1. METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
• Distinguish opinion from truth (Nakikilala ang pagkakaiba ng katotohanan sa
opinyon);
• Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth (Nahihinuha
na patungo sa katotohanan ang mga pamamaraan ng pamimilosopiya); and
• Evaluate truth from opinions in different situations using the method of
philosophizing (Natataya ang katotohanan at opinyon sa iba't -ibang sitwasyon
gamit ang pamamaraan ng pamimilosopiya).
2. Lesson 1: Distinguish
Opinion from Truth
• Determine the differences between truth and
knowledge;
• Distinguish opinion from truth by analyzing given
situation correctly; and
• Illustrate the three perspectives reagarding truth.
3. When your mother asks you to look
for a missing object at home:
Friend:T
ara na!YOLOpre!
Mom: Kung di mo makikita! Makikita
mo!!!!
When your friend asks you to join
them in a gimmick:
4. PERCEPTION
A process in which a man
organizes and interprets his
sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their
environment.
Two types of perception
External perception
happens when we try to understand things using our 5
senses.
product is called percept
When you perceive a chair, you have the percept of a
chair.
Internal perception
happens when you use your imagination and memory
product is called image or phantasm
5. ABSTRACTION
The stage that distinguishes us from an
imals.
Abstraction in philosophy is the process of forming a
concept by identifying common features among a group
of individuals, or by ignoring unique aspects of these
individuals.
Product is called concepts
6. JUDGEMENT
This is where we make a stand on
a certain topic
that could either be true or false to the world.
Result is called statement/ proposition
Completes the act before knowledge becomes
possible
7. • perception
• Statements or propositions if observed to be real or truthful are
consideredfacts.
⚬ However, if these are NOT evidently known to be true these
are called claims.
• abstraction
• statement/ proposition
8. Opinion
statements go beyond
providing facts. It could
provide conclusions or
perspectives regarding
certain issues
Conclusion
It is a judgement
based on certain
facts
Beliefs
statements that express
convictions that are not
easily and clearly explained
by facts
Explanation
These are statements that are assumed to be true and provide reasons
why the statement is true.
9. TRUTH
Truth is the property of being in accord with fact or
reality. In everyday language, truth is typically ascribed
to things that aim to represent reality or otherwise
correspond to it, such as beliefs, propositions, and
declarative sentences.
KNOWLEDGE
clear awareness and undersanding of
something
FACTS
Propositions or statements which are
observed to be real or truthful
CLAIM
Statements that are not evidently or
immediately known to be true
11. Three Perspectives Regarding Truth
• A belief is true if it can be justified or proven
through the use ofone's senses
⚬ I am alive.
⚬ I am here today.
⚬ I am feeling well today.
In Philosophy, we apply systematic doubt:
⚬ Am I alive?
⚬ Am I here today?
⚬ Do I fell well today?
The obvious answer is to examine yourself.
If your answer is "yes" then you can conclude with
certainty that the previous statements about yourself
are true.
Systematic Doubt
Rene Descarte's Skeptical
method
• Cogito Ergo Sum
• Rationalism: reason and
logic considered the basis of
knowledge and belief
12. Three Perspectives Regarding Truth
2. A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
⚬ I am a Filipino.
⚬ I am a responsible student.
⚬ I love my country.
Applying systematic doubt:
⚬ Am I a Filipino?
⚬ Am I a responsible student?
⚬ Do I love my country?
Obviously to answer these questions is use a "priori
knowledge" to conclude with certainty that the previous
statements you claim are true.
David Hume
Empiricism
• Knowledge is gained
through the senses and
experience
13. Three Perspectives Regarding Truth
3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief
• But this approach has certain limitations
14. Three Perspectives
Regarding Truth
• A belief is true if it can be justified or
proven through senses
• A belief or statement is true if it is based
on facts.
• Getting aconsensusor having people
agree on a common belief
15. • It takes 15 minutes to finish the Flag Raising
Ceremony before the class starts.
• Ana is a lazy student, I talked to her yesterday
she did not respond.
ACTIVITY 1: Fact or Opinion
16. FACT or OPINION
• It takes me an hour to walk from school to home.
• Living near the school is better because we don't have
to spend much for transportation.
• My sister ate the last pizza.
• My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last
pizza and did not share it with me.
• The policemen firmly pushed the suspect to his knees
and placed him in handcuffs.
• The aggressive manner by which the policeman
arrested the suspect is an example of the brutality that
characterizes our police force.
Direction: Apply systematic doubt in analyzing the following statements. Describe how you
will determine the truthfulness.
18. David Hume's Analytic and Empirical Statements
Let us analyze the following statements:
• A kitten is a young cat.
• An adult cat is not a kitten.
• A kitten is on the mat.
Analytic Statement (ideas)
• Truth or falsity of a knowledge claim could be found within the statement itself.
⚬ "A bachelor is an unmarried male of marriageable age."
• If denied it could lead to absurdity or contradiction.
• Tautalogous statements: saying of the same twice over in different words:
⚬ "No bachelor has a mother-in-law."
19. David Hume's Analytic and Empirical Statements
Analytic Statement (ideas)
Analytic Statements:
• truths of language
• truths of reason
• is of identity
• a priori
• matters of logic
• formal statements
20. David Hume's Analytic and Empirical Statements
Let us analyze the following statements:
• "All ducts are white."
• "Face-to-face learners will go to school twice a week."
Empirical Statement (matters of fact)
• Truth or falsity of a statement depends on the current state of affairs
• Based on correspondence or facts
⚬ "The sky is blue."
⚬ "The cat is on the mat."
⚬ "He is an honest man."
• You need to go outside of the statement to prove the claim if it corresponds with
the empirical world.
21. David Hume's Analytic and Empirical Statements
Empirical Statement (empirical world)
Empirical Statements:
• truths of fact
• synthetic
• matters of fact
• posteriori statements
22. RATIONALISM
• reason and logic considered the basis of knowledge
and belief;
• man has innate knowledge that can be accessed
through intuition or deduction.
Rene Descartes
Immanuel Kant
Gottfried Leibniz
23. Theories of Truth
• Coherence Theory
• Correspondence Theory
• Pragmatic Theory
24. Coherence Theory
• well-formed formulas (wff)
• a matter of consistency within the system
• Faculty of reason is the one responsible for the
formal types of knowledge that we accept.
25. Coherence Theory
States that if a proposition coheres will all the other
propositions taken to be true, then it is true.
• 'The snow is white.'
⚬ One needs to check if it is consistent with other
beliefs known to be true:
⚬ a. 'Ice is white.'
⚬ b. 'Snow is frozen water.'
⚬ c. 'Frozen water is ice.'
⚬ Problem: Can't a body of false statements be
coherent as well? What made others' beliefs
true?
26. EMPIRICISM
• knowledge is gained through the sense and
experience.
• reliance on inductive reasoning to arrive at
generalizxation
DAVID HUME
FRANCIS BACON
JOHN LOCKE
27. Correspondence Theory
States that a proposition is true if it is
corresponding to the facts
• 'The snow is white.'
⚬ One needs to check if the statement corresponds to
facts
⚬ Strength: simplicity and appeal to common sense
⚬ Problem: What about religious truth?
￭ If we can't see God, does it mean there is no God?
28. PragmaticTheory
States that a proposition is true if it is useful to believe
• practical consequences of an idea.
• 'The snow is white.'
⚬ One needs to check if the proposition works in
reality; specifying the pigment white and
checking to see if different snow samples exhibit
the white pigment
⚬ Problem: If fake news works, does it become true?
WILLIAM JAMES
Father of Pragmatism
29. PRAGMATISM
⚬ emphasis on the practical use of knowledge CHARLES PEIRCE
WILLIAM JAMES
JOHN DEWEY
Modern period (19th to 20th century)
30. Let us have a drill
• Read and analyze the following statement, Determine
if it is a Coherence Theory, Correspondence Theory,
or a Pragmatic Theory:
• Government does not mean the head of the state
alone.
• RSHS III is classified as a large type of school.
• My seatmate is a good person, he shares his answers
in the test.
• I understand the lesson.
• That which is blue is not colored.
31. Lesson II
Methods of Philosophizing
OBJECTIVES:
• Discuss the various philosophical methods in
determining the truth.
• J ustify the validity of statement "The scientific
method leads to wisdom and truth; and
• Compare the Socratic Method, dialectic Method, and
the Scientific Method as methods of philosophizing
33. RATIONALISM
reason and logic
considered the basis of
knowledge and belief
• RENE DESCARTES
• IMMANUEL KANTZ
• GOTTFRIED LEUBNIZ
Notable Philosophers
man has innate
knowledge that can be
accessed through
intuition or deduction
34. Science
Scientia Greek word: "to produce knowledge"
Aristotle: Deductive Reasoning
• Founder of Lyceum
• Philosophy: all ideas and views are based on perception and our
reality is based on what we can sense and perceive: Physical
Sciences
Scientific Method: Empirical Method
Process of determing truth or knowledge through experimentation,
inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing
35. Premise: All known fish species in this
genus have yellow fins;
Conclusion: Any newly discovered
species in the genus is likely to have
yellow fins.
Scientific Method
• INDUCTIVE REASONING:
⚬ From specific premises to form
general conclusion
Premise: This volcano has erupted about
every 500 years for the last 1 million
years. It last erupted 499 years ago.
Conclusion: It will erupt again soon.
36. Premise: All plants with rainbow berries
are poisonous. This plant has rainbow
berries.
Conclusion:This plant is poisonous..
Scientific Method
• DEDUCTIVE REASONING:
⚬ Using general premises to form a
specific conclusion
Premise: I am lactose intolerant,people
get sick when they consume dairy. This
milkshake contains dairy.
Conclusion: I will get sick if I drink this
milkshake.
37. How can I be a leader?
Can you think of previous experience when
someone asked you to take charged?
My mother did when my parents leave the country
for a week for conference then I was asked to take
charge of my younger siblings while they were
away.
SOCRATIC METHOD
DIDACTIC DIALOGUE: expressed in the
critical examination and cross examination
of the propositions of every participant to
the conversation
• intends not to convey new truth but only
as a GUIDE to arriving the truth
So what did you learn about your previous
experience of taking-in-charge?
How will you apply this to your present
situation?
38. Inductive
Reasoning
from specific to general
Deductive
Reasoning
from general to specific
• All garments are worn.
⚬ All worn things are used.
⚬ Therefore all garments are used.
an argument whose relations between its
premis/ s and its conclusion is of necessity
Logic: bra nch of Philosophy w hich dea ls w ith correct rea soning
• Everyday since I was born, the sun
has risen from the East.
⚬ Therefore, tomorrow the sun will
rise from the East.
an argument whose relations between its
premis/ s and its conclusion is of probability.
39. Identify the following statement
Inductive or Deductive
• All Triangles are white.
• All white things are colorless.
• Therefore, all triangles are colorless.
2. All oranges are fruits.
• All fruits grow on trees.
• Therefore, all oranges grow on trees.
3. The chair in the living room is red.
• The chair in the dining is red. The chair in the
bedroom is red.
• Therefore, All the chairs in the house is red.
Let us have another Drill
Drill No. 2
4. Bob is taller than his wife, and his wife
is taller than his son.
• So, Bob is taller than his son.
5. All men are mortal.
• Socrates is a man.
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
40. The Dialectic Method: base a discourse between two or
more people holding differenet points of view about a
subject but wishing to establish the truth through
reasoned methods or argumentation
• it resembles a debate but the concept excludes
subjective elements
41. Module 2-Lesson 2
Diale c tic Me thod
to inquire or cross-examine
• ask, find, or use examples
• reject
• ask again
SOCRATIC METHOD
Origin
DIALECTIC METHOD SCIENTiFiC METHOD
Me aning
Me t hod s
elenchus
Purp ose
to gain the truth
""the art of conversation"
• ask
• clarify
• reject
dialektike
knowledge and truth
to produce knowledge
• define a question from a
hypothesis
• perform an experiment
• collect data
• draw conclusions
• publish results
scientia
wisdom and to know
42. Evaluating Truth from Opinions using the methods of
philosophizing
OBJECTIVES:
• Determine the truth from opinion;
• Evaluate arguments and ways of expressing one's beliefs, emotions, and opinions;
and
• Illustrate methods or ways of looking at truth and considered as mere opinion
Lesson 3
Module 2
43. Arguments
Series of statements that provide reasons
to convince the reader or listener that a
claim or opinion is truthful
Critical thinking
• "kritikos" (to separate)
• "ana"-throughout
• "lusis"- to loosen
Thinking Analytically
44. Fallacies
• Fallacies are arguments
based on faulty reasoning.
Some may be intentional,
some are not.
Bias
• Bias are personal views of the
person presenting an opinion.
They are tendencies or
influences which affect the
views of people.
45. Fallac ie s Charac t e rist ic s Exam p le
ad hominem
ad baculum
(appeal to force)
ad misericordiam
( appelal to pity)
attacking the person
presenting the argument
instead of the argument
itself
using a threat or force
or an undesirable event
to advance an argument
using emotion such as
pity or sympathy
"Of course, he believes
that the government is
flawed, he is a rebel and
a communists!"
If you do not agree with
my political opinions,
you will receive flat 70
on your grades
"You can't fire me: I have
a wife and 12 kids who
will go hungry if I lose
this job."
46. Fallac ie s Charac t e rist ic s Exam p le
ad populum (appeal to
the majority)
ad antiquities
(appeal to tradition)
fallacy of composition
the idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot
of people accept it
the idea is acceptable
because it has been
true for a long timet
assuming that what is
true for the whole
"Every boy your age
already has a girlfriend,
you should go find one."
"Marriage should be between man
and a woman. It has been so far true
for a long time in this country; it
should remain today and in the
future."
"These cases of robbery in this
district have convinced me that
the city has become a den of
thieves and criminals."
47. Fallac ie s Charac t e rist ic s Exam p le
petitio principi
(begging the question)
fallacy of division
post hoc
( cause-and-effect)
assuming that the thing or
idea to be proven is true; also
known as "circular argument"
assuming that what is true
for the whole is true to its
parts
assuming a "cause-and-
effect"
Relationship between
unrelated events
"I have a right to free speech;
therefore, you cannot stop me
from talking."
"You came from a family of doctors
and intellectuals! Surely you can do
better in this subject."
Ever since you bought that
sweater, everything has been
going wrong in your life. You
should get rid of it."
48. BIAS Charac t e rist ic s Exam p le
Correspondence Bias
Confirmation Bias
Conflict of Interest
tendency to judge a person's
personaliy by his/her actions,
without regard for external factors
or influences.
The tendency to look for and
accept information in a way that
confirms one's own beliefs and
rejects ideas that go against it
a person or group is
connected to or has a vested
interest in the issue being
discussed
"These soldiers who fought in
the war are all bloodthirsty
murderers!"
"How can I accept this view that
there is no God? I am a Christian!"
"As the daughter of the accused,
I believe I have the right to
express my opinion on the issue
of his alleged corrupt practices."
49. BIAS Charac t e rist ic s Exam p le
Cultural Bias
Framing
analyzing an event or issue
based on one's cultural
standards
focusing on a certain aspect of a
problem while ignoring other
aspects
" I do not agree with this
Western practice of placing
aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take care
of our family members."
""Preliminary evidence has still
not pointed out the actual cause
of the plane crash, but
investigations are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error."
51. Phenomenology
Edmund Husserl
a method of finding and
guaranteeing the truth that focuses
on careful inspection and description
of phenomena or appearances.
phainomenon: appearance
52. Activities for all types of learners:
• Answer Module 2 - Worksheet via G Form.
• Use module(SLM) as your primary reference and for
consideration and added notes refer to the lecture
presentation uploaded via files.
• Prepare for a Summative Test (Module 1 and 2)
