Forming coherent paragraphs through topic sentences

Forming coherent paragraphs
Identifying major and minor ideas
Achieving unity & coherence

 Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual
framework of a textbook chapter, an article, a
paragraph, a sentence or a passage is a sophisticated
reading task. Being able to draw conclusions, evaluate, and
critically interpret articles or chapters is important for
overall comprehension in college reading. Textbook
chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or passages all
have topics and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general
theme or message. It is what some call the subject.
The main idea is the "key concept" being
expressed. Details, major and minor, support the main
idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or
how many. Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting
details helps you understand the point(s) the writer is
attempting to express. Identifying the relationship
between these will increase your comprehension

 The successful communication of any
author's topic is only as good as the
organization the author uses to build and
define his/her subject matter.

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or central
theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is
the most important piece of information the author wants you to know
about the concept of that paragraph.
When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get
across. This is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author
organizes each paragraph's main idea and supporting details in support
of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph supports the
paragraph preceding it.
A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph.
That main idea may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the
middle, or at the end. The sentence in which the main idea is stated is
the topic sentence of that paragraph.
The topic sentence announces the general theme ( or portion of the theme)
to be dealt with in the paragraph. Although the topic sentence may
appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is usually first - and for a very
good reason. This sentence provides the focus for the writer while
writing and for the reader while reading. When you find the topic
sentence, be sure to underline it so that it will stand out not only
now, but also later when you review.

 The first thing you must be able to do to get at
the main idea of a paragraph is to identify the
topic - the subject of the paragraph. Think of the
paragraph as a wheel with the topic being the
hub - the central core around which the whole
wheel (or paragraph) spins. Your strategy for
topic identification is simply to ask yourself the
question, "What is this about?" Keep asking
yourself that question as you read a
paragraph, until the answer to your question
becomes clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic
by looking for a word or two that repeat. Usually
you can state the topic in a few words.

 Let us try this topic-finding strategy. Reread the first
paragraph on this page - the next slide after the Applying
strategy,
Grasping the Main Idea. Ask yourself the question, "What is
this paragraph about?" To answer, say to yourself in your
mind, "The author keeps talking about paragraphs and the
way they are designed. This must be the topic - paragraph
organization." Reread the second paragraph of the same
section. Ask yourself "What is this paragraph about?" Did
you say to yourself, "This paragraph is about different
ways to organize a paragraph"? That is the topic.
Next, reread the third paragraph and see if you can find
the topic of the paragraph. How? Write the topic in the
margin next to this paragraph. Remember, getting the
main idea of a paragraph is crucial to reading.

 Exercise:
Read the following paragraph and underline the
stated main idea. Write down in your own words what
you are able to conclude from the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear.
No books, calculators or papers are allowed in the
test room. Proctors will not allow anyone with such
items to take the test. Anyone caught cheating will be
asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be
taken. The incident will be reported to the proper
authority. At the end of the test period, all materials
will be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by
these rules will result in a failing grade for this test.

 Answer:
You should have underlined the first sentence
in the paragraph - this is the stated main
idea. What can be concluded from the
information is: If you do not follow the
rules, you will automatically fail the test. This
concluding information is found in the last
sentence.

 The topic sentence is a primarily
prescriptive grammatical term to describe the sentence in
an expository paragraph which summarizes the main idea
of that paragraph. It is usually, but not always, the first
sentence in a paragraph. The topic sentence acts as a kind
of summary, and offers the reader an insightful view of the
writer‘s main ideas for the following paragraph.[3] More
than just being a mere summary, however, a topic
sentence often provides a claim or an insight directly or
indirectly related to the thesis. It adds cohesion to a paper
and helps organize ideas both within the paragraph and
the whole body of work at large.
 Its use is considered standard in the American educational
system and most venues of writing mainly because it
increases reading accessibility.

 A topic sentence is often, but not always, the
first sentence in a paragraph.

 It tells the MAIN IDEA of the paragraph.

 It also tells what the author wants to SAY
ABOUT the topic.

 A topic sentence tells the main idea of the
paragraph as well as what the author wants to
say about the topic.

 A topic sentence is not a simple fact.
◦ Thomas Edison invented the light bulb.
 This is a detail.
 This could be used in the body of the paragraph.

 A topic sentence is not a question.
◦ Who invented the light bulb we use today?
 This could be used as an ―attention grabber.‖

 A topic sentence tells what the main idea of
the paragraph will be.
◦ We will call this the ―subject‖ of the paragraph.

 A topic sentence tells what the author is
going to say about the subject.
◦ We will call this the ―controlling idea‖ of the
paragraph.

 SUBJECT + CONTROLLING IDEA

 The invention of the light bulb
◦ (subject)
 changed the world in many ways
◦ (controlling idea)

 The invention of the light bulb changed the
world in many ways.
- or, you can reverse the two -
 The world was changed in many ways by the
invention of the light bulb.

 Subjects can be fairly broad. The controlling
idea will limit the subject.

 Examples of subject could be:
◦ Daisies
◦ Space Travel
◦ Easter
◦ Tooth Decay
◦ Pride

The subject of a paragraph could be almost
anything.

mummies
wealth chores

It is better to narrow your subject.

Ancient
Egyptian the quest for gold washing dishes by hand
death rituals

 A controlling idea limits the subject

 It can express an opinion

 It can provide focus by answering a question

 It may suggest a list.

 ―A beagle is different from other hounds
because of three unique characteristics.‖

 The subject is ―beagles.‖
 The controlling idea is ―characteristics‖

 The paragraph will talk about beagles, and it
will list its three unique characteristics. The
subject is controlled by its characteristics.

 ―Beagles make good pets for several reasons.‖

 The subject is ―beagles make good pets.‖
 The controlling idea is ―reasons‖

 The paragraph will talk about beagles making
good pets, and it will list several reasons.
The subject is controlled by the reasons.

 ―Ancient Egyptians followed seven steps to
mummify their kings.‖

 The subject is ―Ancient Egyptians mummified
their kings.‖
 The controlling idea is ―seven steps.‖

 The paragraph will talk about Egyptian
mummies, and will list seven steps to
creating one. The subject is being controlled
by the steps.

 ―If you want to create high quality ice
cream, you must be aware of several
precautions.‖

 The subject is ―making ice cream.‖
 The controlling idea is ―precautions.‖

 The paragraph will talk about taking
precautions when making ice cream. The
subject is controlled by precautions.

 ―There are benefits to making your own ice
cream.‖

 The controlling idea is ―benefits.‖

 This time, the paragraph will talk about the
benefits of making your own ice cream. The
subject is controlled by benefits.

 ―There are two ways to make ice cream at
home.‖

 The controlling idea is ―ways to do it.‖

 This time, the paragraph will talk about the
ways of making your own ice cream. The
subject is controlled by ways (methods, etc.).

 A topic sentence will tell the SUBJECT of the
paragraph and may answer one of these
questions:
◦ Why? Why is Bermuda a popular vacation spot?
◦ Which? Which weapons were harmful to our own soldiers?
◦ Where? Where are the best locations for hunting moose?
◦ What? What precautions should be taken to avoid injury?
◦ How? How did Ancient Egyptians mummify their kings?

 A topic sentence of a paragraph introduces
the SUBJECT of the paragraph and limits
what the author will say about the subject
by adding a CONTROLLING IDEA.

 The controlling idea may answer a
question, suggest a list, or express an
opinion.

 SUBJECT + CONTROLLING IDEA = Topic Sentence

states the topic of the
paragraph

A good topic sentence identifies the focus

Look at the topic sentence above.
1. What do you think is the topic of this
sentence?

2. What is the focus?

1. What is the topic of this sentence?

2. What is the focus?

Notice that both sentences have the same
topic, but the focus is different.

 A topic sentence must be a complete
sentence to perform all the necessary
functions

 A topic sentence cannot be a question.

 Phrases such as ―I think‖ or ―in my opinion‖
may muddle or weaken topic sentences.

 The topic sentence should provide clear
relationships among all of its elements so
that it can provide a framework for
understanding the rest of the paragraph.

 A topic sentence needs to be clear and
specific, so that it can predict and summarize
the rest of the paragraph for the reader.

 A topic sentence must be coherent so that
the reader can use it as a key to the rest of
the paragraph.

 Because the topic sentence is a reference for
the rest of the paragraph, it needs to be
exceptionally clear.

#1 Power (Number
Statements)
 A Power (Number) statement is a sentence
that contains a number word. The
number word is the focus of the sentence.
It tells your reader that a list of
information will follow.

Helpful number words:
A couple of a number of
Numerous some
Various a myriad
Many four
Several two

 Examples
Three cities have serious pollution problems.
In winter I enjoy watching several high school
sports.
I enjoy four kinds of music.
The parade was wonderful; two exciting things
happened.

Avoiding ―There are‖

 When writing power statements, there
are, these are or here are can become a
trap. Instead try starting with a
who, what, where, or when.

Topic = Friends
Who: Tamara and Eva are my two best friends.
What: The word friendship means two things.
Where: At school I have several good friends.
When: Last summer my best friend Sam
traveled to three unusual places.

Topic = School Lunches
What: Pizza is the most popular item at lunch
for two reasons.
Where: At Woodland Elementary, students
have many choices at lunchtime.

 Paragraph is a self-contained unit of a
discourse in writing dealing with a particular
point or idea.

 Coherent, logically or aesthetically ordered
or integrated

A coherent paragraph does more than simply
lay down the facts--it organizes
them, creating a logical argument that makes
sense from idea to idea. Coherent paragraphs
have a beginning, a middle, and an end.
Elements that contribute to coherence, such
as transitional devices, linking
pronouns, and repetition of key words, are
discussed in the following sections.

 "Coherence" refers to the logical flow of ideas
in a paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when
each sentence leads smoothly into the next
one through the use of transitional
expressions, logical relation of
ideas, repetition of key words, and/or the use
of pronouns to refer to a previous subject. A
paragraph is not coherent if there are
inadequate connections between ideas
causing the reader to get lost or to struggle
to figure out the author's intentions.

 Topic sentence
 Supporting sentences
 Support your paragraph
 Movement of supporting sentences
 Digressions and deviations
 Paragraph length
 Transitional paragraphs
 Closing sentence
 Keep to one idea
 Coherent paragraph

- Topic sentence
 The first sentence of a paragraph should be a
topic sentence, introducing the main idea of
the paragraph.

- Supporting sentences
 The supporting sentences of a paragraph (the
second sentence onwards) should explain or
―support‖ the idea expressed in the topic
sentence (first sentence).

- Support your paragraph
 Add details and explanations of supporting ideas in your
paragraph. With no support or examples, your ideas have no
strength. To help you remember to add details, remember ‗RENNS‘ –
which stands for Reasons, Examples, Names, Numbers, Senses … all
types of support:

 Reason: Say why your idea is good or bad

 Examples: Give proof of your ideas

 Names: Use specific names, titles, etc.

 Numbers: Give provable numbers

 Senses: Give details that refer to our senses
(sight, touch, smell, sound, taste)

- Movement of supporting sentences
 The supporting sentences of a paragraph should gradually
move from the general to specific qualification of the idea.

- Digressions and deviations
 Keep the sentences of a paragraph focused and unified in
the discussion of the topic. Avoid digressions (irrelevant
details) and deviations (shifts in focus).

- Paragraph length
 Try to keep your paragraphs about no more than 10
sentences, or 14 lines. Long paragraphs tend to decrease
comprehension

- Transitional paragraphs
 Write transitional paragraphs when switching
between two closely related topics, beginning
with the old topic and ending with the new.

 One way to improve paragraph coherence is
through the use of transitional expressions
between sentences. Transitional expressions
are words used to signify the type of
connection between sentences; they indicate
that the next sentence will be an example, or
the effect of a cause just stated, an
explanation, or an expansion of thought on
the previous idea, etc.

The most common are:
for example - (prepositional phrase)
for instance - (prepositional phrase)
although - (subordinating conjunction)
however - (sentence adverb)
but - (coordinating conjunction)
because - (subordinating conjunction)
moreover - (sentence adverb)
therefore - (sentence adverb)
furthermore - (sentence adverb)
for this reason - (prepositional phrase)

- Closing sentence
 The closing sentence is the last sentence in a
paragraph. It should restate the main idea of the
paragraph. But remember – do not repeat the
topic sentence; if the idea is the same, then
rephrase it. Try and make your closing sentence
a ‗clincher‘, leaving your reader thinking about it.

- Keep to one idea
 A good paragraph is one that keeps to one idea.
Discuss only one idea or topic of the subject in a
paragraph. When moving on to a new idea, start
a new paragraph.

- Coherent paragraph
 Bring coherence to your paragraph in order to
make it easily understandable to the reader.
Do this by:
1. Arranging sentences in a logical order.
2. Relating all sentences to each other.
3. Forming parallel grammatical structure

- Parallel structure
 Use the same pattern of words (parallel
structure) to show two or more ideas in a
sentence.

For example:
I like reading, writing, and to paint. (Incorrect).
I like reading, writing, and painting. (Correct)

 Coherence is product of many different
factors, which combine to make every
paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase
contribute to the meaning of the whole piece.
 Coherence in writing is much more difficult to
sustain than coherent speech simply because
writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if
their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers
must make their patterns of coherence much
more explicit and much more carefully planned.
 Coherence itself is the product of two factors —
paragraph unity and sentence cohesion.

Key Words:
 Key words are the words carrying most
significance in a paragraph— the key words
are those words a writer wants the reader to
focus on as the paragraph progresses. In the
following excerpt from a paragraph on sports
tourism, note the key words used by the
author:

 Consistent with the results of other studies, most sport
tourists tend to be between the ages of 18 and
44, male, and relatively affluent. Again, as with the first
sample (Gibson & Yiannakis, 1992), a notable group of
men and women in late adulthood chose to be active
sport tourists. This information can be readily
demonstrated by the winter-month use of golf courses in
the southeastern United States by "snowbirds." For
recreation agencies in these areas, winter-month use by
retirees is of prime importance. For leisure education
practitioners, such activity patterns not only dispel
stereotypes attributed to older adults but also support the
idea of teaching sport skills that can be practiced
throughout a person's life. The majority of active sport
tourist research has focused on people who participate in
one specific sport. . . (Gibson)

sport tourists  These key words
sport tourists remind the reader
sport that the details
sport discussed all
elaborate on the
sport tourists
subject of sports
tourism.

Echo words and phrases allow writers to remind the reader of the topic being
discussed without becoming repetitive, as too much repetition of the same
words can be distracting and even irritating to a reader. Echo words are
actually synonyms for the key word, but they can also be phrases. Consider
the echo words in the following paragraph about tourists and souvenirs:
The steady production of souvenirs throughout the mid-20th century has
created a well that collectors can tap. The objects that have proved the most
desirable in recent years are ones dating from the 1920s through the 1960s.
For collectors, the good news is that the tablecloths, tumblers, snow
globes, ashtrays, charm bracelets, and other objects from this period were
produced in such large quantities that surviving examples are still easy to
find and affordable. Prices range from a few dollars to a few hundred, with
many falling between $20 and $40. (Proeller)
The key word in this paragraph is "souvenirs." To avoid repetition of this
word, however, the author uses substitutes: "objects" and
"examples." Note, too, that the author adds adjectives and modifying
phrases to the echo words to further clarify her meaning, as in "other objects
from this period," and "surviving examples." Echo words and phrases are far
more desirable than general pronouns like "this" and "it" because they do add
so much clarity to the sentence. In fact, using these general pronouns can
often get developing writers into trouble with pronoun reference
problems, so an echo word or phrase is a far better choice for a subject.

 Pronouns:
 Pronouns have a place in creating
coherence, however. Pronouns can help a
writer avoid repetition of a subject when
there is no confusion about who or what that
subject is.
 And then there are those collectors who find
the whole vintage-souvenir genre
irresistible, and they collect with wild
abandon. (Proeller)
 If there is potential confusion about the word
the pronoun refers to, the using an echo
word or phrase is probably preferable.

 Limited investment in the housing sector makes it
practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources
for urban dwellers' housing needs. A high rate of
urban population growth has increased the country's
needs for housing. A small group of city officials has
laid out a new plan to combat the crisis. A solution to
the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue
here. The housing problem has grown in the last
twenty years.

[Although related by topic (housing shortage), each
sentence makes its own separate point with no link to
the sentences before or after. The result is a group of
related yet separate ideas instead of one coherent
paragraph.]

 Limited investment in the housing sector makes
it practically impossible to allocate sufficient
resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. In
fact, the problem has grown in the last twenty
years. Because a high rate of urban population
growth has increased the country's needs for
housing, a solution to the housing-shortage
problem is a vital policy issue here. A small
group of city officials has laid out a new plan to
combat the crisis.

[Each separate fact now flows into the
next, creating a coherent whole.]

Today's tax accountants perform a variety of tasks for their
firms or clients. They may prepare corporate tax
returns, research reports, and correspondence that
answers clients' questions or document answers to
questions clients ask by phone. In larger accounting
firms, tax accountants often specialize in corporate or
individual taxation. The tax accountant may also specialize
in estate or gift taxation or perhaps oil and gas taxation, a
growing field. The tax accountant will always try to
minimize the individual's or the company's tax liability. But
in preparing tax forms for clients, the tax specialist must
be sure that the rules and regulations of the IRS are
followed and that the client receives not only the best
advice but legal advice. Thus, all tax documents must be
clear and correct, whether they are short letters to clients
or detailed research reports.

The effective tax accountant must be a good communicator.
While the tax accountant may specialize in various fields--
corporate tax, individual tax, oil and gas tax, even estate
and gift tax--work within any specialization requires
communication between the accountant and the client.
The tax accountant will have numerous conversations with
clients by phone and will then document the answers to
questions by letter. The tax accountant will also write
letters that give instructions to clients. But within the
firm, the accountant will document all research done to
answer the client's question or to give the client
instructions. Thus, in addition to letters, the accountant
must write internal reports that may be later sent to the
IRS if the client is audited.

Those internal reports also help any other tax accountant
who may be assigned to a client's case. Other typical
communications the tax accountant write are research
reports for clients, protest letters to the IRS., and even
articles for publication in tax journals. Tax
accounting, is, then, communication. For that reason, large
accounting firms tell young accountants that they may
know tax accounting, but unless they can communicate
what they know, they will face a dim future in this
profession.

 The main idea is the ―key concept‖ being
expressed. Details, major and minor, support
the main idea by telling
how, what, when, where, why, how much, or
how many . Locating the topic, main
idea, and supporting details help you
understand the point(s) the writer is
attempting to express. Identifying
relationship between these will increase your
comprehension.

 The bulk of an expository paragraph is made
up of supporting sentences(major and minor
details), which help to explainor prove the
main idea. These sentences present
facts, reasons, examples, definitions, compari
son, contrast and other pertinent details.
They are most important because they sell
the main idea.

 The last sentence of a paragraph is likely to
be a concluding sentence. It is used to sum
up a discussion, to emphasize a point, or to
restate all or part of the topic sentence so as
to bring the paragraph to a close. The last
sentence may also be a transitional sentence
leading to the next paragraph.

 General ideas that stated the main idea of
text
◦ Reasons
◦ Points in argument
◦ Points of a comparison
◦ Further elaboration of main idea

 Specifics that illustrate or support the major
details of a text.
◦ Examples
◦ Specific details
◦ Specific instances
◦ Statistics

 Signal words
o Minor details
◦ Major details
• For example
 First, second, third,
• An example is
 One
• For instance
 Another
• To be specific
 Furthermore
• That is
 Moreover
• This means
 Next
• Case is point
 Also
• To illustrate
 Finally
Not all major & minor details
have signal words

Stated main idea; Dogs benefit humans in
many ways
Major Details
◦ First, Dogs often act as companions, giving their
owners love and attention
◦ Next, thy protect their owner‘s property,
◦ They also work as seeing eye dogs assisting the
blind
◦ Moreover, they assist paraplegics by fetching their
owners needed items

Minor details
• This is why they are called man‘s ―Best
Friend‖
• For example, they protect homes, work
sites, and junk yards.
• For instance, they can assist the blind person
with crossing the street safely or
maneuvering through a crowded store.

and the
Supporting Details
of a Paragraph

Every paragraph has a topic.
Every paragraph has a main idea.

When an author includes a sentence in a
paragraph that tells his or her most important
point about the topic, that sentence is called
the stated main idea sentence.

The main idea answers the question,

―What is the author‘s one most important
point
about the topic?‖

 Must always contain the topic (the
word, name, or phrase that tells who or what the
paragraph is about)

 Must always make complete sense by itself (even
if you couldn‘t read the rest of the paragraph)

 Must be a general sentence that sums up the
details in the paragraph

Can appear anywhere in a paragraph:

 Most often it appears at the beginning.

 The next most likely location is at the end.

 The third possibility is somewhere else within the
paragraph.
Regardless of where it appears, it will have supporting details
that
explain more about it, give examples of it, or prove it.

When you think you have located a stated
main idea sentence, see if it meets these
criteria:

1. The sentence contains the topic.

2. The sentence tells the author‘s most important
point about the topic.

3. The sentence makes complete sense by itself.

It‘s important that you find
The point the author has in mind.
The main idea is its name,
But ―topic sentence‖ is the same.
The main idea is top-shelf;
It makes sense all by itself.
And never once should you doubt it:
Details all tell more about it.
This sentence has the topic, too.
It gives a summary or overview.
Stated main ideas you can find,
So highlight them or underline.

 Details consists of specific information such
as
examples, explanations, descriptions, proof,
and statistics.

 Who, what, when, where, why, how?
The answers will be in the details.

 Only ONE sentence can be the stated main idea in
a paragraph.
 Avoid choosing a sentence just because it
interests you or you think it sounds important.
 Be sure you understand the sentence.
 The main idea is NEVER a question.
 Examples are details that support the main
idea, so examples cannot be the main idea.
 Watch for words or phrases authors use to signal
their main idea: The point is, It is
important, Thus, etc.

 Read the entire paragraph before you decide
if there is a stated main idea sentence.
 Longer selections (such as textbook
sections, essays, articles, and editorials) can
have overall stated main ideas.
 Locating the main idea is a skill that underlies
several important study skills, such as
marking a text, outlining, making concept
maps, and writing summaries.

 Main idea and details are not the same.
 The main idea is general. Details are specific.
 Examples are always details.
 Underline the main idea, but number the details in
a paragraph.
 Details are often presented in a
bulleted, numbered, or lettered list.
 Details are often introduced by In
addition, also, moreover, another, next, then, last,
finally, etc.
 The main idea may give a clue about the number of
types of details: ―There are four categories of
galaxies.‖

Not surprisingly, the crime victims are often called upon
to identify the person who robbed or attacked them. For
a jury, the victim‘s testimony is often proof positive that
the accused is guilty. After all, who can better identify
the wrongdoer than the person harmed. This is just
common sense. Yet as is so often the case, common
sense can be misleading. As it turns out, crime victims
don‘t necessarily make reliable witnesses. Overcome
with fear, they often close their eyes or focus fixedly on
the weapon being used to threaten them. As a
result, they don‘t get a good look at the thief or
attacker. While it‘s not true that crime victim testimony
is always inaccurate, it‘s also true that one can‘t assume
a victim‘s identification is automatic proof of guilt.

a. Crime victims do not always correctly
identify those who have harmed them.

b. Crime victim testimony is almost
always inaccurate because during the
crime, the victim was overcome with
terror.

c. The testimony of crime victims has
put far too many people in jail

Correct. Although the passage begins by pointing out how the
testimony of the victim can decide the guilt of the accused, this
idea is reversed by sentence 5, a transitional sentence. The
transitional sentence introduces the real main idea of the
paragraph: Crime victims do not always correctly identify their
attackers. This is the main idea of the paragraph. That main idea
is summed up in sentence 6, which also happens to be the topic
sentence.

Incorrect. While the author certainly says that crime victims can
wrongly identify their attackers, at no point does she claim that the
victims are almost always wrong.
Incorrect. Given that crime victims can make mistakes, this
statement might be true. Still, it doesn’t sum up the main idea of
the paragraph, which does not give any examples or offer any
statistics about people wrongly convicted due to the testimony of
a victim. This is the kind of support the author would need to offer
to make answer c be the main idea of the paragraph.

 Unity means that the paragraph should be united
as one. The paragraph must not only be
complete on its development rather it should
also be unified with its structure. It means that
the topic sentence in the paragraph should be
supported by all of the other sentences.
 Coherence means that there is continuity or
connection that is established either within the
paragraph or between paragraphs. Coherence is
evident when all of the sentences in the
paragraph sticks and links together in a
continues line and unites an idea

 If one is looking for unity of paragraphs, it is important
to find that common denominator between the
paragraphs that will unite them. It is also good to have
some sort of rallying cry or catchy slogan that will
inspire unity amongst the paragraphs. All paragraphs
are not united in the same goals and it is important to
understand that if you are attempting to unite the
paragraphs towards a common cause, you won't have
much luck getting the capitalist's paragraphs to join the
communist party of paragraphs no matter how clever or
catchy your slogan might be. If you want to achieve
unity of paragraphs it is best to unite those paragraphs
that can get along and work well with each other, as
they will be stuck with each other for some time once
written down for posterity.

 Now, coherence is another matter and if one
is attempting to achieve some sort of
coherence in the paragraph writing, there is
no need to worry about what is known or the
knowledge necessary to make an argument in
order to achieve coherence in your writing of
paragraphs. You don't need to know what
your writing about in order to achieve a
coherence between paragraphs.

 To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must
ensure two things only. First, the paragraph
must have a single generalization that serves
as the focus of attention, that is, a topic
sentence. Secondly, a writer must control the
content of every other sentence in the
paragraph's body such that (a) it contains
more specific information than the topic
sentence and (b) it maintains the same focus
of attention as the topic sentence.

 This generalization about paragraph structure
holds true for the essay in particular. The two
major exceptions to this formula for
paragraph unity are found in fiction (where
paragraph boundaries serve other
functions, such as indicating when a new
speaker is talking in a story) and in
journalism (where paragraphs are especially
short to promote 'visual' ease by creating
white space).

To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the
next, consider the following techniques:

 Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two
sentences), repeat a word from sentence A.

 Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a
synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This
strategy is call 'elegant variation.‗

 Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an
antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in
language antonyms actually share more elements of
meaning than you might imagine.

 Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-
form to make explicit reference back to a form
mentioned earlier.

 Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or
highly probable word to connect one sentence to
another.

 Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to
highlight the connection between ideas. This system
has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are
otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal
and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method
of sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below.

 Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. This
technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but
probably the most elegant method of creating
cohesion.

 Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive
adverb to link sentences with particular
logical relationships.

 Identity. Indicates sameness.
that is, that is to say, in other words, ...

 Opposition. Indicates a contrast.

but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though,
although, whereas, in contrast, rather, ...

 Addition. Indicates continuation.
and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in
addition, besides, in the same
way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the
same, ...

 Cause and effect.
therefore, so, consequently, as a
consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it
follows that, because, since, for, ...

 Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of
an unspecified type.
in fact, indeed, now, ...

 Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the
other side.
admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of
course, naturally, some believe, some people
believe, it has been claimed that, once it was
believed, there are those who would say, ...

 Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more
general or abstract idea to a more specific or
concrete idea.
for example, for instance, after all, an illustration
of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of
course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to
illustrate, truly, ...

The same might be said about an effective
paragraph. Unity is the quality of sticking to
one idea from start to finish, with every
sentence contributing to the central purpose
and main idea of that paragraph.
As we've seen, a topic sentence contains the
main idea upon which a paragraph is
developed. In a unified paragraph, all of the
supporting sentences serve to
illustrate, clarify, and/or explain the main
idea set forth in the topic sentence.

 The best way to demonstrate the importance of
unity is to show how the intrusion of irrelevant
information can disrupt our understanding of a
paragraph. The original version of the following
passage, taken from The Names: A Memoir, by N.
Scott Momaday, vividly illustrates how people in
the Pueblo of Jemez in New Mexico prepare for
the Feast of San Diego. We've upset the unity of
Momaday's paragraph by adding one sentence
that's not directly connected to his main idea. See
if you can spot that sentence.

 The activity in the pueblo reached a peak on the day before the
Feast of San Diego, November twelfth. It was on that day, an
especially brilliant day in which the winter held off and the sun
shone like a flare, that Jemez became one of the fabulous cities
of the world. In the preceding days the women had plastered the
houses, many of them, and they were clean and beautiful like
bone in the high light; the strings of chilies at the vigas had
darkened a little and taken on a deeper, softer sheen; ears of
colored corn were strung at the doors, and fresh cedar boughs
were laid about, setting a whole, wild fragrance on the air. The
women were baking bread in the outdoor ovens. Here and there
men and women were at the woodpiles, chopping, taking up
loads of firewood for their kitchens, for the coming feast. Year
round, the artisans of Jemez, known internationally for their
crafts, would create beautiful basketry, embroidery, woven
cloths, exquisite stone sculpture, moccasins, and jewelry. Even
the children were at work: the little boys looked after the
stock, and the little girls carried babies about. There were
gleaming antlers on the rooftops, and smoke arose from all the
chimneys.

 The third-to-last sentence ("Year round, the
artisans of Jemez . . .") is our distracting addition
to Momaday's passage. The added sentence
upsets the unity of the paragraph by offering
information that is not directly relevant to the
main idea (as stated in the first sentence) or to
any of the other sentences in the paragraph.
Whereas Momaday focuses specifically on
activities taking place "the day before the Feast of
San Diego," the intrusive sentence refers to work
that's done "year round."

 By moving irrelevant information to a new
paragraph--or by omitting that information
altogether--we can improve the unity of our
paragraphs when we come to revise them.

 The following paragraph, which has also been
adapted from The Names: A Memoir, by N.
Scott Momaday, describes the very end of the
busy day before the Feast of San Diego.
Again, we have added a sentence that's not
directly connected to the author's main idea.
See if you can identify this sentence, which
upsets the unity of the paragraph, and then
compare your response with the answer at
the bottom of the page.

 Later in the dusky streets I walked among the Navajo
camps, past the doorways of the town, from which came the
good smells of cooking, the festive sounds of
music, laughter, and talk. The campfires rippled in the crisp wind
that arose with evening and set a soft yellow glow on the
ground, low on the adobe walls. A natural building material used
for several thousand years, adobe is composed of sand and
straw, which is shaped into bricks on wooden frames and dried
in the sun. Mutton sizzled and smoked above the fires; fat
dripped into the flames; there were great black pots of strong
coffee and buckets full of fried bread; dogs crouched on the rim
of the light, the many circles of light; and old men sat hunched
in their blankets on the ground, in the cold shadows, smoking. . .
. Long into the night the fires cast a glare over the town, and I
could hear the singing, until it seemed that one by one the
voices fell away, and one remained, and then there was none. On
the very edge of sleep I heard coyotes in the hills.

 The third sentence in the paragraph ("A
natural building material used for several
thousand years, adobe . . .) is the odd one
out: the information about adobe bricks is
not directly relevant to the night scene
described in the rest of the passage. To
restore the unity of Momaday's
paragraph, delete this sentence

 Different people achieve paragraph unity in different
ways. You asked me how I achieve it. Since I use a
word processor in my writing, I will share my
technique. Other people use their own technique.
First: I write my conclusion. I write where I want the
paragraph to end. I write my ultimate goal.
Second: I write my introduction. This is my first
sentence. This introduces the paragraph.
Third: I write the body of the paragraph: This
explains how I get from my first sentence to my last
sentence.
Fourth. I cut and paste my conclusion to the end of
the paragraph.
Fifth: I read what I have and see if it makes sense.
Sixth: I revise it.

 If you don‘t write good paragraphs, few
people will want to read your work. You will
be viewed or judged as a writer who doesn‘t
know how to write well.

 To do this, the writer needs to know how to
create a unified and coherent paragraph. The
writer also needs to know how to develop a
paragraph.

 A unified paragraph has a topical sentence
and a group of sentences that provide
support to the topical sentence. For many
paragraphs, especially if they are topical
paragraphs, the topical sentence comes first.
Sometimes, though, the topical sentence is
the last sentence in the paragraph.
Occasionally, the topical sentence is implied
by the writer.

 Before writing the content of your essay or
article, create an outline of the main points
that you intend to write about. For each main
point, jot down a topical sentence. When you
write the content or body of your work, you
can expand each topical sentence into a
paragraph.

 For each topical sentence, determine its purpose.
Do you want to explain? Describe? Persuade?
Narrate a story? Based on your purpose, you can
provide the following types of support/details to
create a unified paragraph:

• Facts or evidence
• Statistics
• Details
• Examples
• Anecdotes
• Analogies
• Quotations

The following example shows how to create a paragraph.
The first sentence is the topical sentence, followed by
sentences that provide supporting details.

You can increase your chances of living a long life
by choosing a healthy lifestyle. There are a
number of life choices you can make. You can
start by engaging in cardio exercise each day for
30 minutes. You can also reduce your
consumption of alcoholic beverages to no more
than 2 drinks per day. You can quit smoking
cigarettes. If you are overweight, you can stop
eating junk food, reduce your calorie intake, and
eat more fruit and vegetables. If you are stressed
out, you can find more time to relax, rest, and
engage in leisure pursuits that bring joy to your
life.

 The most important point to remember about
writing a paragraph is to use a topical
sentence and to include only details that
support the topical sentence.

Forming coherent paragraphs through topic sentences

Forming coherent paragraphs through topic sentences

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