero, who can be
described
as
• being of noble birth or high position, and often of great
historical or legendary
importance
• exhibiting character traits, or qualities, that reflect important
ideals of society
• performing courageous, sometimes superhuman, deeds that
reflect the values of
the era
• performing actions that often determine the fate of a nation or
group of people
Epic Conventions
In addition, most epics share certain conventions, which reflect
the larger –
than-life events that a hero might experience.

• The setting is vast in scope, often involving more than one
nation.
• Denmark and Sweden
• The plot is complicated by supernatural beings or events and
may involve a
long and dangerous journey through foreign lands.
• The Lord of the Rings features characters whose journey
through many lands is
impeded by supernatural forces.
• Dialogue often includes long, formal speeches delivered by
the major
characters.
--Beowulf includes many such speeches.
More Epic Conventions
• The theme reflects timeless values, such as:
--courage and honor, and encompasses universal ideas, such as
good
and evil or life and death.
**One of the reasons Beowulf was so popular in England is that
it
addresses these ideas that the English, in turn, could take on as
part of
their national identity.
• The style of the epic includes formal diction (the writer’s
choice of

words and sentence structure) and a serious tone (the expression
of
the writer’s attitude toward the subject).
Even More Epic Conventions
• Beowulf uses kennings.
• Kennings is a figurative, usually compound expression used in
place of
a name or noun, especially in Old English and Old Norse poetry
• For example, storm of swords is a kenning for battle.
The Use of the Hero
• Legendary hero: a larger-than-life character
whose accomplishments are celebrated in traditional tales.
The hero should have characteristics that his culture values.
For example, Beowulf is boastful, strong and victorious but his
loyalty,
bravery and honor teach us how the Anglo-Saxons viewed the
world.
What heroic characteristics does our modern culture value?
Themes

• Good vs Evil
• Light vs Darkness
• Men vs Monsters
• Treasure
• Christian vs Pagan Religions
• The feud
• Fate
• Courage
Social Life
• Beowulf reveals a way of life ruled by simple laws
• Eating
• Drinking
• Fighting
• Hunting
• Listening to the Scop during the feasts
Features of the Time

• The generosity of the lord/king
• The fidelity of the subjects
• The sense of honor
• The duty to help people in need
• Violence
Values of the Warrior
• Loyalty and kinship
• The need to take revenge
• Physical strength and courage
• The search for glory in his life
• Their main tools were the weapons personalized with names, a
precious heritage
• Fate
The Presence of Nature
• Cold Scandinavian countries
• Unpleasant winters

• Spring hailed with joy
• Rough and stormy northern sea
• Biting winds
• Black pools
• Gloomy marshes
• Forests and caves
The General Atmosphere
• Gloomy
• Fierce
• Melancholic
• Solitary
• A strong sense of doom
• Stoic resignation
Christian Elements
• Beowulf = good struggling against evil
• He prays to the Creator of all things, the ruler of the Heavens

• God’s Will (free will) vs Fate (Wyrd)
• References to the Old Testament
• Herot = symbol of the world
• The Danes = mankind
• The lake = hell
• Grendel’s mother = the devil
• The sword = the cross
Pagan Elements
• Belief in many gods
• Vengeance and Feud
• Desire for Fame
• Pride (Boasting is seen as sinful in the Christian faith)
• Beowulf’s superhuman exemplifications and heroism
• Battles again evil monsters
• Seeks earthly fame over eternal deliverance from God
• Obsession with earthly possessions

Motifs
• A motif is a recurring narrative element with symbolic
significance.
• Biblical and Christian Allusions
• Pagan Customs
• Social Customs
• Traits of the Warrior
• Beowulf Boasts
Why read Beowulf?
• It’s a very creative, imaginative, poetic masterpiece.
• It gives us insight into the origins of the British people, the
culture,
who, through seafaring conquests, founded the world we
currently live
in.
• It gives us insight into the origins of our language.
• It gives us insight into all people everywhere and throughout
time
(time, birth, death, fame/success/glory, honor, friendship,
conflict,
home, country, adventure, spirituality – all of these things
transcend
English literature and matter to all people)

What’s Next
• Read the Epic of Beowulf, take notes, and prepare for the
essay exam.
Beowulf
PART 2
The Epic Poem
• Anglo-Saxon word Beo means
• “bright” or “noble”
• Anglo-Saxon word wulf means
• “wolf”
• Beowulf means bright or noble wolf
• Derives from folk-tales
• Blend of legend and history
• Contains precise references to real
historical events and tribal struggles

The Literature
• Setting: Denmark and Sweden
• Author: Unknown, probably a monk
• Composed during the Dark Ages, 500 AD and 700 AD
• 1st Danish kingdom ruled by Hrothgar on the island of
Zealand
(present day Denmark)
• The mead hall, Herot
• Lake
• 50 years later in the land of the Geats in Sweden
From the Pagan World
• Fantastic world
• Monsters
• Trolls and Dragons
• Imaginary creatures
• Underwater Fights in a Supernatural Place
• Magic Swords

• Death and Glory
• Funeral Pyre
• Faithless or Faithful Companions
• Blood and Gore
• Blood Feuds and Revenge; Killing of Kin
From the Judeo-Christian World
• Grendel as a descendent of Cain
• Hrothgar Worships Pagan gods
• One Pure and Virtuous Man Saves the Souls of Others
• Humility of Beowulf
• Trust in the Divine Providence and Divine Intervention
• Rule with Wisdom and Humility, Honor, Courage, Faith,
Loyalty, and
Hope
Plot Summary
• Long ago, at the beginning of creation, two brothers, Cain and
Abel lived
peacefully, until Cain killed Abel, starting a blood-feud of kin-
murder.

• This legacy of kin-murder was passed down through time, for
the murder split the
bloodline into two groups: Abel's, whose descendants were
human, and Cain's, whose
descendants were monstrous and sub-human.
• The poem Beowulf begins with this legacy of kin-murder and
revenge.
• In Denmark, an evil monster, Grendel, who is ritually ravaging
his kingdom,
torments King Hrothgar.
• Beowulf, a noted and respected warrior from Geatland, arrives
with a ship of
his warriors to assist King Hrothgar in stopping Grendel.
• King Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's pledge to kill Grendel.
Literary Elements of Anglo-Saxon Poetry
• Epic – long narrative poem
• Epic Hero
• Alliteration: repetition of initial consonant sounds - “Then
the grim
man in green gathers his strength” – “He rippled down the rock,
writhing with anger”
• Assonance – repetition of vowel sounds
• Archetype – old imaginative pattern passed through the ages;
can be a

character type or plot or image
• Allusion – reference to something that came before (Biblical)
• Symbol – something that stands for something larger than self
More Literary Elements of Anglo-Saxon Poetry
• Figurative Language – simile, metaphor, personification
• Caesura: a pause or break in a line of poetry – “Oft to the
wanderer /
weary of exile”
• Theme
• Kenning: compound metaphor used as a name - “battle-blade”
and
“ring-giver” “hoard-guardian”
• Hyperbole: exaggeration
• Imagery – language that appeals to the senses
• Foil – contrasting characteristics
The Epic Hero
• Predestined
• Mysterious origin
• Vulnerability

• Embodies cultural ideals
• Responds to catastrophic situations
• Supernatural intervenes to help him
• Moral compass leads him to defend his society
• Mortal but god-like
About The Epic of Beowulf
• Beowulf is the self-portrait of a culture.
• The poem describes the values of the culture, not necessarily
the facts.
• It describes the ideal man, a sword-wielding warrior who
defends right,
slays monsters and displays honor and bravery.
• Beowulf came from earlier folktales describing monsters and
dragons
and brave warriors that were loyal to their heroic chiefs.
• They also described descents into hell-like places.
About Beowulf, the Warrior
• Epic hero

• Beowulf is a Geat – a country that is now southern Sweden.
• The beginning of the story takes place in Denmark in
Hrothgar’s
kingdom.
• Grendel is a monster that has been terrorizing the Danish
people in the
mead hall called Heorot.
• Beowulf comes to kill Grendel to pay a debt to Hrothgar that
he owes
because of his father, Edgetho.
Key Characters
• Beowulf – the title character and hero. He is the prince of the
Geats and
becomes their king. Son of Edgetho.
• Most sons named after the father; however, Beowulf isn’t
which proves he is his own
individual with his own powers and abilities, more important
than his father.
• Hrothgar--the old, once great King of the Danes. His hall
(Heorot) is attacked
by Grendel. He is the son of Healfdane.
• Grendel--the monster who attacks Herot. He is an evil giant,
descendent of
Cain.

• Grendel’s Mother—not as powerful as her son, but more fierce
and ferocious.
Beowulf also fights her when she seeks revenge for her son.
• The Dragon--guards a great treasure. Attacks the Geats.
Fights Beowulf in
the end of the poem.
More Key Characters
• Wiglaf--the bravest and most loyal of Beowulf ’s warriors.
• Danes--originate in Denmark. Hrothgar’s people are Danes,
and they
are the people Grendel is terrorizing.
• Geats--originate in South Sweden. Beowulf is a Geat.
Character Chart
Beowulf
• Anglo-Saxon hero "had to be
strong, brave, intelligent, and
humble, but he must at all times
keep his sorrows and fears to
himself."
• As a warrior the hero must
appear stoic and fearless at all

times, no matter what.
• Beowulf is the perfect example
of an Anglo-Saxon hero.
Hrothgar
• Danish king
• Builds Herot (hall)
• Tormented by Grendel for 12
years
• Loses many men
• Joyless before Beowulf ’s arrival
Herot – Mead Hall
• The vast building of Herot is
used as a diplomatic
headquarters, a place to
administer justice, plan battle,
and hold entertainments.
Grendel
• Referred to as demon and fiend

• Haunts the moors (swampy
land)
• Descendant of Cain
(kills his brother Abel in Bible)
• Feasts on 30 men the night of 1st
attack
Grendel’s Mother
• Referred to as a
*she-wolf
• Lives under a lake
• Challenges Hrothgar when she
kills one of his best men
Fire Dragon
Lives in
Beowulf ’s
kingdom
Wakes up when
thief steals cup
Guards countless

treasures
Funeral Pyre for Beowulf
Epic Poem Ends in
Elegy (Song of Praise)
What’s Next
• Watch the next video lecture: Beowulf Lecture – Analyzing
the
Literature Pt 3
Beowulf
PART 1
Old English Literature
Written during the 6th Century – 700-750 AD
• Anglo-Saxons had an oral tradition kept alive by Scops
(pronounced
shope ) Scops would tell and retell stories like Beowulf.
• This created a central reference point for Anglo-Saxon culture.
• Listening to Beowulf, an Anglo-Saxon could learn of bravery

and loyal
to one’s fellows, of the monsters that spite and hatred could
breed, and
of the heroism needed to conquer such monsters.
• Opening lines of Beowulf in Old English
http://www.viewpure.com/CH-_GwoO4xI?start=0&end=0
Background
• Epic Heroic Poem
• Highest Achievement of Old English literature
• Earliest European vernacular epic
• Deals with events of the early 6th Century; composed between
700 and 750
• Originally untitled – Later named for the Scandinavian hero,
Beowulf
• No evidence of a historical Beowulf
• Some characters, sites and events in the poem can be
historically verified
• Didn’t appear in print until 1815
• Preserved in a single manuscript that dates circa 1000
• Known as the Beowulf manuscript
Context

• Beowulf belongs metrically, stylistically, and thematically to a
heroic
tradition grounded in Germanic religion and mythology.
• It is also part of the broader tradition of heroic poetry.
• Many incidents, such as Beowulf’s tearing off the monster’s
arm and
his descent into the mere, are familiar motifs from folklore.
• The ethical values are manifestly the Germanic code of loyalty
to chief
and tribe and vengeance to enemies.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-religion-and-
mythology
https://www.britannica.com/art/heroic-poetry
https://www.britannica.com/art/folk-literature
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethical
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vengeance
Context Continued
• Many critics have seen the poem as a Christian allegory, with
Beowulf
the champion of goodness and light against the forces of evil
and
darkness.
• His sacrificial death is not seen as tragic but as the fitting end
of a good
(some would say “too good”) hero’s life.
• That is not to say that Beowulf is an optimistic poem.

• The English critic J.R.R. Tolkien suggests that its total effect
is more
like a long, lyrical elegy than an epic.
https://www.britannica.com/art/allegory-art-and-literature
https://www.britannica.com/biography/J-R-R-Tolkien
https://www.britannica.com/art/elegy
The Poem
• Consists of 3,182 lines in verse
• Author unknown, but believed to be a medieval poet or scop,
who wrote down
the poem’s events.
• Probably carried from generation to generation through the
spoken retelling
of the poem, since most people of that day were illiterate.
• Events set in a pagan Germanic society governed by heroic
code of honor
would have been familiar and pleasurable to its listeners.
• Chronologically in two halves- Beowulf when young and
Beowulf when old
• Action- wise in three sections
• 1. Exposition and Grendel conquest
• 2. Battle with Grendel’s mother
• 3. Beowulf ’s battle with the dragon

Common Characteristics of Epic Poems
• Long, narrative poem written in elevated style
• A hero who is a figure of heroic stature, legendary or
significant
• Setting is vast in scope
• Action consisting of deeds of great valor or requiring
superhuman
courage, supernatural forces-gods, angels, demons
• A style of sustained elevation and grand simplicity
• An epic poet who recounts the deeds of his heroes with
objectivity
Objects or Places
• Denmark
• Land of the Danes, located in Eastern Europe.
• Geats
• A people of southern Sweden, the Gotar, conquered by the
Swedish kingdom in about
the 6th century A.D.
• Wulfings
• A Germanic tribe, geographically located somewhere south of
the Baltic Sea.

• Beowulf’s Tower
• A tower built after Beowulf’s death where his ashes are
buried.
• Grendel’s Mother’s Battle Hall
• The underwater mead-hall where Beowulf defeats Grendel’s
mother.
More Objects or Places
• Herot Hall
• The battle-hall built by the Danish King Hrothgar, to house his
men, and show off his victories
and fame; the mead-hall is the symbol of society. It is the
central place that all people gather to
feast, socialize, and listen to the scop perform.
• Hrunting
• Unferth’s sword from ancient times.
• Nagling
• Beowulf’s sword’s name
• Swedes
• The blanket term for many different tribes and peoples living
in and around what is now modern-
day Sweden.
• Danes
• The tribe later traced to the present inhabitants of Denmark.
• Lair

• The fiery underground home of Grendel and his mother, which
exists in the old battlehall of a
castle, beneath a lake
Anglo-Saxon Culture
• Belief in fate (Wyrd) - a concept in Anglo-Saxon culture
roughly
corresponding to fate or personal destiny.
• Comitatus-a Germanic code of loyalty. Warriors, or thanes,
swore
loyalty to their king, for whom they fought and whom they
protected.
In return the king was expected to be generous with gifts of
treasure
and land.
• Wergild- Germanic custom of paying wergild or “man-
payment” is the
practice of paying a slain man’s family to atone for the deed
and to
prevent them from taking revenge against the manslayer. For
example,
before the events of the poem, Hrothgar paid a wergild to
Beowulf's
father. Hence, Beowulf feels compelled to help Hrothgar in his
time of
need.
More Anglo-Saxon Culture

• Treasure equals success
• Fame and fortune
• Loyalty to the leader
• Pagan, Germanic, and Christian ideals
• Fierce, hardy life of warrior and seamen
• Strength, courage, leadership abilities appreciated
• Rowdy rituals of mead-halls
• Expected the hero to boast
Social Expectations
• HEROISM/LEADERSHIP & GENEROSITY: The Anglo-Saxon
social
structure consisted of tribal units led by chieftains ("kings," or
"lords")
who earned their respect from their warriors (or "thanes“).
• Kings were expected to display the heroic ideal and be known
for an
extraordinary and courageous feat or for success in war, all
preceded by
some boasting.
• The king must be a generous "ring-giver" too -- that is, he
must dish
out the spoils of war to his thanes rather than hoard the

treasures won
in tribal warfare.
• The craftsmanship of such items were always elaborate and
there was a
story behind each item.
• It was vital for one's sense of self-worth to be part of a tribe
and come
from a warrior community. The worst fate for these people was
to be
exiled or to outlive all one's fellow warriors.
Social Expectations Continued
• GLORY & JUSTICE: Fighting was a way of life, and not to
avenge the
death of a family member was a social disgrace, so endlessly
intricate
blood-feuds generated perpetual excuses for going to war. The
two
alternatives for ending a blood-feud were 1) paying "wergild" --
the man
price, or 2) arranging a marriage.
• Women were known as "cup-bearers" (because they served the
mead)
and "peace-weavers" (because of this function whereby feuds
could be
ended). But none of this really ever worked. The Germanic
tribes hated
peace; fighting was more honorable.

Anglo-Saxon Hero
• Strong
• Courageous
• Loyal
• Desires fame
• Generous
Anglo-Saxon Ideals
• Good defeats evil
• Wergild—restitution for a
murder
• Comitatus—code of loyalty
• Boasts must be followed by
actions
• Fate is in control
• Only fair fights are honorable
Where in the world?
• Swedes

• Geats
• Danes
• Herot
Point of View
• 3rd person omniscient (all-knowing narrator)
• The narrator comments on the character's actions and knows
and reports on what
they think.
• The narrator is aware of things that are not known to the epic's
characters.
• Christian perspective in a pagan culture
Oral Traditions to Written Text
• The manuscript was damaged by
fire.
• The poem is still considered
important to English literature.
• Beowulf is the first surviving epic
written in the English language.
• Beowulf is the oldest known

piece of literature in English.
The Manuscript
1,000-Year-Old Manuscript of Beowulf has been digitized by
the British Library and is now online. It is the oldest surviving
manuscript of the longest epic poem in Old English.
http://www.bl.uk/collection-items/beowulf
Old English
Alphabet
What’s Next
• Watch the next video lecture: Beowulf Lecture – Analyzing
the
Literature Pt 2
THE EPIC OF
GILGAMESH
The Literature
The Literary Epic

It is important to note that The Epic of Gilgamesh does not
exactly fit into the
traditional literary definition of the epic and the epic hero.
▪ What is an epic poem?
▪ a long, narrative poem detailing the adventure or journey of an
epic hero.
▪ Early epics are the result of oral tradition and have eventually
been written
down after many years.
▪ The authors of the first epics are unknown because of the oral
tradition.
▪ The general characteristics of the epic poem are that initially
epics were
intended to be sung or recited, much like music today.
▪ The poems are often generated by times of struggle and
adventure.
The Makeup of a Literary Epic
▪ The epic poem has a clear set-up and design:
▪ begins with an invocation - this invocation calls on a muse or
god to inspire divine intervention while telling the tale. In the
invocation, the subject and the epic question are introduced.
▪ The epic's language is literary and elevated.
▪ The language is used by all in the poem, from king to servant
(even though epics rarely detail lives or actions of the
servants).

▪ "In media res" translates to "in the midst of action".
▪ Essentially, the poem begins in the middle or during the
action.
The audience learns background information and details as the
epic progresses.
Epic Hero Characteristics
▪Common characteristics epic heroes possess:
1. Unusual circumstances of birth; sometimes in danger or
born into royalty
2. An event, sometimes traumatic, leads to adventure or
quest
3. Hero has supernatural help
4. The hero must prove himself many times while on
adventure
5. When the hero dies, he is rewarded spiritually
Epic Hero vs. Tragic Hero
▪ The epic hero is not unlike the tragic hero in that he is born
into
greatness or into leadership. However, the epic hero has some
characteristics that clearly distinguish him from the others.
▪ The epic hero is …

▪ "often of divine descent who is endowed with great strength or
ability".
▪ in a different class of men based on his "skill, strength, and
courage" .
▪ main focus is dangerous activity, essentially a war or battle
over an evil force.
▪ someone we want fighting on our side as he is cunning,
resourceful, instinctive, and skilled. He works well under
pressure; he is the leader those around him need.
More on the Epic Hero vs a Tragic Hero
▪Again, like the tragic hero, our epic hero is
not without fault.
▪Often the epic hero has excessive pride (or
"hubris") and is not afraid to sing his own
praises.
▪Although respected, the hero is not always
someone likeable.
Ideas to think about . . .
▪ Is it better to be a well-liked leader or a well-respected
leader? Are both aspects possible?

What Makes a Poem an Epic?
The journey is the key element of the epic and the epic cycle.
Epic Cycle:
1. The hero must possess supernatural abilities or powers. These
can often be
magnified qualities we all possess (for example, strength we all
possess but the
hero's is superhuman).
2. The hero is charged with a quest that will test his abilities.
This will test his
worthiness to be a leader.
3. Then is the presence of helpers and companions as well as
mythical animals or
creatures during his journey.
4. The travels of the hero will take him to a supernatural world
that ordinary
humans are barred.
5. The cycle reaches a low point when we think the hero has
been defeated but, in
the end, the hero resurrects himself and regains his rightful
place.
The Journey
The five elements are

1. the quester himself,
2. a place to go,
3. a stated reason to go there,
4. challenges or trials en route during the journey,
5. the real reason a quester goes on the journey
Setting: Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and Egypt are
believed to be the world's first
civilizations.
Mesopotamia, "between rivers,"
is the territory located between
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,
in modern day Iraq.
A city-state had a ruler who not only
governed the urban center but also
the surrounding countryside. The
king of the city-state was the
intermediary between the gods and
the people.
Sumerians were polytheistic,
believing in many gods. The gods
managed the environment.

The Literature
▪Supposedly the oldest story in the world…
▪ The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh, king of Uruk,
and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop him
oppressing the people of Uruk.
▪After an initial fight, Gilgamesh and Enkidu become close
friends.
▪ Together, they journey to the Cedar Mountain and defeat
Humbaba, its monstrous guardian.
Gilgamesh
▪ An epic… a narrative from Ancient Mesopotamian Times
▪ Gilgamesh part god/part man
▪ He is obsessed with mortality
▪ But his best attribute is… loyalty because…
▪ Enkidu is his bestie
▪ Near equal : his counterpoint
▪ Gilgamesh’s soul mate, brother, and equal, even his
conscience
▪ He begins his life as a wild man, raised by animals
▪ Enkidu overcomes him with friendship rather than force and

transforms him into
the perfect leader.
▪ They embark on a journey to defeat Humbaba to prove they
are more powerful that the
demon
Gilgamesh Overview
▪ The gods punish Gilgamesh and Enkidu for killing Humbaba
and the Bull of Heaven by
giving Enkidu a slow, painful, inglorious death
▪ Gilgamesh is crushed with grief and mourns over Enkidu’s
body for 7 nights before
finally burying him
▪ Here, Gilgamesh embarks on his 2nd journey… his real
journey the dark Underwold to
find Utnapishtim in order to live eternally
▪ Here he is given a test to stay awake for 7 nights, but he fails
… Utnapishtim’s wife
convinces him to give a magical plant that restores youth, but a
serpent takes it
▪ He goes back to Uruk technically empty handed… but he has
reconciled with the fact
that he is still part human and he will die thus learning his
ultimate lesson
Gilgamesh Theme/Symbols

▪ Major Themes:
▪ Sex and Gender
▪ Other worlds/underworlds
▪ Responsibility
▪ Heroes/Kings
▪ Strangeness/Difference
▪ Other important themes…
▪ Death is inevitable.
▪ Love and friendship are great motivators.
▪ Mortality can be achieved through memories or fame.
▪ Symbols:
▪ Bull is masculinity/power
▪ Floods represent renewal/rebirth of nature/humanity
▪ Serpent (that takes the plant of youth) is a biblical allusion
Gilgamesh – Death is Inevitable
▪ All humans die. We are not immortal and because death is
inevitable for all men, we
shouldn’t have fear.

▪ This is Gilgamesh’s greatest lesson. Gilgamesh is bitter that
only the gods can live
forever.
▪ Gilgamesh feared death after Enkidu died and he made it his
lifelong quest to find
eternal life.
▪ Life is short and the only thing that lasts is fame.
▪ Even though humans die, humanity continues to live.
▪ The lesson that Gilgamesh brings back from his quest isn’t
ultimately about death—it’s
about life.
Gilgamesh – Love (Sex-Romance) is a Great Motivator
▪ Enkidu’s education as a man begins with his sexual initiation
by the
temple prostitute.
▪ In order to be human, we must be sexual and sexuality is part
of our
human nature.
▪ After his encounter with Shambat, the animals in the forest
hail
Enkidu as their new protector (like a king).
▪ They no longer saw Enkidu as pure or could connect to him
(they
were ashamed of him) but saw him as someone who could

protect them from hunters
▪ When Gilgamesh finally sees that his place is here on Earth
and returns
to Uruk to resume his kingship, Ishtar returns to her place of
honor.
Gilgamesh – Friendship is a Great Motivator
▪ Enkidu changes from a wild man into a noble one because of
Gilgamesh, and their
friendship changes Gilgamesh from a bully and a tyrant into an
exemplary king and
hero.
▪ Because they are evenly matched, Enkidu puts a check on
Gilgamesh’s restless,
powerful energies, and Gilgamesh pulls Enkidu out of his self-
centeredness.
Gilgamesh’s connection to Enkidu makes it possible for
Gilgamesh to identify with his
people’s interests.
▪ After being exhausted, they stop, look at each other and see
themselves in one
another.
▪ The love the friends have for each other makes Gilgamesh a
better man in the first half
of the epic, and when Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh’s grief and terror
impel him onto a futile
quest for immortality.

What’s Next?
▪ Read the literature, take notes, and prepare for the upcoming
essay exam.
BEDE'S STORY OF CAEDMON
text and facing translation
last updated on 30-March-2005
Images of the Beowulf MS are reproduced by kind
permission
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copyright 2002-2019, Benjamin Slade
Please include proper citation reference if
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Quick Links
*Old English version of Bede's Hist. Eccl. account of Cædmon
& Cædmon's Hymn
*Original Latin version of Bede's Hist. Eccl. account of
Cædmon & Cædmon's Hymn

*Appendix I: Alternate Versions of Cædmon's
Hymn
*Appendix II: Notes on MSS.
*Appendix III: Online audio recordings
from the Old English translation of Historia
Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum,
book IV chapter xxiv In ðeosse abbudissan mynstre wæs
sum broðor syndriglice mid godcundre gife gemæred ond
geweorðad,
forþon he gewunade gerisenlice leoð wyrcan, þa ðe to
æfestnisse ond to arfæstnisse
belumpon
, swa ðætte swa hwæt swa he of godcundum stafum þurh
boceras geleornode, þæt he æfter medmiclum fæce in
scopgereorde mid þa mæstan swetnisse ond inbryrdnisse
geglængde
ond in Engliscgereorde wel geworht forþ brohte. Ond for his
leoþsongum
monigra mona mod oft to worulde forhogdnisse ond to
geþeodnisse þæs
heofonlice lifes onbærnde wæron. Ond eac swelce monige oðre
æfter him in Ongelþeode ongunnon æfeste leoð wyrcan,
ac nænig hwæðre him þæt gelice don
ne
meahte forþon he nalæs from monnum ne þurh mon gelæred
wæs þæt he þone leoðcræft leornade, ac
he wæs godcundlice gefultumod
ond þurh Godes gife þone songcræft onfeng. Ond he forþon
næfre noht leasunge ne idles leoþes wyrcan
ne
meahte, ac efne þa an þa ðe to æfæstnisse belumpon,

ond his þa æfæstan tungan gedeofanade singan. Wæs
he se mon in weoruldhade geseted oð þa tide þe he wæs
gelyfdre ylde, ond næfre nænig leoð geleornade. Ond he forþon
oft in gebeorscipe, þonne þær wæs blisse intinga
gedemed, þæt heo ealle
sceoldon
þurh endebyrdnesse be hearpan singan, þonne he geseah þa
hearpan him nealecan þonne aras he
for scome
from þæm symble ond ham eode to his huse. Þa he ða þæt ða
sumre tide dyde,
þæt he forlet þæt hus þæs gebeorscipe ond ut wæs gongende to
neata scipene, þara heord him wæs þære neahte beboden.
Þa he ða þær in gelimplice tide his leomu on reste gesette ond
onslepte,
þa stod him sum mon æt þurh swefn ond hine halette ond
grette ond hine be his noman nemnde: 'Cedmon, sing me
hwæthwugu.' Þa
ondswarede he ond cwæð: 'Ne con ic noht singan ond ic forþon
of þeossum gebeorscipe uteode ond hider gewat, forþon ic naht
singan ne cuðe.' Eft he cwæð, se ðe wið hine sprecende
wæs: 'Hwæðre þu meaht singan.' Þa cwæð
he: 'Hwæt sceal ic singan?' Cwæð he: 'Sing me frumsceaft.'
Þa he ða þas andsware onfeng, þa ongon he sona singan
in herenesse Godes Scyppends þa fers ond þa word þe he
næfre gehyrde, þara
endebyrdnisse þis is:
In
this abbess's monastery
was a certain brother particularly glorified and honoured with a
divine
gift, in that he fittingly was accustomed to make songs, which
pertained to
religion and virtue, so that whatever thus he he learned of
divine letters
from scholars, those things he after a moderate space of time he

brought
forth, in poetic language adorned with the greatest sweetness
and inspiration
and well-made in the English language. And by his poem-songs
the spirits
of many men were kindled to distain of the world and to service
of a heavenly
life. And likewise, many others after him among the English
people endeavoured
to compose pious songs, but none however in like manner to
him could do so
because he had learned not at all from men nor through man that
he songcraft
learned, but he was divinely aided and through God's gift
received the art
of poetry. And he therefore he never could make any sort of
lying or idle
songs, but just those alone which pertained to piety, and those
which were
fitting for his pious tongue to sing. The man was established in
worldly
life until the time when he was of advanced age, and he had
never learned
any songs. And consequently, often at a drinking gathering,
when there was
deemed to be occasion of joy, that they all must in turn sing
with a harp,
when he saw the harp nearing him, he then arose for shame from
that feast
and went home to his house. Then he did this on a certain
occasion, that
he left the banquet-hall and he was going out to the animal
stables, which
herd had been assigned to him that night. When he there at a
suitable time
set his limbs at rest and fell asleep, then some man stood by him

in his
dream and hailed and greeted him and addressed him by his
name: 'Caedmon,
sing me something.' Then he answered and said: 'I do not know
how to sing
and for that reason I went out from this feast and went hither,
because I
did not know how to sing at all.' Again he said, he who was
speaking with
him: 'Nevertheless, you must sing.' Then he said: 'What must I
sing?' Said
he: 'Sing to me of the first Creation.' When he received this
answer, then
he began immediately to sing in praise of God the Creator
verses and words
which he had never heard, whose order is this:
(West Saxon rendition of the Cædmon's Song, taken mainly
from MS. T1)[click here for other recensions(='versions') of
Cædmon's hymn]
Nu
we
sculon herigean heofonrices weard,
Now we must
praise the Protector of the heavenly kingdom,
meotodes meahte ond
his modgeþanc,
the might of the Measurer

and His mind's purpose, weorc wuldorfæder, swa he
wundra gehwæs,
the work of the Father
of Glory, as He for each of the wonders, ece drihten, or
onstealde.
the eternal Lord,
established a beginning. He ærest sceop
eorðan bearnum
5 He shaped first for
the sons of the Earth heofon to hrofe, halig
scyppend;
heaven as a roof,
the Holy Maker; þa middangeard moncynnes
weard,
then the Middle-World, mankind's Guardian, ece drihten,
æfter
teode
the eternal Lord, made afterwards, firum foldan, frea
ælmihtig.
solid ground for men,
the almighty Lord.
[click here for links to online audio recording of Cædmon's
hymn read in Old English]
Þa aras he from þæm slæpe,
ond eal þa þe he slæpende song, fæste in gemynde
hæfde, ond þæm wordum sona monig word in þæt
ilce gemet Gode wyrðes songes togeþeodde. Þa com he on
morgenne

to þæm tungerefan, þe his ealdormon wæs. Sægde
him hwylc gife he onfeng, ond he hine sona to þære abbudissan
gelædde ond hire þæt
cyðde ond sægde. Þa heht heo gesomnian ealle þa gelæredestan
men ond þa leorneras, ond him ondweardum het secgan þæt
swefn ond þæt leoð singan, þæt ealra heora dome gecoren wære,
hwæt
oððe hwonon þæt cumen wære. Þa wæs
him eallum gesegen swa swa hit wæs, þæt him wære
from Drihtne sylfum heofonlic gifu forgifen. Þa rehton heo him
ond sægdon sum halig spell ond godcundre lare word;
bubudon him þa, gif he meahte, þæt he in swinsunge leoþsonges
þæt gehwyrfde. Þa he ða hæfde þa wisan
onfongne, þa eode he ham to his huse, ond cwom eft on
morgenne, ond
þy betstan leoðe geglenged him asong ond ageaf þæt
him beboden wæs.
Then he arose from that sleep, and
all of those (songs) which he sang while sleeping he had fast in
his memory,
and he soon added in the same manner to those words many
words of songs worthy
of God. Then in the morning he came to the town-reeve, who
was his alderman.
He said to him which gift did he bring, and he directly lead him
to the abbess
and made it known and declared to her. Then she ordered all of
the most learnèd
men and scholars to assemble, and to those who were present
commanded him
to tell of that dream and sing that song, so that it might be
determined
by the judgement of all of them: what it was and whence it had

come. Then
it was seen by all even as it was, that to him from God himself a
heavenly
gift had been given. Then they spoke to him and told some holy
story and
divine words of knowledge; they bade him then, if he could,
that he turn
it into poetical rhythm. Then, when he had undertaken it in this
manner,
then he went home to his house, and came again in the morning,
and with the
best adorned song he sang and rendered what he was bid (to
recite).
Ða ongan seo abbudisse clyppan ond
lufigean þa Godes gife in þæm men; ond heo hine þa monade
ond lærde þæt
he woruldhad anforlete ond munuchad onfenge, ond he þæt wel
þafode. Ond
heo hine in þæt mynster onfeng mid his godum ond hine
geþeodde to
gesomnunge þara Godes þeowa; ond heht hine læran þæt getæl
þæs halgan
stæres ond spelles. Ond he eal þa he in gehærnesse geleornian
meahte mid
hine gemyndgade, ond swa swa clæne neten eodorcende in þæt
sweteste
leoð gehwerfde.
Ond his song ond his leoð wæron swa wynsumu to gehæranne
þætte þa
seolfan his lareowas æt his muðe wreoton ond leornodon. Song
he ærest be
middangeardes gesceape ond bi fruman moncynnes ond eal þæt
stær genesis
(þæt is seo æreste Moyses booc), ond eft bi utgonge Israhela
folces of
Ægypta londe ond bi ingonge þæs gehatlandes, ond bi oðrum

monegum
spellum þæs halgan gewrites canones boca, ond bi Cristes
menniscnesse
ond bi his þrowunge ond bi his upastignesse in heofonas, ond bi
þæs
Halgan Gastes cyme ond þara apostola lare, ond eft bi þæm
dæge þæs
toweardan domes ond bi fyrhtu þæs tintreglican wiites, ond bi
swetnesse
þæs heofonlecan rices he monig leoð geworhte. Ond swelce eac
oðer monig
be þæm godcundan fremsumnessum ond domum he geworhte. In
eallum þæm he
geornlice gemde þæt he men atuge from synna lufan ond
mandæda, ond to
lufan ond to geornfulnesse awehte godra dæda, for þon he wæs
se mon
swiþe æfest ond regollecum þeodscipum eaðmodlice
underþeoded. Ond wið
þæm þa ðe in oðre wisan don woldon he wæs mid welme
micelre
ellenwodnisse onbærned, ond he for ðon fægre ænde his lif
betænde ond
geendade.
For þon þa ðære tide nealæcte his gewitenesse ond forðfore, þa
wæs he feowertænum dagum ær þæt he wæs lichomlicre
untrymnesse þrycced
ond hefgad, hwæðre to þon gemetlice þæt he ealle þa tid meahte
ge
sprecan ge gongan. Wæs þær in neaweste untrumra monna hus,
in þæm heora
þeaw wæs þæt heo þa untruman ond þa ðe æt forðfore wæron in
lædan
sceoldon ond him þær ætsomne þegnian. Þa bæd he his þegn on

æfenne þære
neahte þe he of worulde gongende wæs þæt he in þæm huse him
stowe
gegearwode, þæt he gerestan meahte. Þa wundrode se þegn for
hwon he ðæs
bæde, for þon him þuhte þæt his forðfor swa neah ne wære;
dyde hwæðre
swa swa he cwæð ond bibead.
Ond mid þæ he ða þær on reste eode ond he gefeonde mode
sumu þing mid
him sprecende ætgædere ond gleowiende wæs þe þær ær inne
wæron, þa wæs
ofer midde neaht þæt he frægn hwæðer heo ænig husl inne
hæfdon. Þa
ondswarodon heo ond cwædon: "Hwylc þearf is ðe huslesæ Ne
þinre forþfore
swa neah is, nu þu þus rotlice ond þus glædlice to us sprecende
eart."
Cwæð he eft: "Berað me husl to." Þa he hit þa on honda hæfde,
þa frægn
he hwæþer heo ealle smolt mod ond, buton eallum incan, bliðe
to him
hæfdon. Þa ondswaredon hæ ealle ond cwædon þæt heo
nænigne incan to him
wiston, ac heo ealle him swiðe bliðemode wæron; ond heo
wrixendlice
hine bædon þæt he him eallum bliðe wære. Þa ondswarade he
ond cwæð:
"Mine broðor, mine þa leofan, ic eom swiðe bliðemod to eow
ond to eallum
Godes monnum." Ond he
swa wæs hine getrymmende mid þæ heofonlecan wegneste ond
him oðres
lifes ingong gegearwode.
Þa gæt he frægn hu neah þære tide wære þætte þa broðor arisan
scolden

ond Godes lof ræran ond heora uhtsong singan. Þa ondswaredon
heo: "Nis
hit feor to þon." Cwæð he: "Teala: wuton we wel þære tide
bidan." Ond
þa him gebæd ond hine gesegnode mid Cristes rodetacne ond his
heafod onhylde to þam bolstre ond medmicel fæc onslepte, ond
swa mid stilnesse his lif geendade.
Ond swa wæs geworden þætte swa swa he
hluttre mode ond bilwitre ond smyltre wilsumnesse Drihtne
þeode, þæt he
eac swylce swa smylte deaðe middangeard wæs forlætende ond
to his
gesihðe becwom. Ond seo tunge þe swa monig halwende word
in þæs
Scyppendes lof gesette, he ða swelce eac þa ætmæstan word in
his
herenisse, hine seolfne segniende ond his gast in his honda
bebeodende, betynde. Eac swelce þæt is gesegen þæt he wære
gewis his seolfes forðfore of þæm þe we nu secgan hærdon.
Then the abbess began to embrace
and love the gift of God in that man, and she exhorted and
adviced him
that he should abandon the worldly life and accept monkhood,
and he
readily agreed to this. And she accepted him into the
monastery, with
his goods, and united him into the community of God's servants,
and
ordered that he be taught the (entire) series of holy stories and
narratives. And he was able to learn all that he heard, and,
keeping it

all in mind, just as a clean animal chewing cud, turned (it) into
the
sweetest song. And his songs and his poems were so beautiful to
hear,
that his teachers themselves wrote and learned at his mouth. He
sang
first about the creation of the world and about the origin of
mankind
and all of the history of Genesis--that is the first book of
Moses--,
and afterwards about the exodus of the Israeli people from the
land of
Egypt and their entry into the promised land; and about many
other
stories of the holy writ of the books of the canon; and about
Christ's
incarnation, and about his suffering and about his ascension into
the
heavens; and about the coming of the Holy Ghost, and of the
lore of the
apostles; and after about the day of impending judgement, and
about the
terror of the torturing punishment, and about the sweetness of
the
heavenly kingdom, he wrought many songs. And so also many
others he made
about divine mercy and judgement. In all of them he eagerly
sought to
pull men away from love of sin and criminal deeds, and to love
and to
zealously awake to (the doing) of good deeds. For he was a very
devout
man, and humbly subjected himself to regular service. And
against those
who wished to do otherwise, he burned with surging of great
ardour. And

he for this reason with a beautiful end he closed and ended his
life.
For when the time of his departure and going-
forth neared, he was for
fourteen days before (his death), that he was afflicted and
encumbered
by bodily weakness, yet so moderately that he all the time could
both
speak and move about. There was in the neighbourhood a house
for sick
men, in which it was the custom to carry in those who were ill
and those
who were near to death, and minister there to them together. He
bade
that his servant--in the evening when (the time) of his leaving
the
world was nearing--that he prepare for him a place in that
house, that
he might rest (there). Then the servant wondered why he bade
thus,
because he thought that his end was not so near, but
nevertheless did as
he said and commanded. And when he went there to rest, and
he in a
happy mood was jesting and speaking about various things with
those who
were gathered together with him, those who were in (the
sickhouse)
before (him); when it was past midnight he asked, if they had
any housel within. Then they answered and said: 'What need of
the housel?
Your passing is not so near, when now you are this cheerfully
and this
pleasantly speaking to us.' He said again: 'Bring to me the

housel.'
When he had it in his hand, he asked whether they had peaceful
minds
and happily beared him no ill-will. Then they all answered, and
said
that they knew no ill-will towards him, but they all were very
happily
disposed towards him. And they in turn asked him if he was
happy with
all of them. Then he answered and said: 'My brothers, my
beloved ones, I
am very blithe of mind towards you and all men of God'.' And
he was
thus strengthening himself with heavenly provisions, and he
prepared
himself for entry into the other(/next) life. Then yet he asked
how near
the time was to when the brothers must arise, and offer up
praise to
God and sing their matins. They answered, 'It is not long til
then.' He
said: 'Good, let us fully wait that time.' He then prayed and
blessed himself with the sign of Christ's Rood, and inclined his
head to the bolster, and in a small space of time, he fell asleep -
- and thus ended his life in stillness.
And so it came to pass that as he served God with pure spirit
and with
mild and serene devoutness, that he likewise left this middle-
earth by a
serene death, and he arrived in His sight. And the tongue which
had set
so many healing words in praise of the Maker, so likew ise
(uttering)

its last words to praise Him--as he crossed himself and offered
up his
spirit into His hands--ceased. Also likewise it is aid that he was
certain of his own passing, of which we have now heard said.
from the original Latin of Historia
Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, book IV chapter xxiv
[Latin text from F.W. Garforth's Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica: a
selection. London: Bell, 1967]
[modern English translation of Latin taken from L.C. Jane]
In huius monasterio abbatissae fuit
frater quidam divina gratia specialiter insignis quia carmina
religioni
et pietati apta facere solebat; ita ut quicquid ex divinis litteris
per interpretes disceret hoc ipse post pusillum verbis poeticis
maxima suavitate et compunctione compositis in sua, id est
Anglorum, lingua proferret. Cuius carminibus multorum saepe
animi ad contemptum saeculi
et appetitum sunt vitae caelestis accensi. Et quidem et alii post
illum
in gente Anglorum religiosa poemata facere tentabant, sed
nullus eum
aequiparare potuit. Namque ipse non ab hominibus neque per
hominem institutus canendi artem didicit; sed divinitus adiutus
gratis canendi donum accepit. Unde nihil umquam frivoli et
supervacui poematis facere potuit, sed ea tantummodo quae ad
religionem pertinent religiosam eius linguam decebant.
Siquidem in habitu saeculari usque ad tempora provectioris
aetatis constitutus
nil carminum aliquando didicerat. Unde nonnumquam in
convivio, cum

esset laetitae causa decretum ut omnes per ordinem cantare
deberent,
ille ubi appropinquare sibi citharam cernebat surgebat a media
cena et egressus ad suam domum repedabat.
Quod dum
tempore quodam faceret et relicta domo convivii egressus esset
ad
stabula iumentorum, quorum ei custodia nocte illa erat delegata,
ibique
hora competenti
membra dedisset sopori, adstitit ei quidam per somnium
eumque salutans
ac suo appellans nomine: 'Caedmon', inquit, 'canta mihi aliquid'.
At
ille respondens, 'Nescio', inquit, 'cantare; nam et ideo de
convivio
egressus huc secessi, quia cantare non poteram'. Rursus ille qui
cum eo
loquebatur, 'Attamen', ait, 'mihi cantare habes'. 'Quid', inquit,
'debeo cantare?' At ille, 'Canta', inquit, 'principium
creaturarum'. Quo accepto responso statim ipse coepit cantare in
laudem Dei conditoris versus quos numquam audierat, quorum
iste est sensus:
There was in this abbess's monastery a certain brother,
particularly remarkable for the grace of God, who was wont to
make
pious and religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to
him out
of Scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical
expressions of
much sweetness and humility, in English, which was his native
language.

By his verses the minds of many were often excited to despise
the world,
and to aspire to heaven. Others after him attempted, in the
English
nation, to compose religious poems, but none could ever
compare with
him, for he did not learn the art of poetry from men, but from
God; for
which reason he never could compose any trivial or vain poem,
but only
those which relate to religion suited his religious tongue; for
having
lived in a secular habit till he was well advanced in years, he
had
never learned anything of versifying; for which reason being
sometimes
at entertainments, when it was agreed for the sake of mirth that
all
present should sing in their turns, when he saw the instrument
come
towards him, he rose up from table and returned home.
Having done so at a certain time, and gone out of the house
where the
entertainment was, to the stable, where he had to take care of
the
horses that night, he there composed himself to rest at the
proper time;
a person appeared to him in his sleep, and saluting him by his
name,
said, "Caedmon, sing some song to me." He answered, "I cannot
sing; for
that was the reason why I left the entertainment, and retired to
this
place because I could not sing." The other who talked to him,
replied,

"However, you shall sing." - "What shall I sing?" rejoined he.
"Sing the
beginning of created beings," said the other. Hereupon he
presently
began to sing verses to the praise of God, which he had never
heard, the
purport whereof was thus :
(Bede's Latin paraphrase of Cædmon's Hymn)[click here for
other recensions(='versions') of Cædmon's hymn]
Nunc laudare debemus
auctorem regni caelestis
Now we ought to praise
the maker of the heavenly kingdom
potentiam Creatoris,
et consilium illius
the power of the Creator,
and his intention
facta Patris gloriae:
quomodo ille,
the deeds of the Father
of glory: how he,
cum sit aeternus
Deus omnium miraculorum auctor exstitit;
since he is the eternal

Lord of all miracles has been the author;
qui primo
filiis hominum
5
who first for
the sons of men
caelum pro culmine
tecti
heaven for a roof above
dehinc terram
custos humani generis
next, the earth,
the keeper of the human-raceomnipotens
creavit.
the all-powerful
created.
Hic est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum quae dormiens
ille canebat;
neque enim possunt carmina, quamvis optime composita, ex
alia in aliam
linguam ad verbum
sine detrimento sui decoris ac dignitatis transferri. Exsurgens
autem a
somno cuncta quae dormiens cantaverat memoriter retinuit et
eis mox
plura in eundem modum verba Deo digni carminis adiunxit.

Veniensque mane ad vilicum
qui sibi praeerat quid doni percepisset indicavit atque ad
abbatissam
perductus iussus est multis doctioribus viris praesentibus
indicare
somnium et dicere carmen, ut universorum iudicio quid vel unde
esset quod referebat probaretur. Visumque est omnibus
caelestem ei a Domino concessam esse gratiam. Exponebantque
ille quendam sacrae historiae sive doctrinae sermonem
praecipientes eum, si posset, hunc in modulationem carminis
transferre.
At ille suscepto negotio abiit et mane rediens optimo carmine
quod
iubebatur compositum reddidit. Unde mox abbatissa amplexata
gratiam Dei in viro saecularem illum habitum relinquere et
monachicum suscipere propositum
docuit, susceptumque in monasterium cum omnibus suis
fratrum cohorti
associavit iussitque illum seriem sacrae historiae doceri. At ipse
cuncta quae audiendo discere poterat rememorando secum et
quasi mundum animal ruminando in carmen dulcissimum
convertebat, suaviusque resonando doctores suos vicissim
auditores sui
faciebat. Canebat autem de creatione mundi et origine humani
generis et
tota Genesis historia de egressu Israel ex Aegypto et ingressu
in terram repomissionis, de aliis plurimis sacrae Scripturae
historiis,
de incarnatione dominica, passione, resurrectione et ascensione
in
caelum, de Spiritus Sancti adventu et apostolorum doctrina.
Item de
terrore futuri iudicii et horrore poenae gehennalis

ac dulcedine regni caelestis multa carmina faciebat; sed et alia
perplura de beneficiis et iudiciis divinis, in quibus cunctis
homines ab
amore scelerum abstrahere, ad dilectionem vero et sollertiam
bonae actionis excitare curabat. Erat enim vir multum religiosus
et regularibus disciplinis humiliter subditus, adversum vero
illos qui aliter facere volebant zelo magni fervoris accensus;
unde et pulchro vitam suam fine conclusit.
Nam proprinquante hora sui decessus quattuordecim diebus
praeveniente corporea infirmitate pressus est, adeo tamen
moderate ut et loqui toto eo tempore posset et ingredi. Erat
autem in proximo
casa, in qua infirmiores et qui prope morituri esse videbantur
induci
solebant. Rogavit ergo ministrum suum vespere incumbente
nocte qua de
saeculo erat exiturus ut in ea sibi locum quiescendi praepararet;
qui
miratus cur hoc rogaret, qui nequaquam adhuc moriturus esse
videbatur,
fecit tamen quod dixerat. Cumque ibidem positi vicissim aliqua
gaudente animo, una cum eis qui ibidem ante inerant,
loquerentur ac
iocarentur et iam mediae noctis tempus esset transcensum,
interrogavit si eucharistiam intus haberent. Respondebant, 'Quid
opus est eucharistia? neque enim mori adhuc habes qui tam
hilariter nobiscum velut sospes
loqueris'. Rursus ille: 'Et tamen', ait, 'afferte mihi
eucharistiam'.
Qua accepta in manu interrogavit si omnes placidum erga se
animum et
sine querela controversiae ac rancoris haberent. Respondebant
omnes
placidissimam se mentem ad illum et ab omni ira remotam

habere. Qui
confestim respondit: 'Placidam ego mentem, filioli, erga omnes
Dei
famulos gero'. Sincque se caelesti muniens viatico vitae alterius
ingressui paravit; et interrogavit quam prope
esset hora qua fratres ad dicendas Domino laudes nocturnas
excitari
deberent. Respondebant, 'Non longe est'. At ille: 'Bene, ergo
exspectemus horam illam'. Et signans se signo sanctae crucis
reclinavit
caput ad cervical modicumque obdormiens ita cum silentio
vitam finivit.
Sicque factum est ut ita quomodo simplici ac pura mente
tranquillaque
devotione Domino servierat, ita etiam tranquilla morte mundum
relinquens
ad eius visonem veniret illaque lingua quae tot salutaria verba
in laudem conditoris composuerat ultima quoque verba in
laudem ipsius, signando sese et spiritum suum in manus eius
commendando, clauderet; qui etiam praescius sui obitus
exstitisse, ex his quae narravimus, videtur.
This
is the sense, but not the words in order as he sang them in his
sleep;
for verses, though never so well composed, cannot be literally
translated out of one language into another, without losing

much of
their beauty and loftiness. Awaking from his sleep, he
remembered
all that he had sung in his dream, and soon added much more to
the same
effect in verse worthy of the Deity.
In the morning he came to the steward, his superior, and
having
acquainted him with the gift he had received, was conducted to
the
abbess, by whom he was ordered, in the presence of many
learned men, to
tell his dream, and repeat the verses, that they might all give
their
judgment what it was, and whence his verse proceeded. They all
concluded, that heavenly grace had been conferred on him by
our Lord.
They expounded to him a passage in holy writ, either historical,
or
doctrinal, ordering him, if he could, to put the same into verse.
Having
undertaken it, he went away, and returning the next morning,
gave it to
them composed in most excellent verse; whereupon the abbess,
embracing
the grace of God in the man, instructed him to quit the secular
habit,
and take upon him the monastic life; which being accordingly
done, she
associated him to the rest of the brethren in her monastery, and
ordered
that he should be taught the whole series of sacred history.
Thus
Caedmon--keeping in mind all he heard, and as it were chewing

the cud,
converted the same into most harmonious verse; and sweetly
repeating the
same, made his masters in their turn his hearers. He sang the
creation
of the world, the origin of man, and all the history of Genesis :
and
made many verses on the departure of the children of Israel out
of
Egypt, and their entering into the land of promise, with many
other
histories from holy writ; the incarnation, passion, resurrection
of our
Lord, and his ascension into heaven; the coming of the Holy
Ghost, and
the preaching of the apostles ; also the terror of future
judgment, the
horror of the pains of hell, and the delights of heaven; besides
many
more about the Divine benefits and judgments, by which he
endeavoured to
turn away all men from the love of vice, and to excite in them
the love
of, and application to, good actions; for he was a very religious
man,
humbly submissive to regular discipline, but full of zeal against
those
who behaved themselves otherwise; for which reason he ended
his life
happily.
For when the time of his departure drew near, he laboured for
the
space of fourteen days under a bodily infirmity which seemed to

prepare
the way, yet so moderate that he could talk and walk the whole
time. In
his neighbourhood was the house to which those that were sick,
and like
shortly to die, were carried. He desired the person that attended
him,
in the evening, as the night came on in which he was to depart
this
life, to make ready a place there for him to take his rest. This
person,
wondering why he should desire it, because there was as yet no
sign of
his dying soon, did what he had ordered. He accordingly went
there, and
conversing pleasantly in a joyful manner with the rest that were
in the
house before, when it was past midnight, he asked them,
whether they had
the Eucharist there? They answered, "What need of the
Eucharist? for
you are not likely to die, since you talk so merrily with us, as if
you
were in perfect health." -" However," said he, "bring me the
Eucharist."
Having received the same into his hand, he asked, whether they
were all
in charity with him, and without any enmity or rancour? They
answered,
that they were all in perfect charity, and free from anger; and in
their
turn asked him, whether he was in the same mind towards
them? He
answered, "I am in charity, my children, with all the servants of
God."
Then strengthening himself with the heavenly viaticum, he

prepared for
the entrance into another life, and asked, how near the time was
when
the brothers were to be awakened to sing the nocturnal praises
of our
Lord? They answered, "It is not far off." Then he said, "Well,
let us
wait that hour; " and signing himself with the sign of the cross,
he
laid his head on the pillow, and falling into a slumber, ended his
life
so in silence.
Thus it came to pass, that as he had served God with a simple
and
pure mind, and undisturbed devotion, so he now departed to his
presence,
leaving the world by a quiet death; and that tongue, which had
composed
so many holy words in praise of the Creator, uttered its last
words
whilst he was in the act of signing himself with the cross, and
recommending himself into his hands, and by what has been
here said, he
seems to have had foreknowledge of his death.
Appendix I: Various versions of 'Cædmon's Song':
I offer here each of the main 'recensions' of Cædmon's Hymn,
with
translation and brief notes. I also include, for stemma *AE
(West Saxon

eorðan-recension, main group) & *Z (West Saxon ylda-
recension),
under subheadings, (mostly) diplomatic readings of some
particularly
interesting variants - but it is only a selection: not all MS.
versions
are printed here individually (though the notes to the main
recensions
note differences between MSS. readings). The 'diplomatic' texts
of
individual MS. readings are not provided with hyper-linked
notes (as
this would only duplicate the notes of the recension texts), but
the
interesting divergent transformations of verses are underlined,
both in
the Old English & in the translation.
Quick Links - Cædmon's Song recensions:
*Bede's Latin paraphrase of Cædmon's Hymn
*Northumbrian aelda [ML]
*Northumbrian eordu [*Y]
*Wessex eorðan [*AE]
*Wessex eorðe [*AE2]

*Wessex ylda [*Z]
A. Bede's Latin paraphrase of Cædmon's Hymn
Nunc laudare debemus
auctorem regni caelestis
Now we ought to praise
the maker of the heavenly kingdom
potentiam Creatoris,
et consilium illius
the power of the Creator,
and his intention
facta Patris gloriae:
quomodo ille,
the deeds of the Father
of glory: how he,
cum sit aeternus
Deus omnium miraculorum auctor exstitit;
since he is the eternal
Lord of all miracles has been the author;
qui primo
filiis hominum
5
who first for
the sons of men

caelum pro culmine
tecti
heaven for a roof above
dehinc terram
custos humani generis
next, the earth,
the keeper of the human-raceomnipotens
creavit.
the all-powerful
created.
B. early Northumbrian version of Cædmon's Song - aelda-
recension [ M-L ]
(taken mainly from MS. M)
Nu scylunherganhefaenricaes uard,
Now (we) must praise
the Protector of the heavenly kingdom,metudæs maectiend
his modgidanc,
and His mind's purpose,uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra
gihuaes,
of Glory, as He for each of the wonders,eci dryctin, or
astelidæ.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning.He aerist
scop aelda barnum
5He shaped first for the sons of men,
hebentilhrofe, halegscepen.
heaven as a roof, the Holy Judge.Tha

middungeard moncynnæs
uard,
Then the Middle-World, mankind's
Guardian,eci dryctin, æfter tiadæ
the eternal Lord, made afterwards,firum foldu, frea
allmectig.
the almighty Lord.Primo cantauit caedmon
istud carmen
(10)In the beginning Caedmon
sang this poem
C. late Northumbrian version of Cædmon's Song - eordu-
recension [ *Y ]
(reconstructed - based on O'Donnell (1996b))
Nu wuesciulunhergahefunricaeswueard,
Now we must praise
the Protector of the heavenly kingdom,metudaes mechti
and his modgedanc,
and His mind's purpose,wuercwuldurfadur, suae
hewundragihuaes,
of Glory, as He for each of the wonders,eci drichtin, or
astalde.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning.heaerist scoop
eordu bearnum
5He shaped first for the sons of the Earth,
hefen to hrofe, halig sceppend.
heaven as a roof, the
Holy Maker;ðamiddumgeardmoncinnesweard,
then the Middle-World, mankind's
Guardian,ecidrichtin, aeftertiade
the eternal Lord, made afterwards,firum on foldu, frea
allmechtig.

on solid ground for men,
the almighty Lord God.
D. West Saxon rendition of the Cædmon's Song - eorðan-
recension [ *AE ](WS-eorðan main group)
(taken mainly from MS. T1)
Nuwesculonherigean heofonrices weard,
Now we must
meotodesmeahteand his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, weorcwuldorfæder, swa he
wundra gehwæs,
of Glory, as He for each of the wonders, ece drihten,
oronstealde.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning. He
ærestsceopeorðanbearnum
5 He shaped first for the sons of the Earth heofon to hrofe,
halig scyppend;
heaven as a roof, the Holy Maker; þa
middangeardmoncynnes weard,
then the Middle-World,
mankind's Guardian, ece drihten, æfterteode
the eternal Lord, made afterwards, firum foldan, frea
ælmihtig.
the almighty Lord.
(Da.)MS. C

Nu (Ne?) we sculon hergean heofonrices weard,
Now we must praise the Protector of the heavenly kingdom,
metodes mihte ond his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, weoroda wuldorfæder, swa
he wundra gehwæs,
the hosts of the Father
or onstealde.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning. He ærest
scop eorðú bearnum
5 He shaped first for the sons of the Earth heofon to
hrofe, halig scypend;
heaven as a roof, the Holy Maker; þa middangeard
moncynnes weard,
mankind's Guardian, ece drihten, æfter eode
the eternal Lord, went afterwards, fi[rum] foldan,
frea ælmihtig.
to earth for men, the almighty Lord.
(Db.)MS. O
Nu we sculan herian heofonrices weard,
Now we must
metodes mihte and his modgeþonc,
and His mind's purpose, wera wuldorfæder, swa he

wundra gehwæs,
the heroes of the Father
of Glory, as He for each of the wonders, ece dryhten,
oórd onstealde.
gesceop eorðan bearnum
hrofe, halig scyppend;
heaven as a roof, the Holy Maker; ða middangeard
moncynnes weard,
mankind's Guardian, ece drihten, æfter teode
the eternal Lord, made afterwards, firum foldan,
frea ælmihtig.
the almighty Lord.
(Dc.)MS. Ca
Nu we sceolon herigean heofonrices weard,
Now we must
meotodes meahte and his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, wera wuldorfæder, swa he
wuldres gehwæs,
the heroes of the Father
of Glory, as He for each glory, ece drihten, ord
onstealde.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning. He æres[t]
gescóp eorðan bearnum

heaven as a roof, the Holy Maker; þa middangeard
moncynnes weard,
frea ælmihtig.
the almighty Lord.
(Fd.)MS. B1
Nu we herigan sculon heofonrices weard,
Now we must
metodes mihte and his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, weorc wuldorgodes, swa he
wundra fela,
the work of the God of Glory, as He for many wonders,
ece drihten, ord astealde.
sceop eorðan bearnum
heaven as a roof, the Holy Maker:-- þe middangeard
manncynnes weard,
Who the Middle-World, mankind's Guardian, ece

drihten, æfter teode
the eternal Lord, made afterwards, fyrum foldan,
frea ælmihtig.
the almighty Lord.
(Fe.)MS. To
Nu we sceolon herian heofonrices weard,
Now we must
meotodes meahte and his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, weorc wulderfæder, swa he
wundra gehwæs,
ær astealde.
the eternal Lord, established before. He ærest sceop
eorðan bearnum
hrofe, halig drihten;
heaven as a roof, Holy God; þa middangeard
moncynnes weard,
frea ælmihtig.
the almighty Lord.

E. West Saxon rendition of the Cædmon's Song - eorðe-
recension [ *AE2 ] (WS-eorðan sub-group Hr-Ld1-CArms)
(readings from various MSS.)
Nu sceolanherian heofonrices weard,
Now (we) must
metudes mihte and his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, weorc wulder fæder, swa he
[....] wundra gehwylc,
of Glory, as He each of the wonders, ece drihten, ord
onstealde.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning. [þa]He [....]
ærest sceop eorðe bearnum
5 He shaped first for the sons of the Earth heofon to hrofe,
...[halig scyppeod]....
heaven as a roof,
...... þa middangeard moncynnes weard,
then the Middle-World, mankind's Guardian, ece drihten,
æfterteode
the eternal Lord, made afterwards, fyrum on folden,
frea ælmihtig halig scyppeod
the almighty Lord, [the Holy Maker].
F. West Saxon rendition of the Cædmon's Song - ylda-recension
[ *Z ]
(taken mainly from MS. H)
Nu we sculonherianheofonrices weard,
Now we must

metudesmihte and his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, wurcwuldorfæder, swa he
wundra gehwilc,
of Glory, as He each of the wonders, ecedrihten,
ordastealde.
the eternal Lord, established a beginning. Heærestgescop
ylda bearnum
5 He shaped first for the sons of menheofon to hrofe,
halig scyppend;
heaven as a roof,
the Holy Maker; middangeardemoncynnesweard,
with the Middle-World, mankind's Guardian, ece drihten,
æftertida
the eternal Lord, after periods of time, firumon foldum,
frea ælmihtig.
in(/on) earths for men, the almighty Lord.
(Fa.)MS. W
Nu we sculon herian heri heofonrices weard,
Now we must
metoddes mihte and his modgeþanc,
and His mind's purpose, weorc wuldorfæder, swa he
wundra gehwilc,

of Glory, as He each of the wonders, ece drihten,
word astealde.
the eternal Lord, established the Word. He ærest
gescop ylda bearnum
5 He shaped first for the sons of men heofon to rofe,
halig scippend;
heaven as a roof,
the Holy Maker; middanear[de] manncynnes weard,
with the Middle-Region, mankind's Guardian, ece
drihten, æfter tida
the eternal Lord, after periods of time, firum on
foldum, frea ealmihtig.
in(/on) earths for men, the almighty Lord.
Appendix II: Details of MSS. containing Cædmon:
Key:
Ms. dates - see Ms. Terminology Page
MS/Ms. = manuscript
MSS/Mss. = manuscripts
f. .... = folio
p. ... = page
Language abbrevs.:
* OE = Old English translation

of Bede's Hist. Eccl. with Old English Caedmon's 'Hymn'
appearing
in main text
* Lat = Latin text of Bede's Hist. Eccl. in which no
OE text for Caedmon's 'Hymn' appears
* Lat+OE-margin = Latin text of Bede's Hist. Eccl. with
marginal Old English Caedmon's 'Hymn'
* Lat+OE-inter = Latin text of Bede's Hist. Eccl. with OE
Caedmon's 'Hymn' written in alternating lines with the Latin
paraphase
(i.e., interlinear text)
* Lat+OE-main = Latin text of Bede's Hist. Eccl. with Old
English Caedmon's 'Hymn' appearing in main text, in-between
Bede's
account and Bede's Latin paraphase of the 'Hymn
Northumbrian eordu-recension
Sigla
Ms. loc. & index
Ms. date

Ms. origin
Ms.
provenance
Caedmon's 'Hymn'
appears at/on
Language(s)
of Ms.
[see above under key]
misc. notes
Br
Brussels, Bibliothèque
Royale, MS 8245-57
s. xv
f.62r2-v1
Lat.+OE-main
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
Di

Dijon, Bibliothèque
Municipale, MS 574
s. xii
f.59v2
Lat.+OE-main
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
P1
Paris, Bibliothèque
Nationale, MS Lat. 5237
s. xv
f.72v
Lat.+OE-main
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
Northumbrian aeldu-recension

Sigla
Ms. loc. & index
Ms. date
Ms. origin
Ms.
provenance
Caedmon's 'Hymn'
appears at/on
Language(s)
of Ms.
misc. notes
L
St.-Petersburg
(Leningrad),
Russian National Library Lat. Q.v.I.18
[Gneuss 846]
s. viii

[O'Donnell]
731x746 [Gneuss]
Wearmouth-J.
f.107r
Lat+OE-margin
aka 'The Leningrad
Bede'
Latin text & OE text apparently in same hand*
but there is no absolute consensus†M
Cambridge, University
Library Kk.5.16
[Gneuss 25]
s. viii
[O'Donnell]
c. or after 737 [Gneuss]
Northumbria,
(Wearmouth-J.?)

prov. Aachen,
s. viiiex
f.128v
Lat+OE-margin
aka 'The Moore Bede'
Latin text & OE text apparently in same
hand** = Dobbie says that the OE text appears to be added by
the same
hand as the main Latin text
† = Kiernan says that 'the
"Hymn" [in the Leningrad Bede] was added by a different
scribe with similar
but not identical handwriting. The distinguishing feature is the
truncated
descender on the letters f, p, r, and s, compared to the long
descender on the letter g. In the main text, with exactly the
same
space between lines, the descender on these letters is invariably
long and
spiky..' (Kiernan 1990[2002]:122n16).
West-Saxon eorðan-recension (main group)

Sigla
Ms. loc. & index
Ms. date
Ms. origin
Ms.
provenance
Caedmon's 'Hymn'
appears at/on
Language(s)
of Ms.
misc. notes
B1
Cambridge, Corpus
Christi College 41
[Gneuss 75]
s. xiex
or xi/xii
prob.

Canterbury, St.Augustine's
p.322
OE
Ca
Cambridge, University
Library Kk.3.18
[Gneuss 22]
s. xi1
[O'Donnell]
s. xi2 [Gneuss]
Worcester
f.72v
Lat+OE-margin
C
London, British
Library Additional 43703
(=Nowell's transcript of the now destroyed Cotton Otho.B.xi)
[Gneuss 357]
s. xi1

1562(=date of transcription)
Winchester
prov.
Southwick, Augustinian canons
f.146r-v
OE
original largely
lost in fire;
only fragments surviving;
text mainly reconstructed
from Laurence Nowell's transcription O
Oxford, Corpus Christi
College 279, pt.ii
[Gneuss 279]
s. xiin
f.112v
OE
text incomplete
T1

Oxford, Bodleian
Library
Tanner 10(9830)
[Gneuss 668]
s. xiin
or xi1
prov.
Thorney
p.195
(= f.100r)
OE
text incomplete
To
Tournai, Bibliothèque
de la Ville 134
s. xii/xiii
f.78v
Lat+OE-main
Ms. was destroyed
in

an air-raid on 17 May 1940
West-Saxon eorðan(eorðe)-recension: Hr-Ld1-CArms
sub-group
Sigla
Ms. loc. & index
Ms. date
Ms. origin
Ms.
provenance
Caedmon's 'Hymn'
appears at/on
Language(s)
of Ms.

misc. notes
CArms
London, College
of Arms, M.6
s. xii
f.84v
Lat+OE-inter
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
Hr
Hereford, Cathedral
Library, P.5.i
s. xii
f.116v
Lat+OE-margin
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
Ld1

Oxford, Bodleian
Library,
Laud Misc. 243
s. xii1
f.116v
Lat+OE-margin
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
West-Saxon ylda-recension
Sigla
Ms. loc. & index
Ms. date
Ms. origin

Ms.
provenance
Caedmon's 'Hymn'
appears at/on
Language(s)
of Ms.
misc. notes
Bd
Oxford, Bodleian
Library 163(2016)
[Gneuss 555]
s. xiiin
prov.
Peterborough
f.152v
Lat+OE-margin
H
Oxford, Bodleian
Hatton 43

[Gneuss 630]
s. xi2
[O'Donnell]
s. xiin [Gneuss]
Glastonbury??
prov.
Canterbury, Christ Church
(at least by s. xiiin)
f.129f
Lat+OE-margin
text of hymn added
in 11th-c. hand
Ln
Oxford, Lincoln
College, Lat. 31
s. xiimed
f.83r
Lat+OE-margin
Mg
Oxford, Magdalen College

Lat. 105
f.99r
Lat+OE-margin
SanM
San Marino (California),
Huntington Library, HM 35300
s. xvmed
f.82r
Lat+OE-margin
Tr1
Cambridge, Trinity
College, R.5.22
s. xiv
f.32v1-2
Lat+OE-inter
Latin text &
OE text
in same hand
W

Winchester, Cathedral
1
[Gneuss 759]
s. ximed
[O'Donnell]
s. x/xi or xiin [Gneuss]
prov. Winchester
f.81r
Lat+OE-margin
hymn in xi-hand
(Dobbie)
main info for above tables taken from Dobbie, Minor Poems
&
O'Donnell, 'A Northumbrian Version' (app.), with additional
information taken
from Gneuss (2001) on pre-12th-c. mss.

Appendix III: Online readings of Cædmon's Song in Old
English:
Sarah Higley reads
click here
on the lyre<- click on picture of lyre to
listen to Dr. Sarah Higley read Caedmon's Hymn in Old
English
(may need to adjust volume to hear)
Robert Fulk reads
click
here on the lyre<- click on picture of lyre to
listen to Prof. Robert Fulk read Caedmon's Hymn in Old
English
(from the Norton Online Archive)
English 2332 – Essay Test One
Read these instructions carefully. You don't get a second chance
at completing this assignment.
Choose ONE of the questions below for your essay response.
Develop a well-organized essay of at least 2-3 typed, double-
spaced pages, using MLA formatting and documentation style.
**You must supply direct quotes from the literature (course
readings) to support your ideas.
NO USE OF I, ME, WE, YOU – in your writing. This is an
analysis, not a personal essay.
Use the readings, the Dallas College Library Databases,

(Literary Reference Center, Bloom’s Literature, or Academic
Search Complete) or Google Scholar for your research. You
may use two additional research sources in addition to the
reading assignments. List all sources used on a Works Cited
page.
Option #1:
Many readers have pointed out that the fears, hopes, and
attitudes seen in Caedmon’s Hymn, Gilgamesh, and Beowulf are
still present in the world today. Is this true? If so, which appear
to be the most prevalent?
Option #2:
One theory about myths is that they help the people in a given
community to come to terms with their world more easily. Can
any of the lessons in Caedmon’s Hymn, Gilgamesh, and/or
Beowulf still be studied with an eye to improving a person's
way of dealing with life today?
Option #3:
Tragedy is usually defined as the fall of a great hero who
endures his fate courageously and nobly. Is this true of
Gilgamesh and Beowulf? Compare the two heroes? In what
ways are they alike? In what ways are they different? What
lessons, or legacy, did they leave for their readers?
Option #4:
Compare and contrast Caedmon, Gilgamesh, and Beowulf’s
character. How are they similar and how are they different?
What are the unique strengths and weaknesses of each, and how
do they compare, and/or contrast with each other?
Note: Although this is an exam, it’s still an essay, and as such,
you may use the OWL or visit the Academic Skills Center for
tutorial support. Be sure to follow directions for in-person
tutorial support. Dr. Forbess

BeowulfOLD ENGLISH POEM – ANALYZING THE LITERATURE, PART 3

BeowulfOLD ENGLISH POEM – ANALYZING THE LITERATURE, PART 3

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