Renewable Energy Resources [Non- Convectional Energy Resources, Solar Cell]

TOPIC NAME:
Non- Convectional
Energy Resources,
Solar Cell
Amar Preet Singh AJas Education
Amar Preet Singh
Academic Experience : 6+ years
Renewable Energy Resources
(for AKTU Students)
1

Topic 1: Non- Convectional Energy Resources
• Introduction
• Oil Crisis
• MNRE origin
• Classification of NCER
• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Tidal Energy
• Geothermal Energy
• Biomass
• Energy from waste
Content
2

• Merits of NECR
• Demerits of NCER
Topic 2: Solar Cell
• Theory of solar cell
• V-I Characteristic of Solar Cell
• Performance Analysis
• Solar Cell Materials
• Solar Modules and Solar Array
• Solar PV Microgrid System
• Small DC Microgrid System
• Large DC Microgrid System
Content
3

• AC Power Microgrid System
• AC – DC Combined Microgrid System
• PV-generator Hybrid Microgrid System
• Connecting Microgrid System To Grid
• Advantages of Solar Energy Systems
• Limitation of Solar Energy Systems
• Application of Solar Energy Systems
Content
4

TOPIC 1: NON-
CONVECTIONAL ENERGY
RESOURCES
Amar Preet Singh AJas Education 5

• Energy is a crucial input in the process of economic, social and
industrial development.
• The degree of development and civilisation of a country is measured
by the utilization of energy by human beings for their needs.
• Energy is available in different forms like electrical energy,
mechanical energy, chemical energy, heat energy and nuclear energy
etc.
• The rate of energy consumption is increasing, supply is depleting
resulting in inflation and energy shortage. This is called the energy
crisis.
• The energy demand increases day by day because of population
increasing, industrialization increases and transportation increases etc.
Introduction
6

• The year 1973 brought an end to the era of secure and cheap oil.
In October of that year, OPEC (Organization of Petrol
Exporting Countries, founded in 1960) put an embargo on oil
production and started the oil-pricing control strategy.
• Oil prices shot up fourfold causing a severe energy crisis the
world over. This resulted in spiralling price rise of various
commercial energy sources, further leading to global inflation.
• Governments of all countries took this matter very seriously and
for the first time, a need for developing alternative sources of
energy was felt.
• Alternate energy sources were given serious consideration and
huge funds were allocated for the development of these
resources. Thus, the year 1973 1s considered as the year of the
first ‘oil shock’.
Oil Crisis
7

• Realising the importance of non-conventional energy sources, in
March 1981, the government of India established a Commission for
Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) in the Department of Science
and Technology, on the lines of the Space and Atomic Energy
Commissions.
• In 1982, CASE was incorporated in the newly created Department of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) under the Ministry of
Energy.
• Also, IREDA (Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Ltd.)
was established in 1987 to promote the development of non-
conventional sources.
MNRE Origin
8

• The DNES was later converted to MNES (Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources) in 1992.
• In October 2006, the ministry was re-christened as the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy. India is the only Country having a full-
fledged ministry devoted to developing new and renewable energy
sources.
MNRE Origin
9

• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Tidal Energy
• Geothermal Energy
• Biomass
• Energy from waste
Classification of NCER
10

• Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of energy
since prehistoric times.
• It is estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000 times the
world's annual commercial energy consumption reaches the earth
every year.
• Solar energy can be utilized through two different routes, as solar
thermal route and solar electric (solar photovoltaic) routes.
• Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat to produce hot water or air,
cook food, drying materials etc.
• Solar photovoltaic uses sun's heat to produce electricity for lighting
home and building, running motors, pumps, electric appliances, and
lighting.
• In solar thermal route, solar energy can be converted into thermal
energy with the help of solar collectors and receivers known as solar
thermal devices.
Solar energy
11

• Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce
electricity.
• The kinetic energy of the wind is converted to electrical energy.
• When solar radiation enters the earth's atmosphere, different regions
of the atmosphere are heated to different degrees because of earth
curvature.
• This heating is higher at the equator and lowest at the poles. Since air
tends to flow from warmer to cooler regions, this causes what we call
winds, and it is these airflows that are harnessed in windmills and
wind turbines to produce power.
• Now wind power is harnessed to generate electricity in a larger scale
with better technology.
Wind energy
12

• Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is
expected to become one of the key energy resources for global
sustainable development.
• Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the
carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities.
• Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs
the same amount of carbon in growing as it releases when consumed
as a fuel.
• Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the
same equipment that is now being used for burning fossil fuels.
• Bio energy is being used for cooking, mechanical applications,
pumping, power generation etc.
Bio Energy
13

• The potential energy of falling water, captured and converted to
mechanical energy by waterwheels, powered the start of the industrial
revolution.
• Wherever sufficient head, or change in elevation, could be found,
rivers and streams were dammed and mills were built.
• Water under pressure flows through a turbine and causes it to spin.
The Turbine is connected to a generator, which produces electricity.
Hydro Energy
14

• The ocean contains two types of energy: thermal energy from the
sun's heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
• Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including
electricity generation.
• There are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle,
open cycle, and hybrid.
• Closed cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface water to vaporize
a working fluid, which has a low boiling point, such as ammonia.
• The vapour expands and turns a turbine. The turbine then activates a
generator to produce electricity.
Ocean Energy
15

• Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low
pressures.
• This produces steam that passes through a turbine / generator.
• The hybrid systems combine both closed-cycle and open-cycle
systems. Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean
thermal energy.
• Even though the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven
primarily by the gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven
primarily by the winds.
• A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into
electricity by forcing the water through turbines, activating a
generator.
Ocean Energy
16

• An estimated 50 million tons of solid waste and approximately 6,000
million cubic meters of liquid waste are generated annually in the
urban areas of India.
• In India, there is a great potentiality of generating approximately
2,600 MW of power from urban and municipal wastes and
approximately, 1,300 MW from industrial wastes, respectively.
• A total of 48 projects with aggregate capacity of about 69.62 MW ex.
have been installed in the country thereby utilizing only 1.8% of the
potential that exists.
Energy from Wastes
17

• Renewable energy is eco-friendly
• It’s a renewable resource
• Renewable energy is a reliable source of energy
• Leads to job creation
• Renewable energy has stabilized global energy prices
• Less maintenance of facilities
• Boosts public health
• Empowering of people in the countryside
Merits of NCER
18

• The electricity generation capacity is still not large enough
• Renewable energy can be unreliable
• Low-efficiency levels
• Requires a huge upfront capital outlay
• Inconsistent, unreliable supply
• Harmful to wildlife and surrounding environment
• Not every non-conventional energy source is commercially viable
Demerits of NCER
19

TOPIC 2: SOLAR CELL

• Solar cells are composed of various semiconductor materials. Over
95% of solar cells are composed of the semiconductor material silicon
(Si). Silicon solar cell consists of a thin slice of crystal p-type silicon
into which a very thin layer of n-type material is diffused.
Theory of Solar Cell
21

Figure 1: Solar Cell
22

• The solar cell works on the principle of photovoltaic effect, which is a
process of generating an e.m.f as a result of the absorption of ionizing
radiation.
• When the two pieces of silicon containing n-type and p-type
impurities are connected by some means. a p-n junction is created.
• In this junction after the photons are absorbed, the free electrons of n-
region will tend to flow to the p-region and the holes of p-side will
tend of flow to the m-region to compensate for their respective
deficiencies.
• This diffusion will create an electric field Ef from the n-region to p-
region.
• The electric current produced depends upon the intensity of solar
radiation and the cell surface area receiving the radiation.
23

Figure 2: Working of solar cell with external circuit
24

• With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load,
the current will be at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the
cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage,
or Voc.
• when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative
leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum
(zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum,
known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
• Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from
the short circuit current ( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero current at
the full open circuit voltage ( Voc )
V-I Characteristic of Solar Cell
25

• The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near
the bend in the I-V characteristics curve. The corresponding values
of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open circuit voltage and
the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–
0.95)Isc.
V-I Characteristic of Solar Cell
Figure 3: V-I curve of solar cell
26

• V-I characteristic of p-n junction when a voltage V is applied across a
p-n junction, the total current I flowing through the junction is given
by.
• 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑉
𝑛𝐾𝑇
− 1
• 𝐼0 = Reverse saturation current
• 𝑒 = Electronic charge = 1.60219 × 10-19 C
• 𝐾 = Boltzmann constant = 1.38066 × 10-23 C
• 𝑇 = Absolute temperature [K]
• 𝑛 = 1 for Ge
• = 2 for Si
• 𝑉 = Voltage across the junction [V]
Performance
27

• Consider the p-n junction with resistive load as shown in figure even
with zero bias applied to the junction, an electric field exists in the
deplection or junction region. When the solar cell in illuminated,
electron-holes pairs are generated in the depletion region that will
swept out producing the photocurrent IL in the reverse bias direction.
Performance
Figure 4: Working of p-n junction
28

• The photocurrent IL produces a voltage drop across the resistive load
which forward biases the p-n junction. The forward-bias voltage
produces forward-bias current I1. the net p-n junction current, in the
reverse bias direction is
• 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼1
• 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑉
𝑛𝐾𝑇
− 1 (1)
• When R=0, i.e. V=0, then I1 = 0. this is short circuit condition. The
current under this condition is called short circuit current Isc.
• 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (2)
• Open circuit condition occurs when R tends to infinite, the net current
is zero. Then from equation (1)
Performance
29

• 𝐼 = 0 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑛𝐾𝑇
− 1 (3)
• 𝑉
𝑜𝑐 =
𝐾𝑇
𝑒
ln 1 +
𝐼𝐿
𝐼0
(4)
• Power delivered to the load 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
• Put the value of I from equation (1)
• 𝑃 = 𝐼𝐿. 𝑉 − 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑉
𝑛𝐾𝑇
− 1 (5)
• For maximum power delivered to the load.
•
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑉
= 0
• 1 +
𝐼𝐿
𝐼0
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
1 +
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
(6)
Performance
30

• Where Vm is the voltage which produces maximum power and its
value can be calculated by trail and error. For calculating Im, put
equation (6) in equation (1). And solve for Im.
• 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
𝐼𝐿+ 𝐼0
1+
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
(7)
• 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑉
𝑚𝐼𝑚 =
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
𝐼𝐿+ 𝐼0
1+
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
. 𝑉
𝑚 (8)
Performance
31

• The solar cells are made of various materials. Silicon is the most
commonly used material for solar cells.
• The electrical properties of silicon depends on the type and amount of
dopants.
• Phosphorous and boron are most widely used donar and acceptor
dopant in silicon respectively.
• The choice of the material depends upon the energy gap, efficiency
and the cost.
• In order to reduce the cost the level of efficiency should be high. The
cost can be reduced by using thin film technology.
• A variety of compound semiconductor are to be used to manufacture
thin film solar cell.
• These materials are CuInSe2, CdS, CdTe, Cu2s, InP, GaAs, Zinc
Telluride (ZnTe), aluminium antimonide (AlSb).
Solar Cell Materials
32

S.
No.
Material Energy Gap
(eV)
S.
No.
Material Energy Gap
(eV)
1 Si 1.1 7 InP 1.27
2 CdTe 1.44 8 ZnO 3.3
3 CdS 2.42 9 ZnTe 2.2
4 GaAs 1.40 10 AlSb 1.63
5 Cu2S 1.80 11 SnO2 3.8
6 CuInSe2 1.01 12 Ge 0.67
Solar Cell Materials
Table 1: Some materials with their energy gap
33

• Solar cells are strung in series and thus form a solar module.
• The number of cells in a solar module is determined by the required
voltage.
• The nominal voltage of a solar module is 12V and a PV module for
charging 12 V batteries usually has 33 to 36 Cells.
• These cells are mounted together under an airtight, mechanically
rigid, transparent cover.
• Solar generator or solar array is built up of a large interconnected
solar modules.
• Several cells are required to be connected in series to give the
required output voltage.
Solar Modules and Solar Array
34

• For series connection of two modules, the plus terminal of one
module is joined to the minus terminal of the second module.
• Two modules of 12 V connected in series give 24 V solar array.
Solar Modules and Solar Array
Figure 5: Cell, Module, Panel and Array
35

• The following factors are generally taken into account while
determining the system configuration for solar microgrid system.
• Target consumer and type of electrical appliances to be operated
• Load size and daily energy demand
• Time of operation
• Correlation with load on a daily, weekly and seasonal scale
• Installed cost and maintenance costs
• User specific preferences
• Local regulations/ constraints/ benefits
• Photovoltaic only or hybrid generation
Solar PV Microgrid System
36

• This configuration is similar to a solar home system shared by 3-5
houses to meet basic electricity demand for 2-3 LED lighting per
house, mobile charging and charging of solar lanterns, etc.
• Typical battery capacity could be 75-200Ah, 12V and array capacity
shall be 50-200Wp based on availability of solar radiation on the site.
• Generally, a typical charge regulator is used to protect the battery
from deep discharge and overcharge.
Small DC Microgrid System
37

Small DC Microgrid System
Figure 6: Diagram of Small DC microgrid system
38

• This type of system can be designed by adding more modules and
batteries.
• A large single charge controller or multiple charge controllers would
be needed to handle the increased current from the array.
• If number of loads is more, a DC circuit breaker distribution box
could be used.
• Typical array size of these types of systems may be 500 watts to few
kilowatts with nominal system voltage 12, 24 or 48V based on size of
the system.
• Similarly battery bank capacity may be of 300Ah to 600Ah.
Large DC Microgrid System
39

Large DC Microgrid System
Figure 7: Diagram of Large DC Microgrid System
40

• AC appliances can be powered by adding a DC-to-AC inverter.
• In general, system size more than 1000 watts can be designed for
standalone AC operation.
• Depending on the capacity of the system and type of inverter, various
types of AC appliances could be operated by this type of system.
• When low quality or inverters with square wave or modified square
wave form are used, some electrical or electronic equipment may not
function or even get damaged.
AC Power Microgrid System
41

AC Power Microgrid System
Figure 8: Diagram of AC Power Microgrid System
42

• Design and operational features of this configuration is similar to the
AC power system as mentioned in the previous section.
• The only additional feature in this configuration is facility to use DC
appliances directly from the regulator without going through the
inverter.
• If the user has some DC loads and these are efficient, it is
recommended that DC loads be used directly from the DC bus bar.
• This might reduce the size of the inverter and also increase overall
efficiency of the system, as there is no conversion loss for DC loads
AC – DC Combined Microgrid System
43

AC – DC Combined Microgrid System
Figure 9: Diagram of AC – DC Combined Microgrid System
44

• Solar microgrid system can be integrated to other renewable energy
generator such as wind turbines or micro hydro generator.
• A common choice is a diesel, kerosene or petrol fuel based generator.
• By combining a generator, the reliability of solar microgrid system
can be assured with availability power during any season or weather
condition during the year.
PV-generator Hybrid Microgrid System
45

PV-generator Hybrid Microgrid System
Figure 10: Diagram of PV-generator Hybrid Microgrid System
46

Connecting Microgrid System To Grid
Figure 11: Diagram of Connecting Microgrid System To Grid
47

• This system of energy conversion is noiseless and cheap.
• Maintenance cost is low.
• They are highly reliable.
• Having long life.
• Pollution tree.
• Suitable for mobile loads such as cars, busses etc.
• No fuel is required.
• These systems are suitable for rural, remote and isolated areas.
• Modularity in operation.
• System modularity allows users to start with small system for single
applications and add on to their systems as their needs increase.
Advantages of Solar Energy Systems
48

• Initial cost is high.
• Irregular supply of solar energy.
• Require storage batteries for supply power during night.
• Low efficiency.
• Solar power plants require large area.
• Do not generate power during cloudy season.
Limitation of Solar Energy Systems
49

• They are best suited for rural areas.
• Pumping of water for drinking and irrigation.
• Street lighting.
• Rural telephone exchange operation.
• Battery charging.
• Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports.
• Used in pocket calculators, watches, toys, electric fences etc.
Application of Solar Energy Systems
50

• Non-conventional energy sources are available in the form of Solar
energy, Bio energy. Ocean energy, Wind energy, Geothermal energy
etc.
• Some recent technologies like fuel cells and hydrogen energy,
concentrate photovoltaic, solar towers etc. have been also developed.
• 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
𝐼𝐿− 𝐼0
1+
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
• 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑉
𝑚𝐼𝑚 =
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
𝐼𝐿− 𝐼0
1+
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑇
. 𝑉
𝑚
• 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑉
𝑛𝐾𝑇
− 1
Summary
51

Renewable Energy Resources [Non- Convectional Energy Resources, Solar Cell]

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