This document summarizes key aspects of carbohydrate anabolism and related metabolic pathways. It discusses gluconeogenesis, which synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidney. The Calvin cycle and glyoxylate cycle are also summarized. The Calvin cycle fixes carbon during photosynthesis, while the glyoxylate cycle allows microbes to use fatty acids and acetate as sole carbon sources.

1. Represented by: Anshul Kumar
Under Supervision of: Dr. Monika Asthana
Submitted to:
Department Of Biotechnology
School Of Life Sciences
Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar University Agra

2. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are organic in nature.
Made up of C, H, and O in which H and O
atoms are in ratio 2:1.
Some carbohydrates also contains N atoms.
e.g. Nitrogenous Base Pairs.

3. Carbohydrate anabolism:
The synthesis of complex molecules in living
organisms from simpler ones together with the
storage of energy.
e.g. Photosynthesis
6CO2 +12H2O C6H12O6
Sunlight
Enzymes

5. Carbohydrate
anabolism
Gluconeogenesis
Process involve in carbohydrate
anabolism::
Calvin Cycle
Glyoxylate
Cycle

6. Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate compounds
is known as gluconeogenesis.
Irreversible pathway takes place in cytosol.
Precursors for gluconeogenesis are:
Lactate
Gluconic amino acid
Pyruvate
Propionate and
Glycerol.

7. Site Of Occurrence:
Gluconeogenesis mainly occurs in liver and to a lesser
extent in the renal cortex.
Pathway is mitochondrial and cytoplasmic.
About 1 kg of glucose produced per day.

8. Net ATP consumed in
gluconeogenesis=4ATP
Net GTP consumed in
gluconeogenesis=2GTP
Net NADH consumed in
gluconeogenesis=2NADH
Total amount of energy consumed in
gluconeogenesis:
4ATP+2GTP+2NADH=12ATP
Note:
1GTP= 1ATP
1NADH=3ATP
Pyruvate as a precursor in
gluconeogenesis

9. Lactate as a precursor in gluconeogenesis
It is a metabolic pathway in which lactate
produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles
moves to liver and it’s converts into glucose .
It also known as lactic acid cycle or Cori cycle.
It discovered by two scientists named Carl
Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Cori.

11. During intense exercise muscle uses oxygen much faster that it
can be supplied by blood stream.
Due to this reason muscles enters anaerobiosis condition and
shows a decreasing NAD/NADH ratio which favours reduction of
pyruvate to lactate.

12. Glycerol as a precursor in gluconeogenesis
Hydrolysis of triacylglycerol in adipocytes liberate glycerol.
Glycerol kinase found only in liver and kidney not in adipose tissues.

13. Propionate as a precursor of gluconeogenesis
Oxidation and breakdown

14. Regulation of gluconeogenesis
Regulatory enzymes
Pyruvate carboxylase
Fructose-1,6-biphosphate
Regulatory hormones
Insulin
Glucocorticoids
Glucagon
Regulated by ATP.

15. Significance Of Gluconeogenesis:
Brain, RBCs, Testes & Kidney medulla requires glucose for continuous supply
of energy.
Human brain individually requires 120g of glucose out of 160g of glucose
requires by whole body per day.
Glucose as a only source of energy to skeletal muscles.
Gluconeogenesis maintains blood glucose level during fasting.

16. Calvin Cycle
Also known as C-3 cycle.
Cyclic pathway with 3 phases.
1-Carbon fixation
2-Reduction
3-Regeneration

18. Net ATP consumed in one Calvin cycle= 9ATP
Net NADPH consumed in one Calvin cycle=6NADP
Total amount of energy consumed in One Calvin cycle=27ATP
Energy consumed in Calvin cycle

19. Significance of Calvin cycle
The product of Calvin cycle , glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P) can be converted
to many other molecules.
e.g; Fatty acids
Glycerol
Amino acids
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate converted to glucose-6-phosphate which often
metabolised for energy.

20. Glyoxylate Cycle

21. Glyoxylate cycle occurs in microbes.
This cycle has two unique enzymes-isocitrate lyase and
malate synthase which bypass some of the reactions of TCA
cycle.
Glyoxylate cycle utilizes five enzymes out of eight
enzymes associated with TCA cycle.
Bypass the two steps of TCA cycle namely:-
1. Splitting of isocitrate into succinate and glyoxylate.
2. Conversion of glyoxylate into malate.

22. Significance of glyoxylate cycle
It occurs in bacteria when the cultured in acetate rich
carbon source.
When higher fatty acids are oxydised into acetyl CoA
without forming pyruvic acids, then acetyl CoA enters
into glyoxylate cycle.

24. Dr. Monika Asthana mam
Dr. Avnish Kumar sir
Dr. Ankur Gupta sir
Dr. Bhavyata Dua mam
Mr. Dheeraj sir
Mr. Prashant Sharma sir