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2.  What Is Urban?
 What Is Planning?
 What Is Urban Planning?
Brainstorm:

3. More than half the population of the world is now urban and
the numbers are increasing at a swift pace. Here, it becomes
important to know how a population is classified as being ‘urban’,
as opposed to being rural or tribal or any other type.
WHAT IS URBAN?

4. The concrete technical aspects defining ‘urban’ are:
population size
population density
economic base
presence of a municipal body

5. There must be a minimum number of people residing in the
place for it to be called urban; these people must be
concentrated in a particular area and not scattered;

6. There should be a minimum number of people in one unit area
of land; they should be engaged in economic activities other
than primary ones such as agriculture or animal rearing etc. and;
there must be a municipality or town committee or a planning
and governing body to take care of the services and planning of
that place.

7. Definitions of planning
What is planning as a general activity?
Planning is one of the many fields that is difficult to define as it means many different
things to different people. For example:
The plan of a house or a city
To plan for a trip to some place
To plan to buy a pair of shoes, etc
All the above examples talk about a plan but are different.
• The first is about a blue print plan of a house or a city. The second and third has
nothing to do with schematic plan but a certain preparation to do something.

8. Yet, in all such planning activities, there are two very important denominators that one
has to always remember.
• The two common denominators are:
1.Having clear objectives or goals (as they are sometimes called SMART objectives) and
2. Orderly arranged serious of actions/steps that would enable us to achieve our objectives
• Why do we need to plan?
• Scarcity: there is scarcity of resources that call for planning efficiently
• Negative Externalities: if left unattended will harm society or the universe
• Discomfort: Some things are not pleasing to the eyes and to psychological
wellbeing. this is particularly the case in the planning of cities and in urban design
• Complexity of life: think about providing water, sewage, light, food, transport,
education, health, etc for the millions of urban residents without planning

9. What is urban planning?
• According to Peter Hall, Urban planning refers planning with a spatial,
geographical, component, in which the general objective is to provide spatial
structure of activities or land uses which in some way is better than the pattern
that would exist without planning.
• Campbell and Fainstein define planning as intervention with an intention to alter
the existing course of events.

10. • The art and science of ordering the use of land, arrangement of buildings and
communication routes so as to secure the maximum practicable degree of economy,
convenience, and beauty.
• It is the art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town to meet the various
needs such as social, cultural, economic and recreational etc.
• It provide healthy conditions for both rich and poor to live, work, and play or relax, thus
bringing physical, social and economic planning of an urban environment.
• It encompasses many different disciplines and brings them all under a single umbrella.
• A means of guiding the design and regulation of the uses of urban space, location of
different activities with a focus on physical form, economic functions, and social impacts
of urban environment.
What Urban planning?

12. Why do we need Urban Plan?
• In the first half of the 19th century, the great European cities had overflowed their
historic walls and fortifications.
• Now boundless, the great cities expanded into the surrounding countryside with
reckless speed, losing the coherent structure of a health organism.
• London grew in the 19th century, from 900,000 to over 2 million. Paris in the same
period increase its population from 500,000 to 2.5 million residents.
• Berlin went from 190,000 to over 2 million and New York from 60,000 to 3.4 million.
• Chicago, a village in 1840 reached 1.7 million by the turn of the century.

13. • This explosive growth would have been difficult to accommodate under any
circumstances, took place in an era of laissez-faire and feverish speculation.
• The cities lost the power to control their own growth.
• The cities were segregated by class, their traditional unifying centers first
overwhelmed by the increase in population and then abandoned.
• Toward the end of the 19th century the residential balance between urban and rural
areas began tipping, an unprecedented degree towards the great cities.
• First trade and then the most skilled and ambitious young people moved to the
metropolis.
Why do we need Urban Plan?..

14. What factors initiated Urban Utopias?
• Utopia: is about to the creation of a proposal of something ideal which may or may not
be materialized.
• The nineteenth-century social utopias played a significant role in the history of utopian
urban planning.
• Social unrest and increasing chaos in the development of industrial centers at the
beginning of the nineteenth century provided incentive for the continuation of the
search for urban forms that would satisfy all the basic needs of the working class.
• Howard, Wright and Le Corbusier began their work seeing stagnation in the
countryside, the depopulation of the rural village and a crisis in even the old regional
centers.
• These three theoreticians hated the cities of their time.

15. • The metropolis was the counter image of their ideal cities, the hell that inspired
their heavens.
• All three visualized the great city as a cancer, an uncontrolled, malignant growth
that was poisoning the modern world.
• Wright remarked that the plan of a large city resembled “the cross-section of a
fibrous tumor”.
• Howard compared it to an enlarged ulcer.
• Le Corbusier was fond of picturing Paris as a body in the last stage of a fatal
disease, its circulation clogged, its tissues dying of their own noxious wastes.
What factors initiated Urban Utopias?...

16. What solutions did they propose?
Le Corbusier proposed the so called ‘Radiant city’ which as mass scaled, dense, vertical
and hierarchical.
F L Wright in his part called his city “Broad acre city” and this was the other extreme of
the first as it was a mixture of agrarian individualism and prairie sub-urbanism linked
by the super-highway
Howard, who falls in between these two extremes named his city ‘the Garden city of
tomorrow’. The cities were self contained villages of 32,000 residents, cooperatively held
together
• These three typologies represent three different choices in the scale of human
settlements/cities.

17. The Garden City by Ebenezer Howard
• Howard wanted to design an alternative to the overcrowded
and polluted industrial cities of the turn of the century, and his
solution centered on creating smaller “garden cities” (with
32,000 people each) in the country linked by canals and
transit and set in a permanent greenbelt.
• no training in urban planning or design
• 1850-1928
• opposed urban crowding/density
• hoped to create a “magnet” people would want to come to

18. GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT: The Origin -
• Howard was heavily influenced by the utopian visions of Edward Bellamy and his
publication Looking Backward (1888).
• Sir Ebenezer Howard is known for his publication Garden Cities of To-morrow (1898), the
description of a utopian city in which people live harmoniously together with nature.
• The publication resulted in the founding of the garden city movement, that realized several
Garden Cities in Great Britain at the beginning of the 20th century.
• The first garden cities proposed were Letchworth and Welwyn in 1903 and 1920
respectively.

19. GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT: The Origin -
This book offered a vision of towns free of slums and enjoying the benefits of both town
(such as opportunity, amusement and good wages) and country (such as beauty, fresh air
and low rents).
Howard compared the Industrial city to an enlarged ulcer.
He wanted to design an alternative for overcrowded and polluted industrial cities of that
century.
He illustrated the idea with his famous Three Magnets diagram which addressed the
question 'Where will the people go?', the choices being 'Town', 'Country' or 'Town-
Country’.
Howard believed that such Garden Cities were the perfect blend of city and nature.

20. It proposed the creation of new suburban towns of limited size, planned in advance, and
surrounded by a permanent belt of agricultural land.
• The towns would be largely independent, managed by the citizens who had an economic
interest in them, and financed by ground rents.
• The land on which they were to be built was to be owned by a group of trustees and
leased to the citizens.
GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT: The Origin -

21. THE CURE - Sir Ebenezer Howard
• It is important to understand the context to which Howard’s work was a reaction.
• London (and other cities) in the 19th century were in the throws of industrialization, and
the cities were exerting massive forces on the labour markets of the time.
• Massive immigration from the countryside to the cities was taking place with London.
• This situation was unsustainable and political commentators of all parties sought “how
best to provide the proper antidote against the greatest danger of modern existence” (St.
Jame’s Gazette, 1892)
• To Howard the cure was simple - to reintegrate people with the countryside.
• In trying to understand and represent the attraction of the city he compared each city to a
magnet, with individuals represented as needles drawn to the city.

22. • He set about comparing the ‘town and country magnets’ but decided that neither were suitable
attractors for his utopian vision.
• Instead he believed that “Human society and the beauty of nature are meant to be enjoyed
together” – hence giving his solution “the two magnets must be made one.”
• "Town and country must be united, and out of this joyous union, will spring a new hope, a new life, a
new civilization.“
The Three Magnets Diagram makes three points:
Town life has good and bad characteristics
Country life has good and bad characteristics
Town-Country life can have all the good things about life in towns and life in the country - without
any of the bad things.

23. The Three Magnets…

24. THE THREE MAGNETS - The People, Where will they go?

25. CONCEPTUAL LAYOUT
• Circular city growing in a radial manner or pattern.
• Divided into six equal wards, by six main Boulevards
that radiated from the central park/garden.
• Each ward is a complete town by itself
• There are two kinds of centers in the Garden City: the
neighborhood and civic center.
• The neighborhood center will have a school, library, a
meeting hall, and religious worships/churches.
• Civic Centers (Town Hall, Library, Hospital, Theatre, Museum
etc. ) are placed around the central garden.

26. • All the industries, factories and warehouses were placed at the peripheral ring of the city.
• The municipal railway was placed in another ring closer to the industrial ring, so that the
pressure of excess transport on the city streets are reduced and the city is connected to the rest
of the nation.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
• Howard proposed the Garden City to be founded and financed by philanthropic and interested
investors.
• Pay the interest with which the estate was purchased (providing a 4% return for the initial
investors)
• Provide a sinking fund for the purpose of paying off the principal.
• Provide a large surplus for other purposes including old age pensions, medical services and
insurance.

27. The Garden City Principle, 1902.
1. Co-operative holding of land to insure that the advantage of appreciation of land values
goes to the community, not the private individuals
2. Economic and social advantages of large scale planning
3. Establishment of cities of limited size, but at the same time possessing a balanced
agricultural industrial economy.
4. Urban decentralization
5. Use of a surrounding green belt to serve as an agricultural recreational area.

28. The Garden City Principle, 1902...
Assumed data-
• A total of 6000 acre estate
•1000 acres, purely for the central garden
city as a home for 30000 people.
• Surrounding the central city 5000 Acres
of land is retained for agriculture and
home for 2000 people, with cow pastures,
farmlands, and welfare services.

29. Criticisms of Garden City Concept
• The home prices in this garden city could not remain affordable for workers to live in.
• Although many viewed Letchworth as a success, it did not immediately inspire
government investment into the next line of garden cities.
• Welwyn did not become self-sustaining because it was only 20 miles from London.
• He also later realized that a population of 30,000 people was not large enough to provide
the diversity he thought.
• Through his unsuccessful garden cities, Howard has set a valuable example of how
socialism is not a preferable or even viable alternative to capitalism and democracy.

30. Le Corbusier
Skyscrapers in parks apartment tower idea. Originally Charles-Edouard
Jeanneret 1887-1965 a founding father of the modernist movement “social
engineering”

31. LE CORBUSIER - Radiant City Concept
Corbusier (1887-1965) was one of the most
prominent architects of the 20th century. He
was also a self-proclaimed town-planner.
CIAM 1928
(Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture
Moderne ).
Unrealized project of Contemporary City
intended to house three million inhabitants
designed by architect Le
Corbusier in 1922.

32. The logic of increasing urban density
 “The more dense the population of a city is the less are the distances that
have to be covered.”
Traffic is increased by:
the number of people in a city
the degree to which private transportation is more appealing (clean, fast,
convenient, cheap) than public transportation
the average distance people travel per trip
the number of trips people must make each week
“The moral, therefore, is that we must increase the density of the centres
of our cities, where business affairs are carried on.”

33. Radiant City Concept.
• The organization was hugely influential. It was not only engaged in formalizing the architectural
principles of the Modern Movement, but also saw architecture as an economic and political tool
that could be used to improve the world through the design of buildings and through urban
planning.
• It affirmed that town planning is the organizations of functions of collective life this applies to
both rural and urban settlements.
Four functions of any settlement are:
 dwelling
 work
 recreation
 transportation, which connects the first three with one another.
• Le Corbusier was fond of picturing Paris (Industrial city) as a body in the last stage of a fatal
disease, its circulation clogged, its tissues dying of their own noxious wastes.

34. Radiant City Concept.
• Corbusier hated the horizontal garden city (suburbs) for the
time wasted commuting to the city.
• Leaving the ‘evils of the sprawling town’, the new industrial
communities are located along the main arteries of
transportation, water, rail and highway connecting the
existing cities.
• Factories are placed along the main arteries, separated
from the residential section by the highway and a green
strip.
• In the Radiant City, the pre-fabricated apartment houses,
les unites, were at the centre of "urban" life. Les unites
were available to everyone based upon the size and needs
of each particular family.
SKYSCRAPERS
(BUSINESS AREA)
RESIDENTIAL AREA
INDUSTRIAL AREA

35. • The residential areas include the ‘horizontal garden town’ of single houses and vertical
apartment buildings with civic center.
• The Radiant City grew out of this new conception of capitalist authority and a pseudo
appreciation for workers’ individual freedoms.
• The plan had much in common with the clearance of the historic cityscape and rebuilding
utilizing modern methods of production.
• The general impression was more of a city in a park than of a parkland in the city
• Sunlight and recirculating air were provided as part of the design.
Radiant City Concept.

36. Radiant City Design
• The scale of the apartment houses was fifty meters high, which would
accommodate, according to LeCorbusier, 2,700 inhabitants with fourteen
square meters of space per person.
• The building would be placed upon pilotis, five meters off the ground, so
that more land could be given over to nature.
• Setback from other unites would be achieved by les redents, patterns that
Corbusier created to lessen the effect of uniformity.

37. Radiant City Design.
• Inside les unites were the vertical streets, i.e. the elevators, and the pedestrian interior
streets that connected one building to another.
• Automobile traffic was to circulate on pilots supported roadways five meters above the
earth.
• Other transportation modes, like subways and trucks, had their own roadways separate
from automobiles.
• The skyscrapers were to provide office space for 3,200 workers per building.
• Each apartment block was equipped with a catering section, laundry chores in basement.
• Directly on top of the apartment houses were the roof top gardens and beaches, where
residents sun themselves in a natural" surroundings - fifty meters in the air.

38. • Because of its compact and separated nature, transportation in the Radiant City was to
move quickly and efficiently.
• The apartments in the Unité are not assigned on the basis of a worker’s position in the
industrial hierarchy but according to the size of his family and their needs.
• In designing these apartments, Le Corbusier remarked that he “thought neither of rich nor
of poor but of man.”
• He believed that housing could be made to the “human scale,” right in its proportions for
everyone, neither cramped nor wasteful. No one would want anything larger nor get
anything smaller.
Radiant City Design…

39. Elements of Le Corbusier’s Plan
Very high density
• 1,200 people per acre in skyscrapers
 overcrowded sectors of Paris & London ranged from 169-213 pers./acre at the time
 Manhattan has only 81 pers./acre
• 120 people per acre in luxury houses
• 6 to 10 times denser than current luxury housing in the U.S.

40. Elements of Le Corbusier’s Plan…
Access to greenspace
• between 48% and 95% of the surface area is reserved
for open spaces such as:
 gardens
 squares
 sports fields
 restaurants
 theaters
• with no sprawl, access to the “protected
zone” (greenbelt/open space) is quick and easy

41. Street system
Multi-level traffic system to manage the intensity of traffic
o Heavy traffic would proceed at basement level.
o Lighter traffic at ground level
o Fast traffic should flow along limited access arterial roads for long trips/cross city
movement.
o Pedestrian streets separate from vehicular traffic and placed at a raised level.
Elements of Le Corbusier’s Plan…

42. Le Corbusier's Planning Principles
(a) He advocated universality in city planning. His planned cities could be located anywhere,
free of context, history, and traditions of the place.
(b) He wished that any new city designed should be organized, serene, forceful, airy and
ordered.
(c) He was a strong supporter of geometry (grid) in planning and insisted on right angled
junctions.
(d) He called for standardization of building elements such as doors, frames, roof tiles and even
screws. He strongly believed that the construction standards should be similar every where in
support of his idea of context free cities.
(e) He was for strict separation of societal functions (Zoning) and asserted definitively that the
plan is the dictator of any city.

43. Criticisms of Radiant City Concept
There could be no debate, i.e. no politics regarding the guidelines of the plan.
• Authority must step in, patriarchal authority, the authority of a father concerned for his
children.
Class based conception of life different classes being separately housed.
Doubts were expressed about the scale and degree of centralization.
Land values were highest and dislocations is most difficult in the central city.

44.  1867-1959
 532 architectural designs built
 (twice as many drawn)
 designed houses, office buildings and a kind of
suburban layout he called “Broadacre City”
Frank Lloyd Wright (1930s): “Broadacre City” his small house with carport became more
or less the American standard in the 1950s, his dream of a decentralized, automobile-
dependent society materialized Wright’s vision, with 1-acre lots.

45. Wright's ideal community was a complete rejection of the American cities of the first half of the
20th century.
Wright despised the city, both physically and metaphorically.
Wright remarked that the plan of a large city resembled “the cross-section of a fibrous tumor”.
It was a truly prophetic vision of modern America.
Broadacre City Idea Developed 1932-1959.
Vision of multi-centered, low density (supposedly 5 people per acre), auto-oriented suburbia.
Each family would be given one acre (4,000 m2) from the federal land reserves.
Land would be taken into public ownership; then granted to families for as long as they used it
productively.
Frank Lloyd Wright - Broadacre City (1867-1959)

46. Broadacre City
Because of technological advancements,
Wright came to believe that the large,
centralized city would soon become obsolete
and people would return to their rural roots.
His small house with carport became more
or less the American standard in the 1950s,
his dream of a decentralized, automobile-
dependent society materialized with 1-acre
lots.
 designed houses, office buildings and a
kind of suburban layout and called it
“Broadacre City”

47. Broadacre City…
The city was considered to be (almost) fully self-sufficient. More light, more
freedom of movement and a more general spatial freedom in the ideal
establishment called civilization.
Decentralization, both physically and economically; being more independent.
American Dream which was land and home ownership became true.
Criticisms of Broadacre City Concept
 Too real to be Utopian and too dreamlike to be of practical importance.
 Demands motor transportation for even the most casual or ephemeral meetings
 Didn’t see the large population increase from 2B in 1930 -7B present time,
increase in fuel prices, environmental repercussions.

48. Jane Jacobs and her proponents critiques
• By the 1950s American cities were undergoing serious transformation through large scale
urban renewal and central city freeway construction projects.
• . in 1961, Jane Jacobs book “the death and life of great American cities “ was published and
shocked the whole planning philosophy.
• She says that the city planning has to learn from reality and from real life: from cities
themselves.
• Planners have to see what works in cities and what doesn’t and why it works and why it
doesn’t.
• They have to see what practice in rebuilding can promote social and economic vitality in cities
and what not.
• The design consider the real life experiences within the cities or not based on utopian cities.

49. Jane Jacobs
 The misinterpretation of realities as a source of design proposals was clearly illustrated in
her arguments.
 All city planners of the time, she writes, were clearly convinced that slum areas were to be
cleared because they are ugly for people living in them and for those who look at them.
Yet, no planner has gone beyond the physical appearance to see what social and
economic life they sustain and what was interpreted as “messy and ugly” was in reality
the source of security, inspiration and safety. Besides sustaining the lives of millions, such
areas are the most dynamic, safe and lively in any city. “Reformers ………………………”
 The same applies to the way they interpreter informal economy, informal housing, and the
solution they proposed which is almost a failure in all cases.

50. Jane Jacobs
• She argues that cities are immense laboratories of trial and error, failure and success, in city
building and city design.
• Based on intensive research and experience learned from cities and real life of people, she
proposes four necessary physical conditions for dynamic urban life:
Multifunctional neighborhoods-this is against the mono functional concept of the modern
movement
Short blocks: this is again the opposite of the 400x400 yard super block of Le Corbusier
Varied age residential areas – against the tabula-raza approach of modernization and finally
High concentration of people
• These conditions help sustain a diversity of people and provide the critical mass to support
urban amenities and services.

52. Early Post-war Planning Theory
• It was the period from the end of the Second World War to the early 1970s in western Europe
and North America (Eric Hobsbawm 1994).
• The three distinguished components of Post-war town and country planning are:

53. Town planning as physical planning
• Town and country planning was concerned with the physical environment and thus
described as physical planning.
• Town planning in this case deals primarily with land, and is not economic, social or
political planning.
• Town and Country Planning might be described as the art and science of ordering the use
of land as well as the character and placements of buildings and communicative routes.
• During that time, the qualified professionals to undertake town planning were architects,
together with the two other main built environment professions like civil engineering and
surveying.

54. Town planning as urban design
• Town planning was viewed as an exercise in planning the physical location, form and
layout of land uses and buildings, thus considered as an urban design.
• It was regarded as parts of architecture concerned with the design of whole groups of
buildings and spaces.
• As the results of this, town planning was perceived as a natural extension of architectural
works (Cherry, 1974).

55. • Town planning as urban design is very evident in Lewis Keeble's Principles and Practice
of Town and Country Planning.
Town planning as urban design.

56. Town plans as detailed blueprints or 'master' plans
• This was directly analogous to the work of architects where an architect's make a design
of a detailed plan or blueprint for a building or some other structure.
• Just as a building can be constructed from an architect's final drawings, a town can be
developed by reference to its master plan.
• The 'blueprint’ is a type of plan produced for the new towns in the 1940s and 1950s.
• This plan was as detailed as far as possible to guide future development.
• Plans were seen as 'blueprints' for the future form of towns as statements of 'end-states'
that would one day be reached.

57. Criticisms of Post-war Planning Theory
• Social Blindness
• Physical Determinism
• Lack of Consultation
• Blueprint Planning

58. Planning Theory in the 1960s
• Systems theory and rational decision making evolved in other disciplines during the
1940s and 1950s, and they were 'imported' into town planning in the 1960s.
• These ideas had their widest influence on planning thought in the first half of the 1970s.
• During the mid to late 1960s, two distinct theories were emerged.
• One was, the 'systems view' of planning towns, cities, regions, etc as a system of
interconnected parts.
• The other was, the 'rational process' view of planning, which was about the process of
planning, in particular planning as a rational process of decision-making.
The systems and rational process views of planning

59. The Systems View of Planning
• The towns and cities are seen as a systems that require management
• The systems view of planning certainly seemed to meet three of those criticisms.
• Traditional town planning theory lack the understanding of the social and economic life of
cities, because it only focus on physical and aesthetic qualities of the environment, .
• Traditional town planning lacks understanding of the complexity and inter-relatedness of
urban life.
• The traditional 'master’ plans had been criticized for its inflexibility.
• 'System' is something composed of interconnected parts.
• Just as we can think of living organisms as systems, we can take human-made entities such
as cities and their regions as systems.
• A city can be viewed as a system in which its parts are different land-uses interconnected via
transport and other communications medias (Brian McLoughlin, 1965a)

60. The Systems View of Planning…
• Cities are viewed as inter-related systems of activities and places, it follows that a change
to one part of the city will cause changes to some other part.
• Any proposed development must be evaluated in terms of its probable effects, including
its effects on activities and places far beyond the actual sites where the new development
was proposed.
• This suggested the need for a new kind of planner who trained in analyzing and
understanding how cities and regions functioned spatially in economic and social terms.
• The town planning seeks to plan the physical environments (towns, cities, regions, etc.)
and control those systems.

61. The Systems View of Planning…
• Control over a system requires a prior understanding of the system to be controlled, then
we can define town planning as a form of systems analysis and control.
• Systems theory emphasis on activity dynamism and change which suggested the need
for adaptable flexible plans such as 'structure' plans.
• System view of town planning as an ongoing process of monitoring, analyzing and
intervening in fluid situations.
• This broader concept of planning was reflected in the new 'structure' plan introduced by
Town and Country Planning Act in 1968 .

62. The Rational Process View of Planning
• Rational process view is clearly a procedural theory.
• First there must be some problem or goal which prompts the need for a plan of action.
From an analysis of this, a definition of the problem or goal is addressed.
• The second stage is to consider whether there are alternative ways of solving the problem
(or achieving the aim).
• The third is to evaluate which of the feasible alternatives is most likely to achieve the
desired end.
• Continually undertaking such evaluations to consider what to do.

63. Planning as a process of rational action

64. Planning as a political process
• This planning theory believe that the planners should involve themselves actively in the
political process by acting as 'advocates' for client groups within the public, especially
disadvantaged or minority groups whose interests were not well represented in the process
of planning ( Davidoff, 1960).
• This anti-traditionalist town planning approach was given political expression by the
American and French revolutions.
• This thought to construct a new social and political order based on axiomatic principles
derived from reason rather than tradition.
• Protest aroused against two kinds of modern development in British cities in the 1960s.
• First, there were massive housing redevelopment in the19th century, which swept terraces
and replaced high-rise buildings.

65. Planning as a political process…
• The second protest was for new urban motorways to accommodate the rising tide of
motor traffic.
• Both the systems and the rational process views of planning tended to overlook the value
of politics in town planning.
• The government response in Britain to the political contentiousness of town planning
found expression in the 'Skeffington Report' on public participation in planning, as well as
a more radical view of participation.

66. Planning as a capitalism (1970s to1990s)
• Hall and his colleagues (1973) attributed the Marxist theory, the system of
capitalism to planning in 1970s.
• In liberal capitalist societies a central feature of the political economy of land
development is the system of private property rights and a 'free' competitive
market in land and development.
• Town planning in economic context is about shaping urban development in
relation to the market system.
• According to Pickvance (1970), town planning practice cannot be separated from
political and economic context of the market.

67. Planning as a Communicative Action in 1990s
• The communicative planning theory came to prominence in the 1990s.
• The communicative planning theorists adopted a wide, all-embracing view of
communication which encompassed debate and argument (Healey, 1992b; Fischer and
Forester, 1993) .
• Sager spoke about a new 'communicative planning theory in 1994’
• Innes (1995) wrote about an emerging 'paradigm' in planning theory concerned with
'communicative action and interactive practice’.