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Agricultural
Machinery &
Mechanization
Basic Concepts
Segun R. Bello
[MNSE, R. Engr. COREN]

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Copyright © 2012 by Segun R. Bello
Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, 480001 Nigeria
segemi2002@yahoo.com; bellraph95@yahoo.com
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Dedication
To Bukky, my Wife & Children

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Acknowledgement
Unlimited gratitude goes to God Almighty, the author of life and the giver of
knowledge, for His grace and inspirations in the pursuit of this divine agenda in the
course of my career. Glory be to His name.
I sincerely thank all students, past and present, of the departments of agricultural
technology, agricultural engineering and engineering technology, Federal College of
Agriculture Ishiagu, Federal College of Agriculture Moor plantation Ibadan, College
of Agriculture Jalingo and Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike and
all who had come in contact with my books in various fields of agricultural
engineering practice such as Farm power and machinery, Farm power and
mechanization, and Horticultural machinery among several other related courses,
whose teaching experiences and inputs were put together to form major part of this
work.
The contributions of various authors whose works; journals, manuals, monographs,
books, articles and slides were sited or quoted wholly or in part and listed in the
reference section of this book is acknowledged. I equally want to acknowledge
authors whose names were not listed and wish to say that their contribution forms
vital part of a major contribution to knowledge.
My special thanks go to my dear friend, companion and wife, who had always back-
up the realization of God’s plan for me. She is a virtuous woman and help meet
indeed. Her understanding and tolerance in taking full responsibility of running our
home during the entire review and upgrade exercise are quite commendable.
I am grateful to my children, Ayomikun, Pelumi, Damilola and Adeola, who were so
wonderful and cooperative during this period. I am greatly encouraged and
strengthened by their prayers, my God shall surely reward them. Amen

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Content
Preface xiii
CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Agricultural Mechanization............................... 1
1.0 Introduction........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Mechanization.................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Concepts of mechanization............................................................................. 2
1.3 Motorization and tractorization .................................................................... 18
1.4 Machine and human labour measurement................................................. 19
CHAPTER 2 Agricultural Machinery and Development ............................ 21
2.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 21
2.1 Aspects of agricultural machinery............................................................... 21
2.1.1 Development of agricultural machinery...................................................... 22
2.1.2 Adaptation of agricultural machinery.......................................................... 23
2.2 Standardization of farm machinery.............................................................. 24
2.3 System approach to manufacturing ............................................................ 24
CHAPTER 3 Economics of Machinery Use .............................................. 25
3.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 25
3.1 Definition of economic variables.................................................................. 25
3.2 Machinery costs and categories .................................................................. 29
3.2.1 Fixed or ownership costs.............................................................................. 31
3.2.2 Operating costs............................................................................................... 40
3.2.3 Timeliness costs ............................................................................................. 45
3.3 Decision making in machinery procurement............................................. 46
3.4 Machinery selection procedure.................................................................... 54
3.5 Determination of machinery capacity.......................................................... 55
3.6 Field machine performance factors............................................................. 58
CHAPTER 4 Land Clearing and Development ............................................ 65
4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 65
4.2 Land clearing................................................................................................... 65
4.3 Land clearing methods and machinery....................................................... 66
4.4 Machinery power sources ............................................................................. 69
4.5 Land clearing attachments/detachable....................................................... 70
5.4 Factors affecting the choice of land clearing ............................................ 77
5.5 Estimation of land clearing cost................................................................... 78
5.6 Disposal of vegetation ................................................................................... 81
5.7 Landform and development.......................................................................... 89

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5.8 Equipment for landform..................................................................................91
CHAPTER 5 Tillage Operation and Equipment............................................95
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................95
5.2 Soil dynamics and tillage relations ..............................................................97
5.3 Mechanical behaviour of agricultural soil...................................................98
5.4 Design and performance of tillage equipment .........................................102
5.5 Implement and traction machine dynamics..............................................103
5.6 Types of tillage operations...........................................................................109
5.7 Conventional tillage implement...................................................................114
5.7.1 Primary tillage implement ............................................................................114
5.7.2 Secondary tillage implement.......................................................................128
5.8 Effects of machinery traffic on agricultural soil.......................................137
CHAPTER 6 Bed Planting Operations..............................................................141
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................141
6.2 Bed planting and tillage practices..............................................................141
6.3 Method of crop planting ...............................................................................143
6.4 Crop planting patterns..................................................................................143
6.5 Functional requirement for crop planting .................................................149
6.6 Functional classification of planting equipment......................................154
6.7 Small scale no-till seeders ...........................................................................168
6.8 Row-type planters..........................................................................................172
6.9 Mechanical precision drilling.......................................................................176
6.10 Crop planters..................................................................................................177
CHAPTER 7 Post Planting Operations........................................................189
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................189
7.2 Thinning operations and equipment..........................................................189
7.3 Crop protection and equipment..................................................................198
7.4 Weed management and equipment............................................................199
7.5 Fertilizer application and devices...............................................................205
7.6 Chemical application and equipment.........................................................212
7.6.1 Spraying system, equipment and calibration...........................................212
7.7 Chemigation....................................................................................................227
7.8 Fertigation.......................................................................................................229
CHAPTER 8 Soil and Water Conservation .................................................238
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................238
6.2 Soil conservation practices and equipment .............................................238
6.3 Irrigation practice and equipment...............................................................243
CHAPTER 9 Crop Harvest and Transport Equipment..............................254
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................254

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9.2 Grain crop harvest machine........................................................................ 254
9.3 Combine harvester performance................................................................ 259
9.7 Fruit and vegetable harvest machine........................................................ 260
9.7.1 Methods of fruit harvest............................................................................... 261
9.8 Agricultural transport vehicles................................................................... 266
CHAPTER 10 Crop Processing and Machinery...................................... 273
10.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 273
10.2 Drying systems.............................................................................................. 274
10.3 Grain cooling methods................................................................................. 281
10.4 Densification of agricultural materials...................................................... 282
10.5 Agricultural technological process machines......................................... 284
10.5.1 Pressing/wafering machines....................................................................... 284
10.5.2 Pelleting machine.......................................................................................... 284
10.5.3 Briquetting...................................................................................................... 287
10.5.4 Dewatering machines................................................................................... 288
10.5.5 Cutting of agricultural materials................................................................. 289
10.5.6 Size reduction processes and machines.................................................. 291
10.5.7 Kneading machines...................................................................................... 297
10.5.8 Rice milling machines.................................................................................. 299
10.5.9 Destoning machine....................................................................................... 301
10.5.10 Fruit processing machines.......................................................................... 303
10.5.11 Oil processing machines............................................................................. 310
10.5.12 Grain transport machines............................................................................ 318
10.5.13 Crop residue processing machines........................................................... 320
CHAPTER 11 Crops Storage Structures .............................................. 329
11.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 329
11.2 Storage of agricultural crops...................................................................... 329
11.3 Crops storage structures............................................................................. 331
11.3.1 Traditional storage structures.................................................................... 331
11.3.2 Improved traditional storage structures................................................... 339
11.3.3 Improved storage structures ...................................................................... 340
Bibliography................................................................................................................... 344
Index 352

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Preface
New ideas and developed technologies in agricultural occupation depend to a large
extent on scientific research results and diversity which are responsible for increased
agricultural production. The dynamic nature of agricultural operations and machine
complexity are indices of such scientific research diversity as evident in the wide
spread requirements in agricultural operation if increased production must be
sustained.
Documentation forms a major integral part of research and development, especially in
engineering education and communication. Hence, this book presents research
documentations in agricultural machinery and discussed in details the basic concepts
of agricultural mechanization. Chapter one discuss the problems, prospects and
utilization of agricultural machinery. Chapter two discussed the essentials of
agricultural mechanization, strategies and technological advancements as agriculture
goes global. Chapter three x-rays the principles of machine use and cost factors.
Chapter four presents the principles and practice of land clearing and landform as
well as information and necessary skills for effective land clearing programme.
Chapters five and six described various bed preparation and crop planting operations
including state of the art equipment that facilitate effective bed preparation for crop
establishment and machine operations.
Crop maintenance and protection practices such as crop thinning, weed control and
fertilizer/chemical application and equipment were discussed in Chapter seven. Crop
establishment equipment and sprayer calibration were also highlighted. Chapter eight
described soil and water conservation equipment such as irrigation equipments,
pumps etc. Crop harvesting and processing machine for various agricultural crops
were discussed in Chapters nine and ten, while Chapter eleven described various
crops storage structures.
This book will go a long way to acquaint students and researchers with the nitty-gritty
of agricultural machinery operations and also provide requisite knowledge and skills
for effective agricultural mechanization.
Segun R. Bello
480001, Ishiagu
Nigeria

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CHAPTER 1
Concepts of Agricultural Mechanization
1.0 Introduction
Among the three basic essential needs of life (food, clothing and shelter), food remains
the strongest of all human survival factors. Food can simply be regarded as the direct
product of primary agricultural production and it is rated highest among the three
basic essential needs of man; hence agriculture could simply be referred to as a life-
safer profession. To attain security and self-sufficiency in food production and
distribution, all players in agricultural production sector must support traditional
farmers through accelerated input supplies (such as improved crop varieties /animal
species, improved farming systems, improved hand tools etc and procurement of
appropriate agricultural tractors and machinery etc., at all levels.
Agricultural engineers are known to have been involved in solving the aspect of
support to solving major challenges in the traditional and industrial agriculture. They
made significant contributions to transforming basic agricultural operations, meet
basic food needs of the expanding human population, and also help evolve
productive and sustainable agricultural systems and practices which has become a
major area of priority intervention. From the analyses of various agricultural systems,
we can understand the usefulness of various agricultural machines involved in the
conservation and preservation of land, water, and biological resources for future
generations. This involvement is made possible through effective agricultural
mechanization. The concepts of agricultural mechanization are discussed in the
following sections.
1.1 Mechanization
Mechanization of agriculture is recognized as one of the greatest engineering
achievements of the 20th century. Generally, agricultural mechanization involves the
selection, operation, utilization, and maintenance of mechanical devices and systems
in agricultural operations and production for the utmost benefits of man. Among
several definitions, the followings have been extracted to fully describe the scope of
agricultural mechanization as defined by scholars and researchers:
1. Starkey (1998) defined farm mechanization as the development and introduction of
mechanized assistance of all forms and at any level of sophistication in agricultural

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production to improve human efficiency, timeliness of operation and labour
involvement. For instance, timeliness of tillage and planting, weeding and/or
harvesting are critical factors where affordable labour is insufficient to permit
timely operation.
2. Odigboh, (1991) defined agricultural mechanization as the use of any machine to
accomplish a task or operation involved in agricultural production.
3. Mijinyawa et al., (2000) expressed farm mechanization as the application of
engineering principles and technology in agricultural production, storage and
processing; where these activities and applications are not limited within the
boundaries of the farm units only.
4. Clarke, (2000) inferred that the term mechanization is generally used as an overall
description of the application of agricultural inputs to production, processing and
storage of farm products.
5. Ou et al., (2002) reported agricultural mechanization as an engineering system that
requires not only advances in machine development and applications but also
close cooperation of many sections. In recognition of this fact, certain
environmental, agricultural, social and economic conditions must be ascertained to
favour investment in mechanization technologies and their sustainable use.
From the foregoing, it can be deduced that mechanization has to do with
machinery/implement power sources, management of farm inputs, labour and time.
Hence, mechanization may be simply said to be the increase in production per worker per
hectare of farmland cultivated.
1.2 Concepts of mechanization
Objectives of mechanization
The primary objective of agricultural mechanization as summarized by Pellizzi (1992),
include:
1. Minimization of production costs,
2. Optimization of product quality,
3. Protection of workplace and environment and
4. Minimization of farm production flexibility.
Other objectives include:
1. Improvement in timeliness of agricultural operation and its increased efficiency
2. Preservation and improvement of quality of agricultural production e.g. the use
of combines in crop harvest and processing

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3. Achievement of a better utilization of natural resources and increased raw
material supply for industrial use
4. Provision of off- farm employment and increased human labour availability in
other sectors.
5. Enhancement and stabilization of high commodity price through improved inputs
and food supply
6. Increase in foreign exchange earnings through massive agricultural products
exportation and diversification of economic base
7. Improvement in water supply and living standard of rural dwellers.
Purpose of mechanization
Farm mechanization has been known to help in the effective utilization of farm inputs
in order to achieve the following purposes:
1. Increase labour productivity: The introduction of machinery to substitute for
labour (“laborsaving”) is a common phenomenon associated with the release of
labour for employment in other sectors of the economy or to facilitate
cultivation of a larger area with the same labour force.
2. Increase land productivity: The purpose of mechanization is here to produce more
from the existing land. Machinery is a complementary input, required to
achieve higher land productivity, for example, through the introduction of
pump sets, or faster turn-around-times to achieve higher cropping intensity. In
labour surplus economies, net labour displacement or replacement should be
avoided.
3. Decrease cost of production: Introduction of a machine may lower production
costs or offset increased costs of draft animals or labour.
Benefits of mechanization
Beside reduction in human drudgery and costs of farm operations, mechanization
offers potential benefit of increased returns from agricultural inputs. Increased returns
from agricultural input can be achieved in the following ways:
a. Improvement in crop yield per hectare and quality
b. Extension of cultivated area
c. Possibility of raising new crops and livestock which were not initially possible
d. Improvement in timeliness of farming operations, timely provision of suitable
conditions and environment for plant and animal growth,

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The most obvious benefit of mechanization is the work potential of the agricultural
tractors utilized versus hand labour and animal traction involvement. This is most
advantageous in communities where labour is scarce or expensive. The labour
requirements for preparing one hectare of land for planting using draught animal
power are only 12% of that required when using hand labour.
When using a tractor with a plough, this falls to less than 1%, increasing labour
productivity tremendously. As labour is a constraint in many farming communities,
the use of animal traction and tractors brings the opportunity to expand the acreage.
Motorization is likely to have an even greater potential for area expansion as long as
land is available. Labour productivity will increase considerably. A farmer owning a
tractor would normally be able to increase his income through increased production
and by doing contract work for other farmers.
Problems of mechanization
The neglect of agricultural mechanization by policy makers who intend to see every
problem from the economist’s point of view caused one of the major problems facing
the use of machines in Nigeria agriculture. Inadequate attention had been paid to
mechanization in Nigeria over a long time which is obvious from the scanty and
uncoordinated nature of data available. This trend is being reversed by the recent
advances of the federal government in the agricultural revolution currently taking
place in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular. Despite these advances, the
following problems still hinders agricultural mechanization
1. Huge cost of investment on equipment.
2. Government policies on agricultural machinery import and implementation.
3. Inadequate man power development and skill acquisition on technological
advancement in agricultural mechanization.
4. Poor infrastructure development regarding appropriate machinery requirement.
5. Poor price control (common commodity price) of products of agricultural
mechanization during peak production and harvest gluts.
6. Poor accessibility to credit facilities (loans, grants etc) from agricultural
development banks.
7. Loss of technical skills and service: The Agricultural engineers who made
significant contributions to transforming society and solved most of the major
problems in the agricultural industry have essentially became a victim of their
success, as the demand for their specialized expertise dwindled and young people
with technological interests veered away from the agriculture industry.

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Olaoye (2007) enumerated three other key factors that influence a successful
mechanization programme and these include:
1. Socio-economic factors,
2. Availability of mechanization supporting infrastructure and
3. Land and agro-ecological conditions.
Involvements of mechanization in agricultural production
The involvements of mechanization in agricultural operations and production
include:
1. The process of selection of agricultural systems and inputs,
2. Handling/management of the selected systems and utilization of the inputs,
3. Operation of machines/equipment and optimization of operational time and
4. Maintenance of mechanical devices and systems involved in agricultural
operations and production
Nigeria agricultural mechanization programme
The fortunes from oil notwithstanding, successive governments experimented with
different programmes and agencies to rejuvenate the agricultural sector. Some of
these programmes and agencies (Table 1-1) have agricultural mechanization as a
cardinal mandate.
Table 1-1: Agencies with agricultural mechanization related mandates
S/N Programmes and agency Acronyms Remarks
1. Farm Settlement FS Regional level
2.
National Accelerated Food Production
Project
NAFPP Federal level
3. Agricultural Development Project ADP State level
4.
Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and
Rural Development Bank
NACRDB Federal level
5. Operation Feed the Nation OFN Federal level
6. Commodity Board CB Federal level
7.
National Agricultural Credit Guarantee
Scheme
NACGS Federal level
8. River Basin Development Authority RBDA Federal level
9. Land Use Policy LUP Federal level
10. Green Revolution GR Federal level
11. Strategic Grains Reserve SGR Federal level

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S/N Programmes and agency Acronyms Remarks
12.
National Centre for Agricultural
Mechanization
NCAM Federal level
13.
Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural
Infrastructure
DFRRI Federal level
14. National Directorate of Employment NDE Federal level
15.
Rural Agro Industrial Development
Scheme
RAIDS Federal level
16. Crop Storage Unit CSU Federal level
17. Rural Artisan Training and Support Unit RATSU Federal level
18.
Agricultural Machinery Mechanics and
Operators Training Centre
AMMOT
RAC
Federal level
19. Tractor and Equipment Hiring Units TEHU State level
20.
National Agricultural Land
Development Authority
NALDA Federal level
21. Departments of Rural Development DRD
Federal and
State level
22.
Family Economic Advancement
Programme
FEAP Federal level
23.
National Poverty Eradication
Programme
NAPEP Federal level
24.
National Economic Empowerment and
Development Strategy
NEEDS Federal level
25.
State Economic Empowerment and
Development Strategy
SEEDS State level
26.
Local Economic and Environmental
Management Programme
LEEMP State level
27. National Programme for Food Security NPFS Federal level
28. National Food Reserve Agency NFRA Federal level
29.
Commercial Agriculture Development
Programme
CADP
Federal and
State level
Source: Adama et al., 2009.
In addition to these agencies and programmes, the New Partnership for African
Development (NEPAD) and Millennium Development Goals (MGD) have interesting
programmes aimed at developing African agriculture for poverty eradication (Asika,
2005; FGN, 2006).

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Agricultural mechanization assessment
Several authors have studied the status of mechanisation with reference to the
intensity of power or energy availability, and its impact in increasing the agricultural
and labour productivity. Giles (1975) reviewed power availability in different
countries, and demonstrated that productivity was positively correlated with
potential unit farm power. The NCAER (1981) assessed the impact of tractorisation on
the productivity of land (yield and cropping intensity), and economic growth (income
and employment).
Status of agricultural mechanization: Binswanger (1982) defined the status of
mechanisation by the growth of mechanical power-operated farm equipment over
traditional human and animal power operated equipment. Rijk (1989) reviewed the
growth of mechanisation in different Asian countries, and suggested the formulation
of strategy for mechanisation policy based on economics of use of animate and
mechanical power for different field operations. Such policies are in different stages of
formation and implementation in various countries across Europe and some part of
the developed and developing world today.
Indicators of agricultural mechanization
Singh and De (1999) reviewed the methodologies adopted by several authors to
express agricultural mechanisation indicator. Three indicators of agricultural
mechanization identified include; levels of mechanization, mechanization index, and
degree of mechanization.
a. Levels of mechanization (LOM)
It is clear now that agriculture has always been mechanized, employing four main
sources of power or a combination of two or three sources including: human, animal,
mechanical/engine and renewable energy resources, and giving rise to four broad
levels of agricultural mechanization technology. The level, appropriate choice and
subsequent proper use of these inputs into agriculture has a direct and significant
effect on achievable levels of land productivity, labour management, profitability of
farming, sustainability, environmental and the quality of life of people engaged in
agriculture.
According to Nowacki (1974), the following indices were used in the assessment and
grading of different levels of mechanization:

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1. Hand tools (M1) = 1,
2. Animal drawn (M2) = 2,
3. Tractorized/Mechanized (M3) = 3,
4. Renewable (M4) = 4 (This index is introduced).
For instance in Nigeria, (M1 and M3) were generally applicable. The tools and
implements used in each level of agricultural mechanization are as classified below.
Level 1: hand-tool technology (HTT)
This is the most basic level of agricultural mechanization, where human being is the
power source, using simple tools and implements. A farmer using hand-tool
technology can cultivate only about one hectare of land. He cannot do more than that
because of certain scientifically established facts (Odigboh, 1991). Human power
accounts for the lion’s share of work in overall agricultural production, most
especially in the tropical and sub tropical African countries. It has been suggested
that a power-use intensity of 0.4 kW/ha is required for effective human level of
agricultural mechanization. Some basic features of tools in use include:
Hoes: A wide variety of hoes used in farm operations includes; forked hoes and
pickaxes. The main use for the forked hoes and pickaxes is to dig compacted manure
out of animal compounds.
Figure 1-1: Traditional hand hoes
Material handling tools: Material and earth handling tools such as rakes, shovels and
spades are found within the agricultural hand tool list. The shovels and spades are
mainly of the D-handled type, commonly used in moving materials from one place to
another. Some very old ones have T-handles. Rakes are used mainly to prepare fine
seedbeds in the vegetable plots. Hoes were made by blacksmiths from high-quality
material. Some hoes are also made from old discs from tractor-operated implements.

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Figure 1-2: Material handling tools
Cutting tools: Cutting tools such as axes and sickles in varying sizes made by local
blacksmiths can be bought in local shops. Blacksmiths often use very basic production
methods but turn out effective tools provided they can find the right type of scrap
steel, such as vehicle leaf-springs.
Figure 1-3: Cutting tools
Various types of sickle were seen: some were made locally but others were very old
imported examples. The wooden handles on the latter usually had been broken and
were replaced with a piece of rag wrapped around the tang.
Differences in tools used by women and men
There is a gender perception attached to different tools: some are seen as being ‘men’s
tools’ and others as ‘women’s tools’. Men’s tools are considered to be ploughs,
cultivators, ox-carts, axes, adzes, pickaxes and shovels. Women’s tools are considered
to be hoes, watering cans, sickles, and other lightweight items. These perceptions date
from the times when men and women were more equally present in rural areas and
when there were certain men’s tasks and certain women’s tasks in agriculture. But

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today, even though the gender perceptions about tools still persist, even the men
freely state that women now use all of them.
Level 2: draft-animal technology (DAT)
Because of the limitations of the human power availability on the field, horses, mules,
oxen and bullocks became the principal sources of power on the farm. They develop
more power than human power for agricultural operations. Because of their
availability for use in most stringent conditions, they are often referred to as the beast
of burden.
Figure 1-4: Harrowing with donkeys
Traditional animal drawn ox-ploughs
The plough in its different shapes as traditional plough or as mouldboard plough is
probably the most popular land preparation tool that is used in both developing and
developed countries. There is no other tool that symbolizes agricultural development,
like the plough. The plough can be pulled by one or more pairs of donkeys or oxen.
Figure 1-5: Traditional animal drawn ox-ploughs

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Level 3: mechanical-power or engine-power technology (EPT)
Mechanical power as used on the farm consists of internal combustion engine, the
electric motor, and the steam engine sometimes called external combustion engine, the
water wheel and windmill. The internal combustion engine and electric motor are the
most important. Recently internal combustion engine are being complimented by
hydraulic power transmission.
Higher levels of mechanisation are preferred by farmers to ensure timeliness, to
increase yield of crops, and to reduce the cost of cultivation, provided the farm size is
large enough to use the machine and sufficient labour at reasonable wages are not
available when required. To maximise profit, alternative mechanisation technologies
are adopted using animate and mechanical power sources to accomplish different
field operations for different crops (Singh, 1992, 1997, 2006; Singh & Chandra, 2001;
Singh & Singh, 2003; Government of India, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991).
Level 4: renewable energy technology (RET)
All energy sources mentioned above have an impact on the environment. Concerns
about the greenhouse effect and global warming, air pollution, and energy security
have led to increasing interest and more development in renewable energy sources
such as solar, wind, geothermal, wave power and nuclear energy.
b. Agricultural mechanization index (MI)
Agricultural mechanization index is one of the three mechanization indicators used
for the purposes of characterization of farming systems. This index is the measure of
the assessment and grading of the different levels of mechanization practiced in a
particular area. The index of mechanization is limited to the prominent available
power sources in the particular zone under consideration.
Relative to different power sources predominant in an area or region, mechanization
index is seen as a deviation of the actual amount of motorized farm work from the
normal values at regional level.
Mechanisation index , MI is expressed by the percentage of machine work EM to the
sum of manual EH, animal EA and machine work EM expressed in energy units, as
suggested by Nowacki (1978), has been accepted for model forecasting.
A mechanisation index based on the matrix of use of animate and mechanical energy
inputs as given by could be given by (Singh, 2006) in equation below.

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= =
+ +
… … … … … … … … … .1.1
Where:
MIE = Mechanization Index, %
= Average sum of all mechanical operational works of the machine, kWhr/ha
= Sum of all average work outlays in kWhr/ha by animates ( animal,
human), and tractor powered machines.
A mechanization index, (MI) based on the use of human and mechanical energy
inputs, represents the percentage of work of tractors and the total of human work and
that of the machinery and is calculated using the following relations;
= x 100% … … … … … 1.2
By implication, parameter is determined based on the exact response of the average
farmers in the surveyed areas on the estimated resting period in minute per hour of
work on each manual operation.
For macro-level planning, a mechanisation index based on the ratio of electrical and
mechanical power over total farm power introduced as a measure of qualitative
assessment of modernisation of agriculture, is expressed in equation (1.3) by Singh,
2006:
=
+ +
… … … … … … … … … .1.3
Where:
MIE is the mechanisation index (indicator);
PH is the human power
PA is the draught animal power and
PM is the total electrical and mechanical power.
A higher mechanisation index/indicator based on electrical power and stationary
engines as per equation (1.1) might only reveal mechanisation of stationary
operations. From a qualitative drudgery reduction point of view, a mechanisation
index MITP based on mechanical tractive power PMt could be a better measure,
Equation (1.4):

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=
+ +
… … … … … … … … … 1.4
A major defect in quantifying a mechanisation indicator based on the ratio of
mechanical tractive farm power to total farm power is that it does not bring to light
the actual use scenario. Whilst unit farm power could be considered as indicative of
potential power availability, it may not necessarily be fully utilised on the farms. This
may depend upon availability of diesel and electricity, and adequate workload. The
majority of the farmers in developing countries use tractors for transport of
agricultural and non-agricultural commodities.
The mechanisation index based on equation (1.4), therefore, does not lay emphasis on
quality output and associated cost factors for the matrix of energy sources.
Incorporating the concept of cost factors in to equation 1.5 (Singh, 2006):
=
+ +
… … … … … … … … … .1.5
Where:
MImij is the mechanisation index of the ith crop in the jth state;
CEMij is the cost of use of machinery in the ith crop in the jth state;
CEHij is the cost of use of human labour in the ith crop in jth state; and
CEAij is the cost of use of animal labour in the ith crop in the jth state.
The level of mechanization index (LOM) is based on the premise that a mechanized
farmer is the one that finds a way to utilize amounts of mechanical energy that higher
than the typical values using locally available technology. This situation is expressed
by the expression in equation (1.6) below by Zangeneh et al., (2010);
= … … … … … … … … … … … . .1.6
Where
LOM = Level of mechanization
= Tractors power
= Correction factor for utilized power (0.75). The field capacity was multiplied by
rated power so that the quantification of energy expenditure will be in work unit
(kWh)
= Total farmland area cultivated.

28. Page | 14
c. Degree of mechanization
Degree of Mechanization (M) is described as the average energy input of work
provided exclusively by different levels of mechanization technology (labour) per
hectare. The degree of mechanization can be evaluated for different levels of
mechanization as follows:
Human power sources
The degrees of mechanization of available power for human labour are defined by the
following relations (Nowacki, 1974):
LH = 0.1 x NH x
TH
A
… … … … … 1.7
Where
LH =Average energy input or work provided per hectare by human labour kW
hr/ha.
0.1= Theoretical average power of an average man working optimally.
NH = Average number of labour employed.
TH =Average rated working time devoted to manual operation. TH was
determined as a function of rate of energy consumption and resting period
for different manual operations (planting, weeding, fertilizer application and
harvesting).
A = Area of land cultivated (ha). A was determined for each farm settlement by
multiplying areas of cultivated land in hectare allocated to each
participating farmer by the total number of farmers.
According to Caruthers and Rodriguez (1992), resting period tR was defined as
follows:
t = 60 1 − … … … … … … … … .1.8
Where:
tR = Required resting time for 8 hrs effective working hrs per day in minute per
hour of work
P = Rate of power consumption in watts for various farming activities.

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Mechanical power sources
Degree of Mechanization represents the first degree of mechanization for motorized
machinery coexisting with a high participation of operators (Nowacki, 1974, Segun et
al., 2010). It is indicated as;
LM = 0.2 x NM x[ ] … … … … … … … … 1.9
Where;
LM = Average energy input or work per hectare by motorized machines
0.2 = Corrector co- efficient of the tractor-powered machine.
NM = Rated working power of the tractor (kW)
A = Area worked in hectare by motorized machines.
TM = Rated working time of the motorized energy source, hr/ha. TM represents
the inverse of the effective field capacity of the machine given by TM = 1/Ca
(hr/ha)
Effective field capacity Ca, is expressed by the equation 1.10 as
Ca = … … … … … … … .1.10
Where
Ca = Effective field (area) capacity, ha/hr,
s = Field speed, km/hr;
w = Implement width of cut, m;
Ef = Field efficiency, decimal;
Optimum level of mechanization
Optimum level of mechanization is the degree of mechanization that produces the
most beneficial production systems in terms of efficiency and economic returns. The
following factors are important in ensuring optimum level of mechanization:
1. Soil-implement and tractor interaction: The duration of production operation is
affected by the soil-implement-tractor interaction. There is travel reduction (Slip)
as the tractor goes over the soil during operation. The nature of soil, moisture
content affects the travel reduction considerably. The speed of operation has
profound effect on tractor implement performance. Maximum permissible
forward speed is related to such factors as: Nature of operation, condition of field
and amount of power available.

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2. Crop-implement suitability: Implement chosen must be such as to produce optimum
growth condition for the selected crop. There must be a relationship existing
within one operation and the other.
3. Appropriate power-implement match: This implies that there is optimum power
implement match for every available power from the power source. Factors
affecting this include nature of soil-soil types, rock out crops i.e. remnants of rock
materials after weathering.
4. Selection of operation: Operations to be mechanized are affected by some factors
such as:
a. Type of crop to be mechanized
b. Availability of some specific machinery for specific operation
c. Weather condition of the area to be mechanized
d. Topography of the field area.
5. Selection of implement size: The following factors should be considered in choosing
the size of machine to buy:
a. Difference in cost between large and small machine
b. Amount of use that will be made of the machine each year
c. The amount and cost of available labour
d. The financial position of the buyer.
6. Decision of ownership of implement: In large hectares of land, it is advisable to buy
equipment but on small hectares of land or smallholdings, it is better to hire,
considering this from the viewpoint of costing. It may be disadvantaged to get
machine for hire at the appropriate time needed. When purchasing consideration
is made on those implements or machinery that will suite the size or power of the
available machine.
Appropriate mechanization technology
Appropriate mechanization is the practice of applying actual machinery and
equipment to production process such that human involvement is minimal,
production cost kept at minimum and output yield is optimum. Applying appropriate
mechanization technology implies minimal machinery involvement and high
percentage of product optimization.
Terminologies such as "intermediate technology" and "selective mechanization" are either
inappropriate or have no practical meaning. or have no practical meaning. The term
appropriate mechanization may be used, and refers to the level of mechanization and
how it is used for a specific situation. Developed countries of Europe and North
America rose to the pinnacle of developing their agriculture on appropriately
engineered mechanization such that a very small percentage of their population is
involved in direct food and fiber production today (Odigboh, 1997).

31. Page | 17
Therefore, the appropriateness of a particular mechanization technology can only be
determined after a careful consideration of the technical, economic and social
characteristics of each situation. Nigeria mechanization situation can only be
improved when the new and improved technologies to be adopted for agricultural
mechanization are appropriate and acceptable both in terms of farmers’ socio-
economic status and environment as well as resources and technical suitability for
such technologies.
In order to formulate appropriate technology for Nigeria agricultural development,
Odigboh, (1997) gave a pointer to some critical issues needed in policy making
process for technology development. Modifications to these issues were not limited to
policy formulation but indigenization of these policies and effective implementation.
1. Encouragement of indigenous agricultural and industrial machinery designs from
research institutions and
2. Effective maintenance and management policy for agricultural machinery
3. Evolvement of workable engineering infrastructural development policy
4. Undertaking of rigorous human resources development and strict implementation
of environmental policy
5. Encouraging community-based participatory technology development
programme for mechanization of small scale farms in Nigeria
6. Promoting the role of the medium and small scale farmers and other technology
institutions like National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM)
7. Evolving an institutional framework for quick understudying of emerging
technologies i.e. encouraging the concept of technology transfer.
8. Establishment and monitoring of Institutional framework for the training and re-
training of agricultural machinery operators and mechanics for better proficiency.
For instance, the operation of Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’
Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) in Akure and Misau in Nigeria should be better
improved for such training.
Factors affecting mechanization in the tropics
Tropical agricultural mechanization involves the use of tools, implements and
machines to improve the efficiency of human time and labour. The most appropriate
machinery and power source for any operation depends on the work to be done,
cultural settings, affordability, availability and technical efficiency of the options.
These indications were clearly evident that agricultural mechanization is not an end in
itself, but a means of development that must be sustained. Therefore a socially
beneficial agricultural production is determined based on a wide range of social,
economic and ecological factors. These factors determine whether a technology is

32. Page | 18
practicable, beneficial and sustainable in such area. Factors affecting mechanization in
the tropics include:
a. Vegetation
b. Climate
c. Type of crop and crop varieties
d. Nature of soil - soil depth varies with location. Soil with deep depth supports
mechanical tillage
e. Insufficient research funding and facilities.
1.3 Motorization and tractorization
Motorization
This is the introduction of machines or engine-powered machinery into a particular
production system; Agricultural motorization concerns the use of engine powered
machinery for carrying out agricultural activities. In more detail, it comprises:
1. Tractors and their implements and equipment and other self-propelled machinery
2. Power tillers and other specialized engines
3. Engines used for propelling stationary machinery or carried on a person’s back
The percentage of the productive land tilled with motorized traction remains very low
in the Sub-Saharan Africa. Estimates range from 1% (FAO, 1987 and Gifford and Rijk,
1980 in FAO, 1995) to 4% (Mrema, 1992). Taking into account that more than half
(FAO yearbooks, as in Caumont, et al., 1995) of the tractors are used in Southern
Africa, the percentage of the total area cultivated with tractors in West Africa is
practically negligible. Animals provide the power to an estimated 9% (FAO, 1987 and
Gifford and Rijk, 1980 in FAO, 1995) to 16% (Mrema, 1992) of the area. This leaves 80
to 90% for cultivation by hand.
Tractorization
Tractorization simply means the introduction of tractors into a system. The
introduction of tractor vehicles (tractorization) into agriculture has grossly increased
engineering involvement in agriculture and hence the choice of equipment
acquisition, hazards prevention programme and increased maintenance activities.

33. Page | 19
1.4 Machine and human labour measurement
Productivity may be conceived of as a measure of the technical or engineering
efficiency of production which is characterized by a shift of the production function
and a consequent change to the output/input relation. The productivity of machine
and human labour could be determined based on the principle of production schedule
which represent the maximum amount of output that can be produced from any
specific set of inputs given the existing technology. The input of labour and capital are
the explicit independent variables in the production function measured in terms of
man-hours and in machine-hours and are related by the following equation (Jhingan,
1997, Olaoye and Rotimi, 2010).
Q = F(K, L)… … … … … … … … … … … 1.11
Where: Q = Output, F = functional relationship, K= the amount of capital, L= the
amount of labour.
The productivity of labour, machine and total productivity were expressed
mathematically by Ortiz-Canavate and Salvador, (1980) as presented in the following
equations:
A = ; A = … … … … … … … … . .1.12
⇒ A = + … … … … … … … … … … . .1.13
Where:
AM = Productivity of machines, defined as the work carried out as a function of
the machinery employed
AH = Productivity of labour, defined as the work carried out as a function of
labour employed
AT = Total productivity and all other terms as defined previously.
Resting period
According to Caruthers and Rodriguez (1992), resting period tR, for different manual
operations (planting, weeding, fertilizer application and harvesting) was defined as
follows:
t = 60 1 −
250
P
… … … … … … … … … … . .1.14
Where:
t = the required resting time for 8 hrs effective working hrs per day in minute per
hour of work
P = rate of power consumption in watts for various farming activities.

34. Page | 20
Gross margin analysis for crop production
The profitability of production of a particular arable crop could be determined using
the gross margin analysis. This is the difference between the total revenue and the
total cost of investment. The gross margin is the value of total profit expected from a
production activity, and its value is obtained from the expression given by Jhingan,
(1997, Olaoye and Rotimi, 2010).
GM = TR − TC … … … … … … … … … … .1.15
Where:
GM = Gross margin/gross profit value;
TR = Total revenue, expressed as (TR = P x Y);
P = Price;
Y = Yield tons/ha or kg/ha;
TC = Total cost, expressed as (TC = FC+VC);
FC = Fixed cost and
VC = Cost of the variable inputs
Note: Values of all farm labour should be based on the variable inputs (i.e. the
prevailing agricultural wages per day) and outputs (i.e. the prevailing market prices)
based on the conditions as at the time of the analysis.
FLV = (wage/day,market prices) … … … … … … … … … … .1.16
Where
FLV= Values of all farm labour
f = mathematical function
Net energy or output by farm power
For any given task, the energy or net output delivered by a power system is expressed
by the relation
( ) =
( )
( )
For instance this energy requirement has been estimated as a continuous effort at
26%–29% for donkeys, and 24%–27% for horses (Inns, 1992).
The energy accumulated by animals is partially released in a mechanical form when
pulling equipment or carrying a load. Use of the animal energy available to perform
sustained work varies in efficiency according to local working conditions (types of
cultivation works, implements and harnessing systems used).

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