Avnet Electronics Marketing ushers in the summer solstice with a white paper detailing the Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Solar Technology for Battery Powered Applications. Find more solar applications from Avnet at www.em.avnet.com/solar

1. Fundamentals oF Photovoltaic
solar technology For Battery
Powered aPPlications

2. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Solar Technology for Battery Powered Applications
Solar is a natural energy source for many battery powered applications. With energy harvested from the sun, the size of batteries can be
reduced, or the battery life of a system can be extended. All that’s needed is a solar module, right? Is it really that simple? Let’s take a look
at what’s possible in photovoltaic (PV) solar powered applications.
In its simplest form, a solar cell is essentially a specialized p-n junction, a type of diode. When direct sunlight or indirect light is applied to the
cell, photons strike the cell and collide with electrons. When electrons are impacted with enough energy, they can be elevated from the valence
band to the conduction band, and when swept across the semiconductor junction, an electric current is produced. Multiple PV technologies
are used to create solar cells – crystalline silicon cells have been used for decades. Thin film solar materials are amorphous silicon, cadmium
telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS). Each technology has different efficiency, performance characteristics and cost.
One unique feature of solar modules is that they are sensitive to temperature. Generally, the higher the temperature, the lower the power
output. In addition, solar cells degrade over time, on the order of 20 percent over the course of 20 years.
Table 1. Comparing PV Technologies
Capacitor Type Conversion Efficiency Diffused/Low Light Flexible Cost
Crystalline Silicon 14-18% Not as good No Low
Amorphous Silicon 8% Good Yes Medium
CIGS 11% Good Yes Medium
CdTe 10% Fair No Lowest
How to maximize energy from solar modules.
For off-grid applications, the most commonly used cells are crystalline and amorphous silicon. One of the features of crystalline silicon
is that its spectral response curve shows that it is most responsive to the infrared spectrum of light. Direct sunlight is needed for
crystalline silicon solar modules to be most effective. Amorphous silicon cells are less efficient than crystalline silicon (a larger area is
needed to produce the same amount of energy). However, amorphous silicon has a spectral response very similar to that of the human
eye. It produces the most energy from light in the visible spectrum. This means that amorphous silicon solar cells will produce energy
from indirect sunlight, and even from indoor light, under conditions that will not produce much usable energy from crystalline solar cells.
Figure 1. Spectral Sensitivity of PV Technologies
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3. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Solar Technology for Battery Powered Applications
Solar panels have a characteristic I-V curve which varies depending upon irradiance
and temperature. Short circuit current (Isc) and open circuit voltage (Voc) are key
operating points shown on the chart below. As can be seen in Figure 2, there is
a point on the IV curve where the panel will be generating maximum power, this
is called maximum power point voltage (VMP) or maximum power point current (IMP).
In many solar applications, the system is designed to operate the panel at this point,
generating maximum power. This is called maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
Because of the maximum power point feature of solar modules, if the impedance of
the load differs significantly from the impedance of the module, much of the energy
generated can be lost. Consider a system to charge a 12 V lead acid battery with a
typical 5 W solar module. In this case, Voc is usually around 21 V, and VMP is around
17 V. If the 12 V lead acid battery is attached directly to the solar module, the output
voltage of the module will drop to 12 V. In Figure 2, if Voc is 21 V, and VMP is 17 V, you
can see that dropping the output of the solar module to 12 V will drop the power of
the module by roughly 30 percent (shown as Vcharge in the figure to the left). What
Figure 2. Solar Panel Voltage/Current and happens to the rest of the power? It is dissipated as heat in the module, and is
Power/Voltage Characteristics not used at all. How can all of the power available from the solar modules be used?
Answer: by making sure that the module operates at the VMP using MPPT.
MPPT can be performed in a variety of ways, usually through an active electronic circuit. One method is called fixed voltage. The circuit removes
the solar panel from the load, and measures Voc and Isc. The VMP is then calculated based on the datasheet of the solar module being used.
This fixed voltage should be adjusted based on temperature. Another common method is to use a specialized DC-DC converter. This method
frequently combines both MPPT and battery charging, using feedback loops both at the input to the converter from the solar module, and at the
output to the battery. One of the most common MPPT algorithms is called Perturb and Observe. The controller measures the output power of the
solar module, and if it is higher than the previous reading, it bumps the output voltage in the same direction as the previous adjustment. If
the output power has decreased, it bumps the output voltage in the opposite direction. This is commonly called a hill climbing algorithm. Many
other MPPT algorithms exist, but the goal of all of them is the same – to operate the panel as close as possible to the maximum power point of
the power curve.
The potential for off-grid solar applications has grown to the point where semiconductor manufacturers have designed and brought to
market specialized devices designed to maximize energy transferred from solar panels, often in combination with a battery charger circuit.
Table 2. PV MPPT and MPPT/Battery Charging ICs:
Part Panel Battery Battery Max Charge Integrated
Supplier Number(s) Voltage (V) Voltage (V) Chemistry Current FETs? MPPT Type Topology Comments
Li-Ion / Thin
Maxim MAX17710 0.8 - 5.5 4.125 20 mA Yes None Boost Additional 1.8, 2.3 and 3.3 V LDO output
Film Batteries
SM72442, Proprietary Buck,
National Solar Magic Programmed 9 - 100 Programmed Programmed No Programmable chipset
SM72295 Algorithm Boost
Provides the MPPT algorithm only
NXP Proprietary Buck,
MPT612 Programmed 5 - 50 Programmed Programmed No using an ARM® Cortex™-M3 core,
Semiconductors Algorithm Boost
everything else is up to the user
Perturb / Boost mode, panel voltage must
STMicroelectronics SPV1040 0.3 - 5 1-5 Trickle Charge 1A Yes Boost
Observe Algorithm always be lower than battery voltage
Li-Ion / Single cell Li-Ion charger, can be used
Texas Instruments BQ24210 3.5 - 7 4.2 800 mA Yes None Buck
Single Cell with solar cell input
Temperature
Li-Ion / Lead Acid, Buck mode, panel voltage must be
Texas Instruments BQ24650 5 - 28 2.6 - 26 10 A No Compensated Buck
Li-Ion Phosphate higher than battery voltage to charge
Voltage
Li-Ion / Thin
Boost mode, panel voltage must
Texas Instruments BQ25504 0.13 - 3 2.5 - 5.25 Film Batteries / 200 mA Yes Constant Voltage Boost
always be lower than battery voltage
Supercapacitors
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4. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Solar Technology for Battery Powered Applications
There are a number of factors that have an obvious impact on the productivity of solar modules. When light strikes a solar cell, the smaller
the angle of incidence (from perpendicular), the more efficient the cell will be. If the solar module doesn’t have a motorized solar tracker to
stay pointed directly at the sun, then the designer must take into account that the solar module won’t be producing maximum energy.
For example, assume that the module is placed flat on the ground or on another surface parallel to the ground. Not only that, but it
is placed in St. Louis, Missouri, in the winter, at noon, and the sun is at 37 degrees (or 53 degrees from perpendicular). Best-case
scenario, the solar module will produce around 55 percent of the total amount of energy it would be capable of producing if the module
were positioned perpendicular to the sun.
Example power production
Let’s look at some crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon solar modules and get a feel for their sizes, and how much energy they will
produce under various conditions. Solar modules are rated for a certain power output – this is called their “DC nameplate rating.”
Nameplate ratings mean irradiance of 1000 W/m2 at 25 °C at specific atmospheric conditions. Unless the module sees 1 KW/m2 at
25C, it will not produce the amount of power rated on the panel.
Table 3. Example PV module power and size comparisons
Power Ratings
Supplier Part Number Full Sun Indoor Size Applications
Powerfilm MPT6-150 6 V 100 mA (600 mW) 1.67 mW CD case Portable electronics
Powerfilm SP3-37 3V 22 mA (66 MW) 140 uW 2/3 Credit card Low power sensors
Solartech Power SPM001P-1 2.75 V 360 mA (1 W) 0.99 mW Smart Phone Wireless sensor node
Solartech Power SPM005P-R 17.1V 290 mA (5 W) 3.08 mW 8.5” x 14” Solar powered lantern
Figure 3. PV Modules
How much energy can the solar module be expected to produce from a given area? Solar module efficiencies for crystalline silicon
are in the range of 13 percent to 18 percent efficient. So, a 1m2 solar module will produce around 150 W. But, again, this is under test
conditions of direct sunlight at 1 KW/m2.
Size vs. Output
• The amorphous silicon MPT6-150 (600 mW) is 4.9” x 5.9”, about the size of a CD case.
• The amorphous silicon SP3-37 (66 mW) module is about the size of a box of Tic-Tacs or, about 2/3 the size of a credit card.
• The 1 W crystalline silicon module is a little bigger than a large smart phone.
• The 5 W solar module is about the size of an 8.5” x 14” sheet of paper.
• A 230 W module is almost the size of a large door or the top of a large desk.
Indoor applications
What about indoor lighting? How much energy can be harvested indoors vs. outdoors? Office lighting seems bright enough – and indoor
light does, obviously, produce a fair amount of visible light. So, the energy output should be about the same, right?
The human eye is magnificent. What the human eye perceives as “bright” and certainly more than enough light to perform daily tasks,
actually may have a very low energy level. Sunlight ranges from 50,000 Lux to 150,000 Lux. Typical office fluorescent lighting ranges
from 200 to 400 Lux – more than two orders of magnitude lower than direct sunlight. Logically then, the energy produced should be one
to two orders of magnitude less than in full sunlight.
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5. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Solar Technology for Battery Powered Applications
Indoor solar applications are possible, however, the output voltages of modules are significantly reduced, and the current generated is
several orders of magnitude reduced. A small, amorphous silicon solar module which produces Voc 4.5 V, Isc 48.5 mA in direct sunlight,
would produce Voc 2.1 V, Isc 90 uA in an office environment at 250 Lux fluorescent lighting. So, micro-watts of power are possible, but
unless a large enough solar module is used, milliwatts of power are not possible.
Solar applications with a very low active duty cycle, and very low power consumption are possible in indoor applications, but most
portable consumer electronics will need direct sunlight to generate enough power for a viable solar charging solution.
According to the difference in spectral responses between crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon solar cells shown in Figure 1,
crystalline silicon does not work that well in indoor light, because indoor lighting produces very little light skewed to the IR part of the
spectrum. For this reason, amorphous silicon modules are often preferred for indoor applications.
How to size a solar panel for a given application?
There are a number of realities that must be considered. Nameplate ratings are at test conditions, which are ideal in many ways. Unless the
system is designed to track the sun across the sky, maximum energy will not be harvested. Is the system pointed at the sun at all? Is it shaded
at times? Is it far north? Is it possible the solar modules may get dirty frequently? Is it located in a region where it is often cloudy? Is there
access to direct sunlight, or indoor light? All of these factors can significantly impact the amount of energy harvested by a solar module.
What is really needed is to calculate a budget for the amount of power required by the application, and the amount of power that can
realistically be produced by the solar module given the location and condition of the module.
What is really needed is to calculate a budget for the amount of power required by the application, and the amount of power that can
realistically be produced by the solar module given the location and condition of the module. Please see the article on EDN for detailed
information on how to select solar module and battery sizes for off-grid applications: Design challenges for solar powered HBLED Lighting.
Power vs. Voltage vs. Batteries
One last thing to evaluate when choosing solar modules is the voltage required to charge the batteries. As already shown, there are a
number of ICs designed to maximize power from solar modules, and to charge batteries of various chemistries. These devices typically
use either buck (input voltage is higher than output voltage), or boost (input voltage is always lower than output voltage) topologies. In
choosing a solar module (or a conversion IC), this is an important consideration.
Solar is an abundant, free energy source for charging battery powered applications, however solar modules must be carefully selected
and managed in order to harvest the maximum amount of energy possible.
For additional articles and design resources, please visit http://em.avnet.com/solar
Copyright© 2012, Avnet, Inc. All rights reserved. Avnet, Inc. disclaims any proprietary interest or right in any trademarks, service marks, logos, domain names, company
names, brands, product names, or other form of intellectual property other than its own. AVNET and the AV logo are registered trademarks of Avnet, Inc. While every effort is
made to ensure the information given is accurate, Avnet, Inc. disclaims liability for any errors or mistakes that may arise. Specifications subject to change without notice.
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6. about the Author
Heather Robertson is a technology director at Avnet
Electronics Marketing, with responsibilities for Solar Power
and Smart Energy. As Technology Director, Heather works
to accelerate customers’ solar power and smart energy
designs through differentiated supplier solutions, reference
designs, seminars and customer training classes. Heather
has held a number of management and design positions
in digital and mixed signal ASIC design in CMOS, BiCMOS
and GaAS technologies, completing more than 20 custom
designs. She has managed ASIC design teams in the US,
and in Munich, Germany. Heather is a graduate of the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign with a BSEE.
Heather Robertson
Technology Director
Avnet Electronics Marketing
heather.robertson@avnet.com
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