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Lead 705 ppt 12
- 2. “Thin-Slicing” A Conversation • Can the first few minutes of communication define the course of the conversation and the benefits or costs derived from it? • These first few minutes are referred to as “thin slices” of behavior • A thin slice of behavior predicted professional competence as rated by a person conducting an employment interview • Based on both verbal and nonverbal behaviors Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 2
- 3. What Is Organizational Communication? • Organizational Communication--The process by which individuals stimulate meaning in the minds of other individuals by means of verbal or nonverbal messages in the context of a formal organization Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 3
- 4. What Is Organizational Communication? (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 4
- 5. Barriers To Effective Communication • May distort communication • Communication apprehension • Language Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 5
- 6. Barriers To Effective Communication (Cont.) • Active Listening • Three components: • Demonstrating moderate to high nonverbal involvement • Reflecting the speaker’s message using verbal paraphrasing • Asking questions that encourage speakers to elaborate on their experiences Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 6
- 7. Barriers To Effective Communication (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 7
- 8. Communication Networks Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 8
- 9. Communication Networks (Cont.) • Communication flows in organizations • External • Internal • Downward • Lateral • Upward Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 9
- 10. Communication Networks (Cont.) • The Grapevine • Emerges when the situation: • Is important • Is ambiguous • Causes anxiety Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 10
- 11. Communication Networks (Cont.) • The Grapevine • Three characteristics • Not controlled by management • Perceived as being more believable and reliable (and often is) • Largely used to serve self-interest of those willing to communicate Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 11
- 12. Electronic Communication • E-mail • Text messages • Social networking • Video conferencing (e.g., Skype) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 12
- 13. Electronic Communication (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 13
- 14. Electronic Communication (Cont.) • Limitations of E-Mail • Easy to misinterpret • Should not be used for negative messages • Overused and overwhelms • People are emotionally uninhibited • Privacy concerns Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 14
- 15. Electronic Communication (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 15
- 16. Electronic Communication (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 16
- 17. Electronic Communication (Cont.) • Text Messages • Essentially real-time • Inexpensive • Good for short messages • Some find it intrusive and distracting • May be inappropriate for formal business messages Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 17
- 18. Electronic Communication (Cont.) • Social Networking • Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, and so on • Estimated more than two billion people worldwide are making use of social media platforms • Social Networking has caveats Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 18
- 19. Cross-Cultural Communication • Semantics--Words mean different things to different people • Word connotations--Words imply different things in different languages • Tone differences--In some cultures tone changes depending on context • Differences in perception--Different worldviews Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 19
- 20. Cross-Cultural Communication (Cont.) • Cultural Context • High-context cultures--rely on non-verbals and subtle situational cues (e.g., China, Korea, Japan) • Low-context cultures--rely on spoken and written words (e.g., Europe, North America) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 20
- 21. Cross-Cultural Communication (Cont.) • Cultural Communication Guide • Assume differences until similarity is proved • Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation • Practice empathy • Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 21
- 22. Non-Verbal Communication • Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, posture, gestures, and tone of voice. • About 55% of understanding a verbal message is attributed to facial expressions • 38% of meaning is attributed to verbal tone • Leaders are always being watched by followers for cues Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 22
- 23. Non-Verbal Communication (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 23
- 24. Silence • Intentionally withholding meaningful information from management • Includes not asking questions, expressing concerns, and/or offering suggestions Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 24
- 25. Silence (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 25
- 26. Silence (Cont.) • Effects of Organizational Silence • Lowers job satisfaction and organizational commitment • Stifles organizational change • Impairs decision making • Enables corruption Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 26
- 27. Leadership Implications: The Management Of Meaning • Leaders influence followers through effective communication that helps them make sense of organizational events • They also use effective communication to give followers a sense of meaning in their work which motivates them • They use framing as a tool Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 27
Editor's Notes
- Can the first few minutes of communication define the course of the conversation and the benefits or costs derived from it? These first few minutes are referred to as “thin slices” of behavior. Thin slices were studied by having college students evaluate 30-s video clips of instructors teaching a class. These quick evaluations significantly predicted teacher ratings at the end of the semester. Research on thin slicing has shown that early interactions (minutes) predict conviction of criminals and divorce (in some cases, months or years in the future). This fascinating line of research has revealed the surprising finding that observation of a thin slice of behavior (minutes or even seconds) predicts important outcomes such as professional competence as rated by a person conducting an employment interview. Early cues are often based on both verbal and nonverbal behaviors in communication. Another study examined the accuracy of a five-second thin slice of another person with respect to their personality characteristics. Results of this experiment found that negative affect, extraversion, conscientiousness, and intelligence were judged moderately well after just five seconds of exposure. However, positive affect, neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness required more exposure time to achieve similar levels of accuracy.
- Learning Objective 12.1: Describe the communication process, and discuss sources of noise in the process. Communication is important for job interviews and negotiating the best deals. Also, positive organizational communication relates to both job performance and satisfaction. Organizational communication has been referred to as “the social glue that ties organizations together.”
- Learning Objective 12.1: Describe the communication process, and discuss sources of noise in the process. Figure 12.1. The Communication Process. The key elements of the communication process are shown in Figure 12.1 above. These are described in the following sections: The sender. This is the source transmission who selects a desired message out of a set of possible messages. The selected message may consist of written or spoken words, pictures, music, or combinations of these. The message may also contain nonverbal behaviors such as gestures. For example, a leader prepares a speech for her employees consisting of a written outline and a PowerPoint presentation that contains graphs and pictures. Encoding. This is the transformation of the message into the signal, which is sent over the communication channel from the transmitter to the receiver. For example, if a leader makes a speech to employees, the leader is the encoder. The channel. The channel is the medium that transmits the message. In the previously given example, the channels are the leader’s voice and the projector that shows slides that accompany the speech. The choice of communication channel (or medium) is influenced by institutional conditions (e.g., incentives, trust, and physical proximity) and situational conditions (e.g., urgency, task) and by the routine use of the media over time. Research has indicated that the choice of communication medium (e.g., e-mail versus face-to-face) affects both attitudes and behaviors of the receiver. Decoding. The receiver then decodes the message sent through the selected channel or channels by translating what is seen and heard into an understanding of the message. This is not a perfect process since there is noise in the communication process that affects the decoding process. Noise is any communication barrier that may affect how a person interprets a message. For example, perceptual biases, language choice, cultural differences, and the room being too hot may affect how a person decodes a message and result in errors. This is why feedback is so important in the communication process. A leader must check to see that the message was understood by followers. They need to know whether followers understood the speech. This might be accomplished by inviting followers to e-mail with questions and comments after the speech. The receiver. The receiver is the person or persons who receive the message. There may be noise on the receiver’s part as well. For example, the receiver may not be paying attention or they may be distracted by noise in the room.
- Learning Objective 12.2: Provide an example of how communication apprehension affects the communication process. Communication apprehension--An individual’s level of fear or anxiety with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. Language--Words may have different meanings to different people even if they are communicating in the same language. Example: what does the word scale mean?
- Learning Objective 12.2: Provide an example of how communication apprehension affects the communication process. Experimental research has shown study participants who receive active listening responses feel they are understood better than participants who receive either advice or a simple acknowledgment. This research also found participants with active listening responses were more satisfied with their conversations. Active listening has three components: It demonstrates moderate to high nonverbal involvement. It reflects the speaker’s message using verbal paraphrasing. It may include asking questions that encourage speakers to elaborate on his or her experiences. Leaders must become active listeners to be more effective since listening allows them to verify their communications clarify messages and encourage more two-way communication with followers. Based on research evidence, active-listening is a skill that effective leaders need to develop.
- Learning Objective 12.2: Provide an example of how communication apprehension affects the communication process. Table 12.1. Guidelines for Active Listening in Organizations. Guidelines for active listening are provided in Table 12.1 above.
- Learning Objective 12.3: Compare and contrast different forms of communication networks. Figure 12.2. Communication Networks. Figure 12.2 above depicts some of common communication networks. First, the wheel network indicates all communication flows through one person who is most likely the group leader. This is the most centralized communication network shown. Wheel facilitates leadership development. The next one is the Circle communication network in which each person can communicate with two others located adjacent to them. The all channel (or star) pattern is more decentralized and allows a free flow of information among all group members. All-channel provides member satisfaction. The chain gives a flow of information among members although the people are at the end of the chain. Chain gives best accuracy. Finally, the Y-pattern is slightly less centralized than the all channel network since two persons are closer to the center of the network.
- Learning Objective 12.3: Compare and contrast different forms of communication networks. Communication flows in organizations through: External--information shared with the public through marketing and public relations Internal--communication inside the organization Downward--from leaders to their followers Lateral--from peer to peer Upward--from followers to their leaders
- Learning Objective 12.3: Compare and contrast different forms of communication networks. Much communication in organizations happens through the informal network known as the grapevine. The term grapevine is believed to have originated during the Civil War when messages were transmitted through telegraph lines strung from tree to tree resembling grapevines. Information transmitted through grapevines is often rumor and gossip, but it is still an important source of information that leaders need to tap into. The grapevine is a common network that has been shown to be an effective mode of communication. Typically the grapevine is not controlled by management nor do they feed it information. However, employees see it as a very believable and reliable form of communication. The grapevine has no formal purpose, but is mainly there to serve the self-interests of those who use it, developing from a need for these individuals to get more information about an important, but ambiguous situations. The grapevine can be a way to receive information about the situation and reduce anxiety as well as fill a social need to connect.
- Learning Objective 12.3: Compare and contrast different forms of communication networks.
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication. Electronic communication consists of the following: E-mail has become a primary mode for communicating in organizations. Even employees who work in offices next to one another often communicate by e-mail rather than face-to-face (see Table 12.2--Netiquette Rules) Text messages--e-mail more commonly used for organizational communication Social networking—For example, Instragram, Facebook, Twitter Video conferencing (e.g., Skype)
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication. Table 12.2: Netiquette Rules. The Internet has evolved over time, and there are now rules for how to be polite in e-mail. This is termed netiquette (e-mail etiquette). Whether you are communicating with a prospective employer or to others you work with, it is sound advice to show good manners. Without knowing netiquette, you might annoy or even offend someone unintentionally. Ten rules for netiquette are shown in Table 12.2 above. You should be familiar with these rules to avoid social blunders in email communication. The lack of visual cues may lead to difficulty interpreting the meaning of e-mail communication. Miscommunications of emotion occur in e-mail messages more than face-to-face communications, and this affects both the relationships and the information conveyed. These miscommunications affect both satisfaction and performance.
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication.
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication. Table 12.3. Questions to Consider for After-Hours Electronic Communication. Managers need to be mindful of employees’ needs to “unplug” from work. Table 12.3 above provides some guidelines for electronic communication at work.
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication. Table 12.3. Questions to Consider for After-Hours Electronic Communication. Managers need to be mindful of employees’ needs to “unplug” from work. Table 12.3 above provides some guidelines for electronic communication at work.
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication. With the ubiquitous use of smartphones and other mobile devices, employees can now check e-mail and send text messages more frequently than ever (even during evenings and weekends). Text messages are far more likely to be sent from handheld mobile devices than from desktop or laptop computers. The Cellular Telecommunications & Internet Association (CTIA) reports that in 2015, there were over 1.9 trillion text messages United States (that’s over 4 million per minute). For business communications, it is important to follow the rules of grammar and capitalization and avoid abbreviations (brb for “be right back,” for example). Due to their brevity, text messages will probably never replace e-mail as the primary mode for electronic business communications. Also, there are concerns about the privacy of text messages.
- Learning Objective 12.4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic communication. It is estimated that more than two billion people worldwide are making use of social media platforms. You are probably familiar with social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram. Being central to a communication network may result in more power. But social networking has caveats. It is important to keep in mind that if your social media site such as Facebook is public, your current or prospective employers might check it. It’s best to assume that what you post may become public, so discretion matters
- Learning Objective 12.5: Provide an example of how to communicate effectively across cultures. Communication, as we have seen, can be difficult to do effectively. Cross-cultural factors can increase that difficulty. So it is important for managers to understand the culture in which they are working. They should be careful of the words they use to make sure they are translatable and don’t hold double meanings. They need to understand how their tone, body language or perceptions will differ based on culture. The context is so important to understanding what is being communicated. In low-context cultures people tend to rely more on words, where high-context cultures will rely more on the whole situation.
- Learning Objective 12.5: Provide an example of how to communicate effectively across cultures. High-Context Cultures An important aspect of cross-cultural communication is nonverbal communication. Gestures may not mean the same thing in different cultures. For example, in the United States, not making eye contact may be associated with not telling the truth. However, in certain Arabic cultures, it may be viewed as rude and intrusive to look into another person’s eyes. Another example is how close you should be to a person. In Japan, people are comfortable at about 30.2 inches apart. In Venezuela, it is 32.2 inches; and in the United States, it is 35.4. For example, someone from Venezuela could make someone from the United States very uncomfortable by unknowingly invading their space. As these examples illustrate, knowledge of the meaning of nonverbal communication is essential in preparing for an interaction with a person from another culture. The ability to communicate effectively with those from other cultures is now an essential leadership skill. Low-Context Cultures Another study examined the differences in the ways that CEOs of Fortune Global 500 2016 corporations in China and the US communicated with shareholders by analyzing the wording they used in the annual letter to shareholders. The results showed significant differences in communication styles: Chinese leaders tend to be more instrumental, elaborate, and competitive while US leaders are more emotional, succinct, and harmonious. An example of an intercultural study examined business meetings between British and Chinese managers and found mismatches in expectations regarding silence during meetings resulted in feelings of “uncomfortable silence.” These cultural differences can result in misunderstandings, even if communication is in English. Translation adds yet another layer of complexity that may lead to misunderstandings.
- Learning Objective 12.5: Provide an example of how to communicate effectively across cultures. Being aware that differences exist can go a long ways toward helping you avoid an awkward situation in another cultural context. Be sure to work on emphasizing description of events and tasks rather than interpretation or evaluation. Practice empathy when you are communicating with others and watch your own interpretations to make sure you are not drawing conclusions prematurely.
- Learning Objective 12.6: Discuss the significance of the percentages of verbal and nonverbal face-to-face communication. Nonverbal communication is “the sending and receiving of thoughts and feelings via nonverbal behavior.” Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, posture, gestures, and tone of voice. Nonverbal communication serves the following functions in organizations: Display of personal attributes. Nonverbal communication reveals information about a person’s personality, intentions, and attitudes. In other words, people “give off signals” to what they are really thinking and feeling. Establishment of dominance and hierarchy. Nonverbal cues of power are responded to with nonverbal cues that signify submission. Other nonverbal behaviors associated with power include talking time and interruption. In addition to “power posing” (recall this research covered in Chapter 7), eye contact, tone of voice, and facial expressions are used to signal who is in control in organizations. Promotion of social functioning. Beyond influencing others via dominance and power cues, followership and social coordination can be achieved via nonverbal displays of competence, prestige, and persuasion. For example, people are more likely to follow those who exhibit charisma, and nonverbal behaviors are an effective tool in communicating these elements in charismatic leaders. For example, conveying passion through body language, such as animated body gestures and voice and message-appropriate expressions, contributes to a charismatic leader’s effectiveness. Fostering high-quality relationships. Nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact and facial expressions increase the development of rapport between employees. Nonverbal messages enhance coordination behaviors, such as mimicking another person’s expressions, can also create affiliation and trust. A study of leaders and their direct reports found that supervisors’ nonverbal kinesics (e.g., nodding of the head appropriately) led to greater relational identification with the leader. Display of emotions. An employee’s emotional displays influent the emotional experiences of other employees due to the emotional contagion process. Emotions are manifested via facial expressions, bodily gestures, and tone of voice which are processed by others. For example, authentic smiles as compared to inauthentic smiles, lead to greater positive customer emotional reactions, good customer-employee rapport, which influence customer satisfaction.
- Learning Objective 12.6: Discuss the significance of the percentages of verbal and nonverbal face-to-face communication. Figure 12.3. Elements of Face-to-Face Communication. As shown in Figure 12.3 above, when it comes to face-to-face communication, approximately 7% of a person’s understanding of others is attributed to words, whereas 38% is attributed to verbal tone and 55% is attributed to facial expressions. The meaning of a message can even be negated by a facial expression or a person rolling their eyes. For example, if a person says, “I love my accounting class” and rolls their eyes, it means the opposite of what they are saying. If a nonverbal message contradicts a verbal message, the nonverbal message will carry the meaning. On the other hand, nonverbal messages can reinforce a verbal message. For example, a leader can raise their voice slightly while speaking to emphasize a point they are making to the team. Leaders are observed constantly, and every action is analyzed by others. So, it’s important to pay attention to nonverbal as well as verbal communication.
- Learning Objective 12.7: Explain why employees remain silent or withhold information and how to address this. Employee silence is the intentional withholding of meaningful information from management, which includes asking questions expressing concerns and offering suggestions. Employees who have negative emotions and also worry about their job situation are more likely to withhold information. This effect was even stronger for employees whose jobs had high demands for problem solving. Types of incidents to which respondents reported remaining silent in a research study. Most common incidents: Experience unfair treatment, someone else behaving unethically, concerns about a coworker’s competence or performance, and operation process concern and/or idea for improvement.
- Learning Objective 12.7: Explain why employees remain silent or withhold information and how to address this. Table 12.4. Types of Incidents to Which Respondents Reported Remaining Silent. Climates of organizational silence emerge due to organizational structures or policies, managerial practices, and degree of demographic dissimilarity between employees and top managers. A sample of 461 MBAs and managers were asked if they had intentionally remained silent about an issue at work, and 95% stated that they had. The types of incidents reported in the study are shown in Table 12.4 above. The most common type of silence incident was unfair treatment (21%). Given recent attention to ethics at the workplace, it is disturbing that the second most common silence incident was someone else behaving unethically (17.6%). Concerns about a coworker’s competence or performance (16.8%) and operational process concerns and/or ideas for improvement (13.3%) were other areas where employees withheld information.
- Learning Objective 12.7: Explain why employees remain silent or withhold information and how to address this. Organizational silence can have detrimental effects on decision making by blocking alternative views, negative feedback, and accurate information. Managerial secrecy combined with employee silence may combine to enable corruption. Remaining silent has negative consequences for employees as well. Research has shown silence is negatively related to job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In sum, organizational silence has numerous negative outcomes for both employees and the organization.
- Leaders have an influence on the degree to which employees voice their concerns and suggestions up the organizational hierarchy. Framing--Managing meaning by using talk to get followers to act by using metaphors, jargon, and stories in their communications. Leaders create a frame of reference for employees particularly during times of organizational change. Leadership scholar and former President of the University of Cincinnati, Warren Bennis, writes: “To make dreams apparent to others, and to align people with them, leaders must communicate their vision. Communication and alignment work together.” Regardless of the communication channel chosen (i.e., verbal, nonverbal, face-to-face, one-on-one, or formal presentations), leaders interpret what is happening in the organization and what it means for employees. Strategic leadership is the creation and maintenance of organizational systems that result in organized action toward goals.