A Synergy Between The Technological Process And A Methodology For Web Design Implications For Technological Problem Solving And Design

A Synergy Between the Technological Process
and a Methodology for Web Design: Implications
for Technological Problem Solving and Design
MARIA JAKOVLJEVIC*
School of Economics and Business Sciences, Information Systems, University of the Witwaters-
rand, Johannesburg, South Africa
PIET ANKIEWICZ, ESTELLE DE SWARDT AND ELNA GROSS
Department of Curriculum Studies, Rand Afrikaans University (RAU), P. O. Box 524, Auckland
Park, Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT: Traditional instructional methodology in the Information System Design (ISD)
environment lacks explicit strategies for promoting the cognitive skills of prospective system
designers. This contributes to the fragmented knowledge and low motivational and creative
involvement of learners in system design tasks. In addition, present ISD methodologies,
including web design methodologies, do not focus suﬃciently on technological problem solving
and design. Engagement in system design tasks demands critical thinking [Shelly, Cashman &
Rosenblatt, 2001, Systems Analysis and Design, 4th edn. Course Technology, Boston] and
abstraction skills [Harris, 1999, Systems Analysis and Design for the Small Enterprise, The
Dryden Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Fort Worth]. The aim of this paper is to
explain a synergy between the technological process and web design methodology and its
inﬂuence on the development of the cognitive skills of learners in the ISD context. In this
research, the Team Structure Software Process (TSSP) methodology was integrated with the
stages of the technological process. An interface approach between Information Systems and
Technology Education was adopted during the implementation of an Instructional Web De-
sign Program (IWDP), which served as a framework for building a software product. This
research was based on a qualitative, action-research approach where individual interviews,
focus group interviews, observation and document sources were used to gather data. Seventeen
students at an institution of higher education were observed and their experiences were
investigated through a focus group interview, journals and an essay. In addition, an interview
with the teacher was conducted to investigate her thoughts and feelings during the imple-
mentation of the IWDP. During the implementation of the IWDP, multi-method learning was
promoted, enlarging learners’ insight into the design process and a climate for enhancing
intellectual processes and skills created [Jakovljevic, 2002, An Instructional Model for
Teaching Complex Thinking through Web Page Design, DEd thesis, Rand Afrikaan Univer-
sity, Johannesburg]
Keywords: complex thinking, information technology, instructional web design program,
technological process, technology education, web design
*
D.Ed. student at Rand Afrikaans University.
International Journal of Technology and Design Education 14, 261–290, 2004.
2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

INTRODUCTION
Research findings (DeLuca 1992; Johnson 1997, p. 175; Magadla 1996,
p. 83; Winn 1990, p. 55) support constructivism as a theoretical approach
that highlights important aspects of contextual learning, peer-based learn-
ing, activity-based and reflective practice, factors that are critical for the
development of thinking skills and creating a positive motivational atmo-
sphere for learning. Gardner (1983, p. 10) developed the concept of multiple
intelligences, pointing out that many types of intelligence exist which should
be considered in a constructivist classroom. Learners with different domi-
nant intelligences (e.g. artistic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial,
personal, bodily, kinaesthetic, and musical) can practise their skills and
thinking processes through collaborative activities in an Information Sys-
tems Design (ISD) context. In the ISD environment learners design
appropriate information systems software as a solution to an identified
business problem.
Though numerous research reports have provided a body of information
about instructional methodologies (Laurillard 1994, pp. 94–95; Wheatley
1991, p. 11), far less research has been conducted on those aspects of soft-
ware development methodologies and constructivist principles which can
create a meaningful learning atmosphere and meet the technological prob-
lem solving and design needs of learners in an ISD environment.
The present software development methodologies including the Team
Structure Software Process (TSSP) methodology, contain a wide range of
techniques in software design and development (Greenberg Lakeland
1999; Shelly Cashman Rosenblatt et al. 2001). However, this range of
techniques without adequate problem solving tasks does not support learners
in developing their technological problem solving and design skills. Teachers
must make these techniques, the rationale and criteria explicit to learners
(McCormick, Murphy Hennessy 1994, p. 31). Although a distinction is
made between design and problem solving in Technology Education
(Johnsey 1995, pp. 199–200; McCormick 1997, pp. 150–153), there is a
relationship between the two concepts. ‘The design process … is seen as the
manifestation of the problem-solving process …’ (McCormick et al. 1994, p.
5). Problem solving does not always occur within a regular sequence, but ‘…
is shaped by the tools and resources available’ (McCormick et al. 1994, p. 6).
Learners are usually not provided with tasks relevant to their experience,
knowledge and skills, thus diminishing the utilisation of multiple intelli-
gences during collaborative projects in the ISD environment. ‘The ways in
which tasks are presented, and the degree of explicitness about the nature of
tasks are important determinants of the problem-solving approaches pupils
adopt’ (Black 1990, Roazzi Bryant 1992; cited by McCormick et al. 1994,
p. 6). The complexity of the system design tasks and the lack of their
explicitness as well as lack of appropriate methods in allocating tasks to
learners with different problem solving skills are common practice in the
ISD context. The inability to satisfy the technological problem solving needs
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MARIA JAKOVLJEVIC ET AL.

of learners through present software development methodologies has pro-
moted research in state-of-the-art web design as a technological process.
The technological process and its stages (Ankiewicz, De Swardt Stark
2000, pp. 122–133) address those problem solving and design aspects which
are lacking within the phases of the TSSP methodology. Based on this fact,
it is assumed that the synergy between the stages of the technological process
and the phases of the TSSP methodology will provide learners with
opportunities to reflect on problem solving and design aspects during web
design. This research focuses on the effect of a synergy between the stages of
the technological process and the phases of the TSSP methodology on
learners’ technological problem solving and design skills during web design.
The research questions addressed in this paper are:
1. How can the stages of the technological process and the TSSP method-
ology be integrated and accommodated in a learning program for web
design to promote learners’ problem solving and design skills?
2. What is the effect of such an integrated learning programme on learners’
technological problem solving and design skills in web design?
In considering the purpose of this study, in-depth research on the aspects
related to the procedural knowledge of technology was taken into account
(McCormick 1997; McCormick et al. 1994; Todd 1990) and an interdisci-
plinary approach for facilitating meaningful learning was adopted. There is
a need to consider both the conceptual knowledge ‘know what’ and pro-
cedural knowledge ‘know how’ in an attempt to promote problem solving
skills of learners in technology classrooms (McCormick 1997, p. 143). This
paper reports on findings based on learners’ and the teacher’s experience of
an Instructional Web Design Program (IWDP), which was implemented in a
project-based classroom at an institution of higher education in Johannes-
burg, South Africa.
THE FRAMEWORK FOR TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING AND DESIGN
The techological process of web design with a description of its stages are
presented in the next section in order to create a theoretical framework
underpinning the empirical research.
The stages of the technological process
Different design models of the technological process can be found. Johnsey
(1995, p. 216) points out that the present design models do not recognise the
importance of research skills and planning research during the designing
and planning stages of the technological process. Most models of the
technological process depict linear design, which presume that the process
follows a sequence (Johnsey 1995, pp. 202–205). Some of the shortcomings
of these models, even where they are seen as iterative and circular, were
spelled out by McCormick (1997, p. 151):
A SYNERGY BETWEEN THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS AND
WEB DESIGN METHODOLOGY
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They are unlikely to represent what is carried out in practice either by
expert technologists or students.
Students can follow it like a ritual exhibiting a veneer of accomplishment
while actually following their own process of design.
Students are fatally unaware that there is a process (procedural knowl-
edge) to be learnt.
It is well known that procedural knowledge in technology can be described
as a number of stages (Ankiewicz et al. 2000; GDE GICD 1999; Johnsey
1995; Jones 1997). We believe that the design and development of an
information system as a challenging task for learners requires additional
stages to provide them with opportunities for technological problem solving
and design, and for developing complex thinking. A model consisting of ten
stages was employed to teach procedural knowledge and to serve as an
organisational framework for the teacher and learners during the web design
process (Jakovljevic 2000, 2002). The sequence of the technological stages
and the inclusion of all stages should be examined (Ankiewicz et al. 2000;
Jakovljevic 2002). The following is a brief description of each of the ten
stages of the technological process:
Statement of the problem refers to the identification of the problem, need
or want in the form of a short descriptive sentence.
Design brief is the general outline of the intention on how to solve the
problem specifying special requirements and the context or the environ-
ment.
Investigation is the process of gathering information related to the
problem, needs or wants as identified in the first stage.
Proposal implies a formal, written commitment of what needs to be done
or designed in order to meet the need or want, or to solve the problem.
The proposal consists of a written description of the specification for the
product, as well as a time plan indicating how long the project will take to
complete.
Initial ideas imply generating ideas, discussion, analysis and choosing the
best idea or combination of ideas.
Research: During this stage an investigation is undertaken to solve
problems and answer questions with regard to problematic aspects of the
chosen idea, in order to develop it into a workable solution. Research
implies a more in-depth and more specific search for information than the
initial investigation.
Development refers to the refinement of the chosen idea by applying the
research results to the problematic aspects.
Planning refers to planning on how to make, assemble and finalise the
product. The final idea is represented in a work drawing. The various
drawings can be used to indicate different parts of the proposed system
and the relationships between the components. A list of required re-
sources is compiled and installed.

Realisation/Making consists of the production of a product. It includes
the realisation of the planning and designing into a product.
Testing, Evaluation and Improvement involve the testing and final evalu-
ation of the product based on the criteria included in the Design brief and
Proposal (Adapted from Ankiewicz De Swardt 2002, p. 76).
Learners are encouraged to be involved with iterative design activities in the
form of a loop (Garratt 1998; Harris 1999; Johnsey 1995; Satzinger, Jackson
Burd 2002; Todd, 1990). Each stage of the technological process provides
opportunities for learners to practise the subprocesses of complex thinking
through a variety of learner tasks and activities that also cater for the different
phases of the TSSP methodology. Each stage helps learners to conceptualise
the components of the intended ISD system. According to Harris (1999, p. 61)
‘… we are forced to conceptualise the component, which helps us identify the
crucial elements and their relationship with respect to the overall system …’.
In the next section, we outline the TSSP methodology in terms of our intention
to highlight its phases and their influence on learners’ web design skills.
The phases of the TSSP methodology
The phases of the TSSP methodology were incorporated within the IWDP in
the form of learner tasks, and the teacher and learner activities. During web
design the following phases of the TSSP methodology were implemented:
Scoping: Problem definition, requirements analysis and project justifica-
tion are performed. The basic information to resolve the business prob-
lem is collected and documented.
High-level or functional design: The functions that are needed to satisfy
business requirements are enumerated and described. The platform
design, hardware, software and networking tools are chosen and docu-
mented.
The detailed design consists of layouts and detailed logic of the functions
in the high-level design. It also includes the design of the database, unit
test plan and system test plan.
The infrastructure ramp up: The hardware and software components
necessary for the development of a web site are installed.
Construction: The applications are coded using development application
architecture and the unit is tested.
Testing: End-to-end system testing is performed, and if applicable user-
acceptance testing is conducted.
Support design: The Internet Service Provider (ISP) who will provide
support, is identified.
Implementation: The tasks necessary to bring the solution on-line, such as
system testing, installation and training are executed (Adapted from
Greenberg Lakeland 1999).
The phases of the TSSP and their functions were taught to learners. Being
involved only with the phases of the TSSP methodology means that
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learners are at risk of wandering too close to the technical side of ISD
without having opportunities to develop their own competence in problem
solving. This motivated the idea for the integration of the phases of the
TSSP methodology with the stages of the technological process.
A synergy between the stages of the technological process and the TSSP
methodology
An important focus of this paper is the integration of the phases of the
TSSP methodology (embedded in Information Systems) with the stages of
the technological process within the framework for Technology Education
(Jakovljevic, Ankiewicz De Swardt 2000, p. 18; Jakovljevic, Ankiewicz,
De Swardt Gross 2001, p. 3). When designing a web page we took into
account the function triangle proposed by De Vries (1999, p. 23) neces-
sary for designing a technological product. According to this author ‘…
when designing we have to take into account the relationship between the
function that is to be fulfilled, the materials of which the product has to
be made, the shapes we want to give to these materials and the treatments
through which we want to give the shapes to the materials’ (De Vries
1999, p. 23). Learners develop an understanding of the relationship be-
tween the task that is to be fulfilled, the data which has to be included in
the web page, the meaning and appearance of the data, and treatments
necessary to shape a web page. Thus, the advantage of the functionally
and strategically similar processes used in Technology Education and
Information Systems, and the perspectives they bring to the study of
design, point to the necessity of a synergy between these two areas of
learning. However, this synergy has to be investigated during the imple-
mentation of the IWDP.
The phases of the TSSP methodology and the stages of the technological
process were incorporated into the IWDP through learner tasks and activ-
ities. In other words, learners were given a set of small pre-defined tasks, on-
and off-line activities, which catered for different functionalities of both the
stages of the technological process and the phases of the TSSP methodology.
As the stages of the technological process and the TSSP methodology
were incorporated within the IWDP it is necessary to examine some aspects
of the IWDP that were included to impact on the technological problem
solving and design skills of learners in the project-based classroom.
The instructional web design program (IWDP)
To derive an answer to the first research question, the IWDP was developed
by integrating the technological process and the TSSP methodology. In
addition to this, the IWDP was developed to meet the requirements for
facilitating learners’ problem solving and design skills during web design.
The IWDP was based on classroom practice, research literature and edu-
cational policy.

A theoretical framework, based on complex thinking, mind tools,
learning theories, instructional models and strategies as essential pillars, was
used for developing the IWDP. These pillars provided a wide range of
interdisciplinary issues, which were considered necessary in facilitating
technological problem solving and design in the ISD context.
There are different types of thinking such as critical, creative, problem
solving, decision making and design which are recognised as critical as-
pects of learning and instruction in technology education (Ankiewicz
De Swardt, 2002; Jakovljevic, 2002). The processes of problem solving
and design are critical elements in technology education (Sharpe 1996;
cited by Reddy, Ankiewicz, De Swardt and Gross, 2003, p. 30). ‘The
thinking processes can be viewed as ‘‘cognitive scaffolding’’ that direct
learners’ thinking, learning and doing towards the solution of practical
problems’ (McCade Weymer 1996; cited by Ankiewicz De Swardt
2002, p. 2).
Most authors have no common interpretation relating to the composition
of the thinking processes on higher levels (Jakovljevic 2002, pp. 78–79; Iowa
Department of Education, 1989; cited by Jonassen 1996, pp. 27–28). Dif-
ferent perspectives on complex thinking provided a sound basis for the
development of the IWDP. ‘Complex thinking includes goal-directed, multi-
step strategic processes, such as designing, decision making and problem
solving and this is an essential core of higher-order thinking’ (The Iowa
Department of Education 1989; cited by Jonassen 1996, pp. 27–29). The
inclusion of the main thinking processes and skills, which comprise complex
thinking, are as yet not agreed upon.
The term proposed for the purpose of this research is ‘complex thinking’
as an umbrella term under which all other subprocesses (creative thinking,
critical thinking, decision-making, problem solving and design) and skills of
higher level thinking belong. These subprocesses as learning outcomes are
emphasised by the South African Qualification Authority (Mebl 1997;
SAQA 1997).
An in-depth investigation of the essential pillars of the theoretical
framework has produced criteria for the development of the IWDP, which
together with existing educational policy in South Africa (DoE 1997; GDE
GICD 1999; SAQA 1997), influenced the design of the IWDP (Jakovljevic
2002). For example, the most prominent criteria for the IWDP drawn from
learning theories, instructional models and strategies are presented in
Table I.
The IWDP was structured according to the framework for the national
school curriculum in South Africa, and the following components have been
identified: Theme; Outcomes: critical and specific outcomes; Content, for-
mulated as Range Statements (RS) and Performance Indicators (PI), to
include both conceptual and procedural knowledge (including the ten stages
of the technological process); Learner tasks (case study, resource and
capability tasks); Learner on- and off-line activities; Teacher activities
(Instructional strategies); Assessment criteria (AC); and Notional time
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(Ankiewicz et al. 2000, p. 122; Jakovljevic 2002, pp. 289–291; Reddy et al.
2003, p. 32).
In developing the IWDP it was necessary to consider the importance of
conceptual and procedural knowledge (McCormick 1997, p. 149), supported
by the current constructivist focus in technology classrooms which is
moving towards facilitating thinking skills and concentrating on activity-
based and reflective practice, informal and peer-based learning. The
procedural knowledge in technology can be expressed as stages of the
technological process (Jakovljevic 2002, p. 274). A brief illustration of only
one stage of the technological process namely Initial Ideas is provided in
Table II. The components such as theme and critical outcomes are not
presented in the table.
Within each stage of the technological process a set of case study, resource
and capability tasks, off-line activities (activities performed without the use
of computer technology) and on-line activities (activities performed using
web development software tools and the Internet) were created (Jakovljevic
2002). During the technological stages learners have opportunities to ex-
plore a range of small, sequenced and pre-defined tasks and activities which
support the phases of the TSSP methodology.
The IWDP offers case study tasks to help learners get a basic under-
standing of the nature of web design in a wider community context. The
program includes resource tasks that guide learners through a variety of
graphical means and mind tools through which they build technological
knowledge and creative, reflective and problem solving skills. The IWDP
contains capability tasks that assist learners to improve design, planning,
modelling and developing skills, providing an opportunity for the innova-
tive engagement in technological problem solving and design. The program
uses capability tasks to help learners to demonstrate cognitive, psychomotor
and technology related skills, content (subject matter) knowledge, values
Table I. Most prominent criteria for the IWDP drawn from learning theories, instructional
models and strategies
Criteria (Learning theories, instructional models and strategies)
Direct teaching and fostering observational learning during demonstrations are essential for
acquiring factual knowledge and basic skills in the project-based classroom.
Technological design should be taught through a guided discovery approach, where learners are
not presented with the subject matter in its final form.
Cognitive apprenticeship with coaching, scaffolding, prompting and fading in a collaborative
learning environment is essential in the project-based classroom.
In web page design instructional strategies that support reflective practice, activity-based
practice, and peer-based learning in a rich contextual environment help learners to develop
intellectual skills.
When applying a constructivist approach, a variety of instructional strategies (e.g. brainstorm-
ing, inquiry/investigation, discussions, case studies, activity-based practice, project work) are
essential for technological problem solving.

TABLE II. Technological stage Initial Ideas with its components
Assessment Criteria (AC) Range Statements (RS) Performance Indicators (PI) (Cognitive,
behavioural and affective)
Learners should produce work in
which:
AC1 of SO4: Products and systems
are effectively selected.
AC2 of SO4: Products and systems are
effectively evaluated.
AC1 of SO5: Various factors influencing
car-purchasing solutions are considered.
AC2 of SO5: Casual relationships between
main factors influencing technological
development related to car-purchasing
schemes are reflected upon.
AC3 of SO5: Different technological
solutions are compared.
AC4 of SO5: New solutions are predicted.
Learners should show detailed, logical
work which reflects:
Content:
Research of three main ideas
Analysis of relevant ideas
Context and perspective: local, national
Mode: individuals, pairs, groups.
Presentation: oral, written, graphic.
Resources: texts, interviews, observations.
This will be evident when learners:
PI25 Research, observe and analyse
communication features of on-line
products and systems.
PI26 Display emotional readiness in composing a
proposal structure.
PI27 Motivate whether and how one solution
may be more effective than the other.
PI28 Show excitement in refining ideas and
sensitivity to team members’
contributions.
PI29 Use numeric, textual and graphical data
in searching and locating technological
resources.
PI30 Generate ideas as possible solutions to
the problem and describe their
advantages and disadvantages.
PI31 Share and justify propositions regarding
risks/benefits and constraints of the
business case.
Time Allocation: 4 h (Notional time).
Specific outcome 4 (SO4): Select and evaluate products and systems.
Specific outcome 5 (SO5):Demonstrate an understanding of how different societies create and adapt technological solutions to particular problems.
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Table II. Continued
Learner Tasks, Off-Line, On-Line Activities and Teacher Activities for the Technological Stage INITIAL IDEAS
Type of tasks Learner activities Teacher
activities (Used as a guide)
Resource tasks Capability tasks Off-line activities On-line activities
Task 6.E-2.1
Formulate the idea
of what has to be
done in order to
create a car-
purchasing scheme.
Task 6.E-2.2
Write down at least three
ideas each on a
separate page as possible
solutions to the problem.Task
6.E-2.3
List disadvantages and
advantages of proposed
ideas. Use colours and labels
to add a descriptive
quality to your list.
Ac1. Decompose the problem
intosub-problems
(different dimensions
of a problem canmerge
or be combined into a
net of relationships).
Ac2. Elaborate on ideas
writing their advantages
and disadvantages.
Ac3. Generate alternatives.
Ac4. Assess and understand
the underlying
organisation of the
proposed solution and
decide on important
characteristics.
Ac5. Reflect on the previous
knowledge.
Ac6. After brainstorming,
organise ideas into
categories, lists,
and patterns.
AC1. Familiarise yourself
with the Mind
Map software and develop
net of ideas with
possible links
between ideas.
Ta1. Discuss the characteristics of the
stage Initial Ideas and relevant
performance indicators with learners.
Ta2. Assign tasks, activities to
collaborative groups.
Ta3. Help in conducting brainstorming
sessions and questioning to
encourage finding and
formulating of new ideas.
Ta4. Allow time for ideas to build and settle.
Ta5. Help learners to focus on the goal
clearly. Understand, assimilate,
classify and/or verbalise ideas,
practice and demonstrate
(Edminson 1995, 27).
Ta6. Discuss with learners how to
motivate an idea emphasising
critical thinking and facilitating
creativity.
Ta7. Stimulate insight and decision making
through demonstrating categorisation
of ideas during brainstorming.
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TABLE III. Examples of learner tasks, activities and outcomes
Description of learner tasks (Lt) Description of learner activities (La) Description of learning outcomes (Lo)
Lt1. Analyse off-line and
on-line marketing techniques
related to car-purchasing schemes.
Ac1. Conduct research in a library.
Ac2. Organise an interview with a person
responsible for marketing tasks
and discuss marketing tools, techniques
and procedures involved with car-purchasing schemes.
Ac3. Search the popular web sites related to
business-to-customerrelationships.
Lo1. Searching the Internet and
documents concerning purchasing policies
and schemes.
Lo2. An interview transcript
(with a person responsible for marketing
tasks) and a table of findings.
Lo3. A chart of resources and a summary of
marketing off-line and on-line tools,
techniques and procedures.
Lt2. Reflect on the purpose of
developing on-line solutions
concerning an effective
purchasing cheme yourself.
Lt3. How can this task contribute to
your personal development?
Ac1. Write down advantages and disadvantages of the
existing car-purchasing schemes in the form of a list.
Ac2. Write down your opinions, perceptions about the
proposed web site.
Ac3. Practise self-direction and other metacognitive
skills by reflecting on your past experiences.
Ac4. Observe the teacher while she performs reflective
strategies through modelling.
Lo4. A short essay containing:
Experts’ opinions and perceptions
about the proposed web site.
Reflections on the pre-construction
process with constructive suggestions.
Lt4. Set the envisioning phase of the
development (modelling) process.
Ac1. Visualise a sequence of design steps.
Ac2. Present a design in a form of computer-generated map.
Ac3. Brainstorm ideas with regard to the plan and
strategies, information style and multimedia design features. Ac4.
Indicate the steps o be taken on a planning list.
Ac5. Do interactivity planning, interface and navigational
map design according to the checklists and guidelines.
Ac6. Decide on the segmentation of information.
Ac7. Draw detailed design (screen design, scripting,
multimedia assets).
Lo5. A chart containing:
Project goals
Tasks to reach project goals
A plan to accomplish the tasks
Steps to implement the plan
Criteria to evaluate the plan.
Lo6. A list which contains:
The plan and strategies
Information style Interactivity design
Multimedia design.
Lo7. A computer-generatedmap which contains
detailed design features.
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and attitudes, and utilise technological problem solving. Case study, re-
source tasks, capability tasks and activities, which learners perform during
web design, might enrich the learning process in an ISD context. Table 3
provides an example and a brief description of some learner tasks and
activities with corresponding learning outcomes.
The learner tasks focus on different ISD requirements and emphasise the
technological problem solving capabilities of learners (e.g. isolating
the problem, researching the problem, evaluating the project plan, testing
the solution) during web design. Case study, resource and capability tasks
provide a foundation for learner activities (see Tables 2 and 3) and these are
supported by the corresponding teacher activities (e.g. cognitive appren-
ticeship, modelling, direct instruction, demonstrating).
A variety of instructional strategies during the stages of the technological
process guided the teacher towards the efficient facilitation of technological
problem solving and design (Jakovljevic 2002). The IWDP promotes
apprenticeship and situated learning by synchronising learner tasks and
activities with teacher activities. Cognitive apprenticeship promotes situated
learning by giving learners the opportunity to ‘… observe, engage in, and
invent or discover expert strategies in context’ (Johnson Thomas 1992, p. 7).
Arzarello, Chiappini, Lemut, Marara and Pellery (1993, p. 284) state that
learning computer programming is a cognitive apprenticeship, an interaction
between an expert and novice aimed at enhancing the cognitive and meta-
cognitive skills of learners. Roth (1995) refers to an expert–novice or peer
tutoring type of cognitive apprenticeship when a higher achieving student
assists the lesser able students.
ISD, including web design, is considered as a technological process and
its stages can serve as a framework for building software products. The
stages of the technological process, as well as principles of web design
(Morris Hinrichs 1996, p. 32; Powell 2000) and web design issues like
content design, cognitive design, interface design, interactivity design, nav-
igational design, and maintaining and testing the web site (Conger Mason
1998), were explicitly explained and demonstrated to learners. Some web
design principles highlighted by Morris and Hinrichs (1996, p. 85) determine
the arrangement of information objects on a web page, thus influencing
interface design. These web design principles are as follows:
Contrast is the use of different design elements to highlight the differences
between elements and to identify a focal point.
Repetition refers to consistent use of design elements, which influence
assimilation of information.
Proximity refers to the practice of placing information objects that
contain similar or related information near each other.
Alignment is positioning of page elements relative to the edges of the
page.
A variety of learner tasks and activities embedded within the technolog-
ical stages provide a means of reinforcing the problem solving process of

learners as they cater for the development of different technological
problem solving capabilities of learners. Learner tasks and activities re-
lated to the problem solving component within the stages of the tech-
nological process are supplemented with tasks that satisfy the technical
aspects of the ISD (conceptual knowledge), which are linked to the phases
of the TSSP methodology. This should bring about a better balance of
the conceptual and procedural knowledge of learners (McCormick 1997,
p. 149). The pre-defined and explicit nature of the tasks occupies learners
with developing solutions to the problem rather than concentrating on the
organisational aspects of the design (Jones 1997, pp. 85, 89). Learners are
encouraged to investigate the context of the potential design task (Johnsey
1995, p. 208) and build their conceptual and procedural knowledge
(McCormick 1997, p. 149).
The variety of problem solving tasks concerning the stages of the tech-
nological process provides instructional opportunities for the teacher in
facilitating technological problem solving. The problem solving component
of the technological process complements the TSSP methodology and could
positively influence complex thinking. These might strengthen the interface
between Information Systems and Technology Education. Based on the
conceptualisation regarding a synergy between the stages of the techno-
logical process and the TSSP methodology the following criterion for the
design of the IWDP was derived:
The information gap in the literature about the synergy between the
technological process of web design and the TSSP methodology is the point
of departure in this study. To find an answer to the second research question
the effect of the IWDP on learners’ technological problem solving and de-
sign was researched.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research approach
This research can be described as a qualitative, single case study as the
learning experience of students was investigated relating to a specific event
in a bounded context (Creswell 1994; Merriam 1998; Yin 1994). In this case
study, action research was applied to simultaneously create and investigate
changes during the investigation of web design with new instructional
strategies and tools. The urgency of improving instructional strategies and
outcomes such as complex thinking in the ISD context necessitates an action
research paradigm. Action research is an iterative process with five phases:
Methodological steps in the form of learner tasks relevant to the
technological process of web design and the TSSP methodology should
be integrated during technological design.
273

diagnosing, action planning, action taking, evaluating, and specifying
learning (Baskerville Pries-Heje 1999; Baskerville Wood-Harper 1996,
p. 238; Susman 1983). The researcher was thus in a position to diagnose,
plan and implement different instructional strategies and techniques as the
process of web design progressed. The learners evaluated the intervention in
the project-based classroom through an essay and journals.
The urgency of improving outcomes such as technological problem
solving and design skills necessitates an action research paradigm. The
teacher who played the role of a participant-researcher recognised the
problems of teaching programming skills. Through the action research
process (Susman 1983) of diagnosing, action planning, and action taking of
a variety of teacher activities (e.g. demonstrating the syntactical and
semantic meaning of code using visual means; applying cognitive appren-
ticeship; guiding the Internet based self-learning initiative; allocating pro-
gramming roles, for example, a coder and a reader) were implemented in the
project-based classroom.
Profile of the students, intervention and setting
In this study two distinct mixed cultural groups of learners were identified.
These consisted of five second-year learners (two females and three males –
average age of 20) enrolled for the Information Systems Diploma at a
Technikon, 12 first-year learners (five females and seven males – average age
of 19) enrolled for the International Diploma in Computer Studies at a
Higher Education Institution. The majority of learners were from a middle
socio-economic environment. Participants from the two groups presented a
purposive convenient sample as they were available and inexpensive to this
study (Patton 1980, p. 104).
The researcher of this study who took the role of the teacher organised an
extra-curricular classroom in a well-equipped computer centre at a university
and presented the IWDP in order to teach learners web design and to
facilitate complex thinking (Jakovljevic 2002). The IWDP was presented
once a week for 13 weeks, with the duration of four hours per session.
Participants were divided into five groups following the Jigsaw II Model
of co-operative learning. Jigsaw II is a form of co-operative learning in
which individual learners become experts on subsections of a topic and
teach those subsections to others. Task specialisation requires that different
learners assume specialised roles in reaching the goals of a learning activity
(Blignaut 1993, p. 23; Eggen Kauchak 1996, p. 286). Learners worked on
a real-world project that consisted of a car-purchasing scheme. Jonassen
(1996, pp. 193–204) suggests the need for real-world problems to promote
learners’ motivation, thinking skills, enthusiasm and creativity. ‘The more
the problem solving learning situation is representative of the real world, the
more likely that the learners will transfer these skills to other areas’ (Dick
1991, p. 41), provided that learners are interested in the real-world problem.

The researcher designed the following criteria (Jakovljevic 2002, p. 36),
which served as a basis for admission to the web design course. Participants
should:
(a) have a basic knowledge of at least one programming language;
(b) be able to work co-operatively;
(c) have a positive attitude towards the course; and
(d) possess the willingness to participate in the research.
Subsequently, these criteria were applied based on an interview with learners
prior to the course. Due to the fact that learners had no previous knowledge
of web design, the teacher assisted them with the design brief as the second
stage of the technological process. The design brief with the key aspects of
the problem and the special requirements is presented in Table IV.
Data collecting methods
The IWDP was implemented in a project-based classroom and evaluated by
the teacher who conducted the classroom observations. The teacher
immediately recorded an extensive description of her activities, thoughts and
feelings related to instructional strategies, events, words and interactions in
the project-based classroom.
The teacher observed learners’ design activities and the extent to which a
project-based classroom has become a design community (Carver, Lehrer,
Connell Erickson 1992, p. 388), which helped in the assessment of com-
plex thinking. Learner design teams were observed, and continuous
assessment and monitoring of learner performance (e.g. use of graphical
data in searching and locating technological resources) were established that
coincided with particular types of instructional strategies applied in the
project-based classroom. The following checklist was used to assess and
record different activities during the technological process:
Table IV. The design brief
The design brief
Design and develop a web site that will offer an innovative purchasing scheme for buying a car
and motivate people to make an informed choice for this type of an investment in the present
market. The web site should be stimulating with animation, movement, video and sound.
Key aspects of the problem and special requirements:
The web site should be cost-effective, user-friendly, attractive and reliable
Use mind map software to complete the system analysis and design
Use HTML, Cascading Style Sheets, Applets and JavaScript to develop a web site
The project should be communicated through a design portfolio (Geyser 1998:1). A design
portfolio consists of a file with appropriate components, milestones and deliverables and a
web site stored in an electronic format.
The project should be completed within 13 weeks (150 h in total) including work outside the
project-based classroom.
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Activities and interactions: Is there a definable sequence of activities?
How do the learners interact with the activity and with one another?
What is the reason for certain activities and interactions? When did the
activity begin? How long did it last?
Conversations: What is the content of conversations in the setting?
Subtle factors: What informal and unplanned activities, nonverbal
communication and physical clues occur? (Merriam 1998, pp. 97–98)
An independent researcher conducted the retrospective interview with the
teacher and a focus group interview with the learners. Learners expressed
their experience with regard to the IWDP through journals written after
each session of the course. Their experience of the adaptation of instruction
was recorded in an essay during the implementation of the IWDP. Tran-
scripts of interviews, field notes, comments in journals and the essay were
carefully recorded and were available for analysis and reflection.
Analysis of data
Analysis of observational and interview data consisted of examining, cate-
gorising and tabulating the data to address the initial prepositions of the
study (Yin 1994, p. 102). The researcher of this study looked for recurring
patterns in observation protocols and interview transcriptions that reflect
various themes regarding the topic of the investigation. Patterns and themes
depicted through data analysis were segmented into categories and subcat-
egories (Creswell 1994), which were described and supported by evidence.
A constant comparative method was applied to data within interviews
and between interviews (Merriam 1998, p. 159). Data gathered through
multiple data gathering methods (which satisfy the criteria for triangulation)
were consolidated and analysed through a constant comparison of the data
on the teacher’s and learners’ experience of the IWDP.
The researcher of this study performed the necessary preparations to
improve her essential competence in the field, which included the clarifica-
tion of biases, and assumptions (LeCompte, Preissle Renata 1993, p. 341)
as well as investigating the social context of the case. This should enhance
the validity and reliability of the findings.
The assessment of trustworthiness
The following measures were used for judging the quality of the research
design: reliability, construct validity, internal validity and external validity
(Creswell 1994; Yin 1994; Merriam 1998). The use of various sources of
evidence: the teacher and learners, multiple data gathering methods, case
study protocols and a rich description of phenomena, which was embedded
in a theoretical framework, enhanced the construct validity of this study.
These aspects were also contributed to reliability of this study (Kerlinger
1992; Merriam 1998; Yin 1994).

Merriam’s (1998, pp. 204, 205) strategies (peer/colleague examination,
the statement of the researcher’s biases, submerging the researcher in the
study) and Yin’s (1994, p. 33) conceptions about internal validity (making
inferences, analytical pattern matching) enhanced the internal validity of the
findings in this study. In addition, a rich, thick description of the researched
phenomenon, which was embedded in a theoretical framework, contributes
to the external validity of this study (Merriam 1998, p. 211).
RESULTS
The results reflect the teacher’s and learners’ feelings and thoughts regarding
a synergy between the stages of the technological process and the TSSP
methodology. This section is organised into two main parts: findings
regarding the teacher’s experience of the IWDP; and findings in terms of the
learners’ experience of the IWDP. Figure 1 presents an overview of the
teacher’s and learners’ experience of the IWDP.
A range of learner tasks based on both the stages of the technological
process and the phases of the TSSP methodology provides a basis for explicit
guidance creating a climate for technological problem solving and design.
The symbols in the diagram (Figure 1) represent the following categories:
A - A pre-defined set of instructional strategies provided opportunities for
the teacher to teach complex thinking to learners.
F
E
D
C
B
A
IWDP
A synergy
between the
TSSP and the
stages of the
technological
process
Time
constraints
Technological
problem
solving and
design
L
T
Figure 1. The teacher’s and learners’ experience of the IWDP.
277

B - A range of learner tasks based on both the stages of the technological
process and the phases of the TSSP methodology provided a basis for
explicit guidance, thus creating a climate for technological problem
solving and design.
C - The lack of sufficient time impacted on the quality of the teaching and
on the learners’ design solutions.
D - Acquiring complex thinking through apprenticeship and collaborative
learning within the stages of the technological process.
E - Learner tasks (case study, resource and capability) provided direction
and organisational benefits for learners during the web design.
F - Too little time was allocated for learners to have completed the IWDP.
The indicated path T–A–B–C focuses on the teacher’s (T) experience of the
IWDP. The indicated path L–D–E–F focuses on learners’ (L) experience of
the IWDP.
Part A: Findings regarding the teacher’s experience of the IWDP
From the interview and classroom observation relating to the teacher’s
experience of the IWDP, the following findings relevant to the effect of the
synergy between the stages of the technological process and the TSSP
methodology on learners were made.
A pre-defined set of instructional strategies provided opportunities for the
teacher to teach complex thinking to learners
The teacher applied a variety of instructional strategies for facilitating
problem analysis, reflective thinking and the refinement of ideas. The teacher
commented: ‘Technological stages provided the opportunities for problem
decomposition … A large number of strategies was necessary to help stu-
dents, to improve system design skills, to demonstrate to reflect on …
Reflective thinking skills were discussed … The teacher was reflecting not
only the knowledge … Refinement of ideas is happening throughout tech-
nological stages … They were taught how to express ideas, how to write
down ideas and how to write immediately ideas once they have embarked ….’
The teacher further commented: ‘They discussed different research
methods during the Investigation and Research stage … They observed and
interviewed people, they sent e-mails, searched on-line and off-line material
… Technological stages do not follow in the exact order ….’
Observations revealed that the teacher demonstrated and modelled
reflective strategies, which helped learners to plan and perform their
reflective activities. Learners were encouraged to think loudly ‘… wow, can I
show my diagram how can my functions fit into my map composition…?’
Different instructional strategies (e.g. discussions in small groups,
scaffolding through cognitive apprenticeship) were applied in the project-
based classroom. The teacher discussed ideas, which emerged during
brainstorming sessions, and monitored the process of recording ideas. In
addition, the teacher modelled the steps during the problem analysis

which focus on the technical aspects of the design. This empowered
learners in linking their practical activities to the understanding of system
design tools while observing the teacher who modelled design activities
during cognitive apprenticeship.
During classroom observation it was clear that careful consideration
should be given to the sequence and the inclusion of all the technological
stages. Learners ignored the stage ‘Initial Ideas’ as the generation and
refinement of ideas occurred during previous stages. The teacher activities
were designed to control the basic aspects of technological problem
solving starting with demonstrations of technological skills and providing
a frequent modelling of thinking through a repetitive, cyclic mode of
teaching. The teacher helped learners in constructing and implementing
interviews, writing reflective notes and analysing documents and statistics
relevant to the technological problem.
The teacher felt that the pre-defined set of instructional strategies
(presented in the form of a map) released time for monitoring and
assessing learners’ work. She acted as a facilitator supporting learners’
design activities rather than concentrating on classroom preparations. The
teacher made comments in the observation notebook: ‘I felt that the pre-
defined set [of teacher activities] allowed me to increase the frequency of
interactions with learners through discussions, questioning, cognitive
apprenticeship and the modelling of the system design features. I could
choose an appropriate instructional strategy according to the particular
technological stage and the needs of learners.’
A range of learner tasks based on both the stages of the technological process
and the phases of the TSSP methodology provided a basis for explicit guidance
creating a climate for technological problem solving and design
Learners were given complete freedom when choosing any sequence of the
prescribed tasks and activities relevant for the phases of the TSSP
methodology and the stages of the technological process. The teacher
commented: ‘They performed tasks-activities in any order, they con-
structed their own set of tasks and activities but the focus was on a
particular set of tasks and activities during technological stages and
corresponding phases of the TSSP.’
The teacher reported that incorporating learner tasks and activities,
based on both the stages of the technological process and the TSSP meth-
odology, provided explicit guidance: ‘Learner tasks and activities are very
useful … learners had feelings that there was guidance … there was no need
for an extensive preparation … students used their own initiative, they had
done a lot, but they still needed extra guidance … technological stages
proved to be very useful because with the structured work students had the
feeling that they were being guided and had more time for research and
solving the problem.’
A variety of learner tasks facilitated by step-by-step instruction in a
collaborative learning environment were observed. They spent little time
279

on the organisation of web design activities. It was evident through their
demonstrations of understanding of the whole process of web design and
their explicit statements such as ‘I can see all the steps in design … I am
not lost.’
The technological stages, the phases of the TSSP methodology and
corresponding learner tasks were explicitly discussed, analysed and visu-
ally displayed to learners. The purpose was to involve learners actively in
planning web design activities and to prepare them for tasks in terms of
required conceptual and procedural knowledge, available tools and
expertise in their teams. The teacher discussed and explained different web
design issues and technical aspects of the ISD with the learners. The
climate for practising conceptual knowledge was established serving as a
prerequisite for problem solving and design activities (procedural knowl-
edge) specified in the TSSP methodology.
The teacher observed that learners were actively involved in different
resource and capability tasks, which cater for complex thinking. They were
researching (e.g. Internet, libraries), analysing data in small groups, dis-
cussing design solutions and performing design tasks. It was difficult to
interrupt them, as they were completely occupied in critical discussions.
The lack of sufficient time impacted on the quality of the teaching and on the
learners’ design solutions
The teacher reported that there was insufficient time allocated for some of
the technological stages: ‘They were coming once a week … Learners need
more time for design ... there was no time for modelling … More time
should be allocated for the teaching of thinking skills and their attributes.’
Difficulties observed by the teacher in facilitating problem solving skills
were evident as learners expressed the feeling that time allocation was
insufficient. Most of the learners commented: ‘if we had more time it
would be easier to complete the design’. The teacher also felt that the
time allocated for each stage of the technological process was inadequate.
Learners within their groups performed only certain tasks and activi-
ties. In addition they spent excessive time on some tasks which gave the
impression that they lack time management skills. However, insufficient
time didn’t interfere in the acquisition of conceptual knowledge by the
learners as they discussed and demonstrated different concepts and
technical aspects of web design. In addition, ‘there was sufficient time for
resource tasks and the problem decomposition’ during the web design.
Some of the learners decided not to follow all the stages of the tech-
nological process in their prescribed sequence within the limited time
frame.
Evidence based on the teacher’s experience thus reveals the accomplish-
ment of the previously set criterion: methodological steps in the form of
learner tasks relevant to the technological process of web design and the
TSSP methodology should be integrated during technological design.

Part B: Findings regarding learners’ experience of the IWDP
From multiple data gathering sources relating to the learners’ experience of
the technological stages and inclusion of the TSSP methodology, the fol-
lowing findings were formulated:
Acquiring complex thinking through apprenticeship and collaborative learning
within the stages of the technological process
Learners were involved with diverse tasks, which positively influenced their
thinking processes. They commented: ‘In the beginning we had to go out to
different places, and get some information on different ways how things are
actually done, and then we had to sit down and then figure out a way which
suits us best, which we think would be best … afterwards had to take out
some stuff that you found … and also put some of your own thoughts. To
get information you had to do research … you do the research and then you
do decision making.’
Learners commented on different thinking skills: ‘Reflective thinking help
you to solve a problem, how to research your alternatives … Decision
making is ultimately based on the results of reflective thinking, after having
done … your research … you get an overall idea of what the design is going
to look like.’
Learners commented on collaborative learning in groups and its influence
on their technological problem solving and design: ‘You decide on what you
are going to do, speak to the members of your group, … then you come to a
final conclusion with your group … how to solve the problem … or the
proposal … how to handle stress … it is taking less time to complete the step
and then we can have less stress on everybody else … because everyone in
the group gives own ideas, and you build on the ideas together … then you
come to a final conclusion with your group … then you draw up proposal.’
Learners further commented on apprenticeship learning: ‘... only in class
there was somebody, right Maria was there, but when we met up on our own
… we need more guidance….’
During the ISD expert–novice type of interactions were observed.
Learners enjoyed the individual help provided by the teacher or peers as
they were exposed to expert strategies in the ISD context that contributed to
their technological problem solving and design.
Learners commented on the benefits of collaborative learning on their idea
generation:‘Thegroupworkhasalsobeenanadvantageandithelpedyouwith
ideastobuildonideasfromotherpeople…youknowwhenyougooutandyou
see different things and then you come up with your own ideas.’
The teacher observed that learners could not complete the project with-
out collaborative work through the sharing of tasks. The following activities
were noted during observations: ‘Some learners were sitting in large groups,
talking, discussing, drawing a sketch on a paper, completely immersed in the
design activities. Often they were sitting in pairs when a higher achieving
student assisted the lesser able students. They exchanged their roles during
281

different stages in technological design. Learners were thinking aloud, they
were reflecting on design steps.’
Furthermore, one learner from each group was chosen as a tutor dem-
onstrating the design steps to members within their own group and to other
groups. They expressed their feelings of enjoyment through body language,
informal talk, commenting, ‘our group members have different skills and it
helps in designing a web site.’
Learners continually wanted the teacher’s immediate attention and her
involvement in different activities, particularly during learning the detailed
design. The teacher noted the following comments: I was active, moving
between groups, facilitating brainstorming sessions, talking to individual
learners, debating and demonstrating design steps … discussing with small
groups and acting as an expert during cognitive apprenticeship.’
Learner tasks (case study, resource and capability) provided direction and
organisational benefits for learners during the web design
Learners commented on the usefulness of pre-defined tasks and activities in
terms of their organisational benefits: ‘It (case study, resource and capability
tasks) helps … to organise and to clarify, see what you did and what you
would do …’
They experienced a sense of direction during web design: ‘The tasks gave
us a direction, where we are supposed to go … the processing of developing
software, it’s a step-by-step process, you can’t just start at one point and
finish at a certain point. You have to keep things going a certain order; you
can’t just jump, because you know the other steps are coming’.
Notes written in journals revealed that the pre-defined learner tasks and
activities gave them ‘a direction’, ‘keeping them focused’, ‘helps in moni-
toring design steps’.
Learners recorded that their involvement in some learner tasks had cer-
tain effects: ‘Tasks such as evaluation of information, material search …
fulfilment of proposal … give you ideas … Online and off line activities are
important because they keep you focused.’
The teacher observed that learners were asking critical questions, brain-
storming and recording ideas, searching the Internet, and demonstrating
design sketches to each other. Thus, a variety of learner tasks extended their
technological problem solving and design skills through diverse activity-
based practice. Rather than concentrating on organisational aspects,
learners spent time on designing a proposed information system and dis-
cussing web design issues. They attempted to focus on the problem while
visualising the end product.
It was evident during classroom observations that pre-defined learner
tasks relating to the stages of the technological process and phases of the
TSSP methodology led learners towards in-depth design activities (e.g.
reflecting on the design aspects, demonstrating, explaining, and discussing
different features of web design, designing a unit test plan and the system
test plan).

Learners were given a map with a set of tasks and activities for each stage
of the technological process and phases of the TSSP methodology. The
following teacher comments were noted down: ‘I thought that visual
exposure to the tasks gave them direction during technological design. They
were reflecting on previous tasks and activities, ticking off the completed
activities, highlighting outstanding activities and adding new activities to
suit their needs and skills. Learners were involved to a small extent with
respect to the organisation of their work, concentrating on their research
and design activities.’
Evidence revealed that learner tasks provided guidance, and a clear sense
of direction during web design. Learners said that they enjoyed the real-
world project of a car-purchasing scheme as they attached personal meaning
to the theme.
Too little time was allocated for learners to have completed the IWDP
Learners commented: ‘We need more formal time … we spend a lot of time
on the first two stages … we had time to think about the problem and
investigate …’ Learners commented in their journals: ‘There is little time left
for us to complete work ….’
The teacher observed that due to the underestimated time allocation for
each stage of the technological process, time was mostly used for problem
solving, research and design activities. The fact that learners were able to
complete tasks relating to problem decomposition and research positively
influenced the complex thinking of learners. Evidence based on learners’
experience reveals the fulfilment of the proposed criterion used for the
IWDP design.
DISCUSSION
From the results, and as an answer to the first research question, it is evident
that it is possible to integrate the stages of the technological process and the
TSSP methodology in a learning program for web design to promote
learners’ technological problem solving and design skills.
The synergy between the stages of the technological process and the TSSP
methodology is accommodated and integrated in the IWDP through learner
tasks and activities and corresponding teacher activities which enhanced the
instructional capabilities of the teacher in promoting learners’ technological
problem solving. The choice of instructional strategies selected by the tea-
cher assisted learners to focus on the elements of the problem, perhaps
linking them into an integrated structure. A range of instructional strategies
was designed to control the basic aspects of technological problem solving
and design, starting with demonstrations of technological skills and pro-
viding a frequent modelling of thinking through a repetitive, cyclic mode of
teaching and collaborative learning.
The pre-defined stucture of case study, resource and capability learner
tasks which cater for both the TSSP methodology and the technological
283

stages allow a repetitive, cyclic mode of learning and promote technological
problem solving. Learners experienced a multi-tasked learning environment
through case study, resource and capability tasks catering both to the stages
of the technological process and the phases of the TSSP methodology. The
specific sequence of the technological stages and the necessity of including
all the stages during the web design need to be considered during techno-
logical problem solving.
The engagement with a variety of resource and capabilities tasks dealing
with problem decomposition, research and techniques in software design
and development, created a positive motivational atmosphere empowering
learners with the opportunity to practise thinking skills. Through the syn-
ergy between learner and/or teacher activities catering for the stages of the
technological process and the TSSP methodology, an explicit link between
decision-making, research and critical and creative skills was formed pro-
ducing the basis for technological problem solving and design.
The findings also indicate that an integrated program in web design (as an
answer to the second research question) had an effect on learners’ problem
solving and design skills.
Provision was made within the IWDP to explicitly guide learners
through the technological stages and the TSSP methodology. This helped
learners to progressively move through the technological stages of the
whole system and effectively deal with organisational aspects of web de-
sign. Explicit instruction is required to teach learners in the technological
context to manage and control (self-regulate) their conceptual knowledge
(Schoenfeld 1985; cited by McCormick 1997, p. 146). The teacher felt that
only after the establishment of refined ideas, through explicit instruction
and providing explanation (Jones Carter 1998, p.270), learners were
able to link new ideas with previous knowledge and move to a ‘… real-life
context using design processes as tools for creation and exploration’ (Hill
1998, p. 217). Although there is a certain ‘‘unpredictability of the
knowledge required in some learning tasks …’ (McCormick 1997, p. 144)
it may be partially sorted if the learner tasks and the knowledge base
required are explicitly defined.
The advance planning of learner tasks and activities and the teacher
activities within an integrated learning program, provided the teacher and
learners the opportunity to concentrate on the research and creative features
of technological design rather than the organisational aspects of the web
design. The minimum requirements for the organisational responsibilities of
the learners that are supported in literature (e.g. DeLuca 1992; Jones 1997;
Winn 1990) were evident through reflections on the system design as learners
went through the stages of the technological process and the phases of the
TSSP methodology. Experience with a variety of pre-defined tasks gave
learners a sense of direction and organisational benefits furnishing learners
with an opportunity to do research and planning (Johnsey 1995) and con-
centrate on design and problem solving skills based on a real-world prob-
lem.

Furthermore, by providing structured guidelines through the pre-defined
tasks and activities based on the stages of the technological process and the
TSSP methodology, learners created a link between the stages in system
design, and conceptual and procedural knowledge. Some researchers sup-
port structured tasks (Doornekamp Streumer 1996, p. 63) but Hill (1998,
p. 207) states that technological problem solving is open-ended and creative
depending on the problem. McCormick (1997, p. 151) indicated the dangers
of a step-by-step process during technological problem solving. It was,
however, evident through learners’ demand for orderly step-by-step
instruction as well as their explicit statements ‘I can see all the steps in design
… it’s a step-by-step process … you can’t just jump …’, that technological
problem solving is also a systematic, step-by-step guided process.
Learners’ understanding of the technological design emerged from the
data by getting an ‘overall idea of what the design is going to look like’. A
conceptual overview of a system helps learners to initiate and understand
the technological design and to remain on track (Harris 1999) as indicated
by their statement: ‘… you get an overall idea of what the design is going to
look like….’
Learners were involved with resource tasks such as gathering documents
and searching the Internet for relevant web pages. They were applying ‘the
problem decomposition’ which is the breaking down of a problem into the
relevant parts and discussing these in groups. This assisted them in
obtaining a clearer understanding with regard to web design issues, which
improved their conceptual knowledge.
Learners concentrated on ‘a particular set of tasks and activities’ meaning
that they were aware of the set of pre-defined tasks and activities for each
stage of the technological process and the phases of the TSSP methodology.
Although the learners constructed their own tasks and activities there was a
primary focus on a set of pre-defined tasks and activities for each stage of
the technological process and the phases of the TSSP methodology. The
predefined set of tasks and activities created awareness of the value of basic
guidelines among the learners. ‘Learners had feelings that there was guid-
ance …’ and expressed their positive feelings by immersing themselves into
the tasks and activities during the web design.
Learners discussed web design issues in larger collaborative groups or in
pairs when a higher achieving student assisted a less able student. This
indicated that apprenticeship and collaborative learning as well as the
diversity of learner tasks promoted learners’ decision making, research,
reflective, critical and creative thinking, forming a background for problem
solving. The synergy between the technological stages and the TSSP meth-
odology with learner tasks and a variety of the teacher activities can provide
learners with direction during cognitive apprenticeship in a peer-based
learning environment. The synchronising of learner tasks and the teacher
activities within an integrated learning program gradually gave way to en-
hanced thinking through apprenticeship learning and promoting situated
learning (Johnson Thomas 1992, p. 7). Incorporating cognitive appren-
285

ticeship during learning systems design aspects could contribute to teaching
procedural knowledge that is most significant for technological problem
solving (McCormick 1997).
Conceptual knowledge gave learners some power to think about tech-
nological tasks during the stages of the technological process (procedural
knowledge) and this is in line with McCormick (1997). Conceptual knowl-
edge served as a prerequisite for design activities specified in the TSSP
methodology. Learners possessed conceptual understanding as they could
see the links in systems design. They were concerned with the links between
knowledge items and creating active (procedural) knowledge taking into
account the function triangle (De Vries 1999). Based on the teacher and
learners’ experience, the criterion for the IWDP was met, thus confirming
the fact that a synergy between the technological stages and the phases of
the TSSP methodology can be successfully integrated in a learning program
enriching learners’ technological problem solving and design skills in an ISD
environment.
The need for allocating more time for creativity and reflection is an
important aspect revealed in the project-based classroom. Learners must
have the time and freedom to think of what is being discussed and be able to
compare this with their experiences (Whitney 1987, p. 12). Dissatisfaction
with the fulfilment of some technological tasks indicates the essential need
for accurate time planning for both the teacher and learners for each
technological stage and its corresponding tasks. In addition, sufficient time
should be allocated for the explicit teaching of thinking skills. Time plan-
ning is noted in the teacher’s comments as ‘For this program we had no idea
how many hours should be allocated for the use of mind tools’. Time
constraints are evident in learners’ comments such as … there was little time
left for us to complete work.’
Learners’ time management skills and the teacher’s underestimation of
the required time during the design of the IWDP can impede the comple-
tion of tasks and activities during the ISD. The underestimation was due,
inter alia, to the fact that there were no reported research findings on the
synergy between the stages of the technological process and the phases of
the TSSP methodology, and the fact that this was the first attempt by the
researcher.
However, by providing opportunities for the development of system de-
sign skills through activity-based practice, as well as collaborative work
during the technological design, opportunities for critical and creative
thinking are formed (Shelly, et al. 2001). Perhaps, the utilisation of multiple
intelligences (Gardner 1983, p. 3) can be realized through the synergy be-
tween the stages of the technological process and the TSSP methodology. As
‘technological activity is by its nature multi-dimensional, requiring under-
standing from a variety of points of view…’ (McCormick 1997, p. 144),
bringing an interdisciplinary approach, such as the idea that underlines the
title of this study, could enhance the learning and teaching process in the
ISD context.

IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION IN AN ISD CONTEXT
The following implications for Technology Education in an ISD context can
be drawn from this study.
The synergy between the stages of the technological process and a web
design methodology integrated within the IWDP has positive implications
for the development of complex thinking of learners during web design.
Designing instruction around this synergy can help learners develop their
conceptual and procedural knowledge through a set of pre-defined tasks and
activities in the ISD context where the role of the design activities and
changing their knowledge base in a real-world environment is dominant.
An array of pre-defined learner tasks and corresponding teacher activities
allocated within the IWDP create opportunities for the teacher to facilitate
learners’ problem solving and can assist learners in developing their design
skills, knowledge and thinking. The structure and different functionalities of
the technological stages and phases of the TSSP methodology provide the
teacher with very concrete and specific support. These also assist learners in
incorporating technological problem solving components into the web de-
sign. Consequently, the implementation of the IWDP in the project-based
classroom had a positive impact on learners’ experience providing the
opportunities for practising complex thinking.
Learners need to develop technological problem solving and design skills
through the interface between Technology Education and Information
Systems. This interface is important for adding meaning to teaching in a
project-based classroom and inviting learners to be responsible for building
their problem solving capabilities. This interface enriched the instructional
process as well as learners’ learning in the ISD environment. Learners have
to be guided through the integration of the stages of the technological
process and a software development methodology that can help them in
problem analysis, extensive research and critical thinking.
Time allocation for learner task completion should be carefully consid-
ered to contribute to the appropriate integration of the stages of the tech-
nological process and the TSSP methodology into an ISD context.
In conclusion, the synergy between the stages of the technological process
and the TSSP methodology, can be used for further investigations on
instructional aspects and the development of learning programmes relevant
to the ISD context.
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Authors:
Maria Jakovljevic is currently a senior lecturer in the Information Systems,
School of Economics and Business Sciences at University of the Witwa-
tersrand and specialises in programming languages, Electronic Commerce,
Commercial Web Page Design, Internet Technologies, Systems Analysis and
Design, E-learning and Research Methodologies. She teaches and researches
in these areas. She obtained a BA (Hons) at the University of Sarajevo (ex
Yugosolavia) and an M.Ed. at the University of Pretoria. She holds a D.Ed.
in Technology Education from Rand Afrikaans University.
Her address is:
Information Systems, University of the Witwatersrand, Private bag 3,
Wits 2050, South Africa, Tel: +27-11-717-8161; Fax: +27-11-717-8139;
E-mail: jakovm@sebs.wits.ac.za
Prof. Piet Ankiewics holds an M.Sc. (Physics) and a D.Ed. both from
Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education. He is professor
in technology education at Rand Afrikaans University, with special interest
in the philosophical and theoretical foundation of technology education,
instructional methodology, learning programmes and learners’ attitudes
towards technology. He teaches and researches in these areas, and is also
appointed Head of the RAU Centre for Technology Education (RAUTEC).
His address is:
Department of Curriculum Studies, Rand Afrikaans Univeristy (RAU),
P.O. Box 524, Aucklandpark, 2006, South Africa, Tel: +27-11-489-2640,
Fax: +27-11-489-2048, E-mail: pja@rau.ac.za
Prof. Estelle de Swardt hold an M.Ed. (Technology Education) and a D.Ed.
both from the Rand Afrikaans University. She is an associate professor at
the Rand Afrikaans University and is presently involved in the training of
teachers for technology education with a special focus on the development
of critical and creative thinking.
Her address is:
Department of Curriculum Studies, Rand Afrikaans University (RAU),
P.O. Box 524, Aucklandpark, 2006, South Africa, Tel: +27-11-489-2695,
Fax: +27-11-489-2048, E-mail: aeds@rau.ac.za

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