Project design and research methods in gis

1
Lecture Note Complied by Tadele Feyissa, Wollega University GIS Program

 Concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications
of science.
The central questions concern what counts as science, the
reliability of scientific theories, and the purpose of science.
In general, the philosophy of science seeks to describe and
understand how science works within a wide range of
sciences.
Not necessary to include every kind of science, however it
should not be confined only to a single branch of a specific
single science
Lecture Note Complied by Tadele Feyissa, Wollega University GIS Program 2

Logic and probability are the standard tools of
philosophy of science.
Probability can be seen as an extension of logic, so it is
important to understand the Basics concepts of logic.
Logic is the standard tool of philosophy of science.
Logic means reason or Judgment.
To understand the logic it is better to understand the
logic of scientific argument

The scientific argument basically relates to the
expectations generated by
a scientific idea and
 the actual observations made relevant to those
expectations.
In very simple words a scientific argument is a logical
description of what we think and why we think it.
A scientific argument uses evidence to make a case for
whether a scientific idea is accurate or inaccurate.

Scientific research
Research is a very general term for an activity that involves
finding out, in systematic way, things you did not know.
Research in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.
One can also define research as a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
 It is about advancing the frontiers of knowledge.

Scientific research
 Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a
harnessing of curiosity.
This research provides scientific information and theories for
the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.
 It makes practical applications possible
The formal definition of research vary from discipline to
discipline
Research is the systematic, objective, empirical and controlled
process of gathering, recording and analyzing data/information
for aid in making scientific and critical decision or discovery of
new knowledge.

From the definition one can suggest 6 important
points
1. systematic,
2. objective,
3. empirical
4. controlled
5. Research is to facilitate scientific decision making
process or discovery of new knowledge
6. critical

Research is systematic
Implies that it employs and follows planned and
scientific methods and procedures to address
research endeavors
 Research is objective
 Implies that the information/data generated or collected,
analyzed and reported should be corrective and objective
 It should avoid subjectivity

Research is Empirical:
It implies research tests
Beliefs,
Ideas,
Assumptions, or
Hypothesis and
Conclude on the bases of tested results

Research is Controlled:
Implies that the researcher can have
confidence in his/her research outcomes

Research is to facilitate scientific decision
making process or discovery of new knowledge:
Implies generating free of error in:
Results
Prediction or
Concussion for decision or creation of new
knowledge

Research is Critical:
Implies that many truths are tentative and are
subjected to change as a result of subsequent
research

Back ground/ introduction
Significance
Objectives
Methodology
Conceptual frame work
Literature information
Results & Discusion or Analysis
Conclusion & Recommendation
References/bibliography

The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research
project to the readers
Some of the information to be included among others are:
Enough back ground to enable the reader to place your
particular research problem in the context of common
knowledge:
 rational of the study,
 it should show how its result will solve the problem at hand,
advance the field or be important for some other work.

It explains to the reader the background from which
the research problem emerges.
It should explain the major factors which surround
your problem, and of any significant literature
which relates to it.
It should contain a clear statement of the objectives
of research i.e., enough background should be given
to make clear to the reader why the problem was
considered worth investigating

It also has the function of capturing the interest of
the reader
A brief summary of other relevant research may
also be stated so that the present study can be seen
in that context

OBJECTIVES
Where the investigator discusses the major and specific
objectives of his/her study.
Breaking down a large problem into small parts and
address them step by step
The incremental treatment of the individual pieces of
question will allow the larger question to be approached
and answered.
A general review of how the problem arise is presented
along with the specific objectives of the project under
study

Strategy or plan of action that links methods to
outcomes --- governs our choice and use of methods
It is systematic and follows a series of steps and
rigid standard protocols (rules)
This protocols are broadly similar to all but many
vary slightly between different field of science

Science has developed research guidelines over
many years as the benchmark for measuring the
validity of results obtained
Failure to follow the guidelines will prevent your
findings from being accepted.
For any study, there must be a clear
methodological procedures so that it can be verified

It refers to reading and extracting information
from existing literatures related to the issue under
investigation.
The reference can be published or unpublished
The theoretical and empirical framework from
which the problem arises must be briefly described.

A brief resume of related studies found in journals,
magazines, abstracts and reports should be made.
This provides evidence that the researcher is
familiar with what is already known and also with
unknown or unproved.
It also helps to avoid the risk of duplication of what
has been done and to serve as a basis for
formulating hypotheses.

The literature review is not simply a list or
summary of books and articles that the researcher
has read.
Instead, it has to be combined and synthesized in
an integrated description of the field of study.
A good literature review shows how the text
compiled from various books and articles relate to
the broad topic

1. Identify relevant books, journals, reports related to
your proposed research topic
2. Understand what results the previous researchers have
produced
3. Share ideas about its theoretical concepts or analytical
techniques relate to the proposed study
4. Help to design good methodologies for the research
5. Identify the most recent finding related to the study
6. Aid for better understanding about the topic

This section represents the heart of the research
report
This chapter should be divided into different
sections
Commonly, this chapter is schematized following
the outline of the objectives of the study to
facilitate an easy analysis/discussion and then
obtain the desired specific objectives of the study

It is in section the collected data should be
organized into section corresponding to a
particular objectives of the study
The data may be organized and summarized into:
Figures
Maps
Statistical presentation etc followed with
textual discussion

This part begins with a brief
 re-statement of the problem,
Overall objective
the hypotheses/questions
Methods and procedures of data collection and
analysis used in few paragraphs
description of the problem and discussion of
findings and conclusions of the study.

This section must focus attention to:
1. announce the retention or rejection of the
hypotheses,
2. imply an answered questions that were raised
in due course of the study and which required
further investigation in the area.
The research findings should be synchronize to
already designed objectives sequentially in logical
and systematic framework to arrive on conclusion

Recommendation for practical application like GIS,
Remote Sensing and other is to correct or tackle
the studied problem
The recommendation should be supported by the
research findings and conclusion given

There are two types of literature sources: references
and bibliography.
The references comprise the items that are referred to
in the text so that the reader can access them if
necessary.
The bibliography comprises a list of the sources that
have influenced your thoughts about the topic.
 They reveal the conceptual framework within which
you have developed your ideas.

In a scientific research report one has to indicate the
sources from where the researcher finds information,
such as:
Data
Opinion
Figures
Models, equation should the sources in the
Quotation text and in the lists of
reference
Paraphrased
Direct short
Direct long

List of reference section should contain :
All the works the writer has cited
References that are not cited in the text should not
be listed in the reference list

Characteristics of scientific research
 It is directed toward the solution of a problem
 It involves gathering of new data from primary or
secondary sources
 It is based upon observable experiences or empirical
evidence.
 It demands accurate observation and description.
 Carefully recorded and reported

Characteristics of scientific research …
 It generally employs carefully designed procedures and
rigorous analysis
 It emphasizes the development of
 generalizations,
 principles or theories that will help in understanding,
prediction and control of elements
 It attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the
problem
Sometimes requires courage
 It is a deliberate and unhurried activity

Seeking solution to practical or theoretical problem at
hand
Discovering new knowledge
Expanding the frontier of existing knowledge
Ultimately improve the way we live

Clarifies a problem
Evaluates a program
Defines an opportunity
Introduce innovative technology & its application
in area of development

Research methods and methodologies are usually
used interchangeably.
However, you need to know that these concepts
convey different meaning
Method is:
a particular technique to collect data/information.
a specific tool to collect data eg. Survey, interview, etc

Methodology describes :
The principles and procedures in a particular field of study
How we design and implement research studies
And may include
description of sources of data, identification of data requirement
How to collect data
Techniques of selection of source data
Instruments of data collection
Method of data organization, analysis and presentation
 thus methodology encompasses the entire approach of the
study

Classification of Research
There are different ways of classifying research
It may classified based on
Goal of research
Specific objectives of research
Designs
The type of data used in research and field of study

The nature of the problem that the research
attempts to solve could be
Theoretical- aim to build a theory or
Practical- solving immediate practical problems
 The two types of problems that the research tries to
solve leads to 2 broad classifications of research
 Basic research and
 Applied research

The objectives of the research may be
To describe the characteristics of events
Explaining casual link b/n two variables
Comparing two or more groups on the basis of
particular phenomena
As a result, research can be categorized into
Descriptive
Explanatory
Comparative

The researcher may have
Qualitative
Quantitative data
Mixture of the two
 Thus the research may classified as
 Qualitative
 Quantitative or
Both qualitative and quantitative

When we consider the design of data collection
approach, we may have:
Experimental
Non-experimental

Primary research
Also called field research
Secondary research
Also known as desk research

 Research can be classified by field of study as:
 Geo-information science research
 Health science research
 Social science research
 Educational research
 Behavioral science research, etc.

 Based on time dimension research could be categorized as:
 a cross-sectional and
 longitudinal research

Basic research advances fundamental knowledge
Hence, it also called
 Fundamental research or
 Pure research
 It is basically concerned with the
 Formulation of a theory or principles,
 Creation of new knowledge
 Expansion of the acceptability of existing knowledge
 Verification of the acceptability of a given theory

 It is “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research
Adds a new knowledge to an organized body of scientific
knowledge
Does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value
Thus the general aim of basic research are:
 obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate
theory
 Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge
 Note that basic research lays down the foundation for the applied
research that follows

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization
 Conducted in relation to a particular problem to give answers to
questions at hand
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problem
Makes decisions about a particular course of action or policy
Test theories often generated by basic research and applying them
to real situations.

Traditionally, basic and applied researches were
seen as activities of:
Different nature,
 Carried out by different institution and financed from
different sources
However, it is difficult to draw a clear boundary between
these two types of research
Researchers believe that basic and applied types of
research should not be thought as mutually exclusive
categories.

Both basic and applied research follows a scientific
methodology to answer the question at hand.
The distinction between them are rather a matter
of emphasis than as representing a true dichotomy,

Descriptive
The goal of descriptive research is to describe the status of
some aspects of a phenomenon
 It aid understand a topic and leads to causal analysis
 It is, therefore, involves a variety of research methods to
achieve its goal.

Descriptive research conti…
Possible methods that come under descriptive research is:
Survey studies
Observation studies
Case studies
Correlation studies
Change detection studies

It is a method of gathering data at a particular
time for a specific objectives
It is characterized by:
gathering data on a one-shot basis and hence is
economical and efficient
Can represent a wide range of target population
Generated numerical data,
Provides descriptive, explanatory and inferential data
Manipulate key factors, features or elements

It involves observing and recording of spatial and
attributes as it occurs in its natural settings.
It is important for conformation

Case Studies
It emphasizes detailed contextual analysis a limited
number of condition /events and their relationship
They are largely descriptive examinations, usually
of sites, for example small town, valley, mining site
etc
Eg Solid waste disposal site selection in Nekemte
Town

Studies designed to investigate whether or not relation
exists between two or more quantified variables
Eg whether an association exists b/n Temperature and
elevation
The purpose of correlational studies:
Not establish cause-effect r/p among variables
But to determine whether the variables under study
have some kind of association or not
The relation may negative, positive or no relation

Conducted when problem at hand has not been
clearly defined
Thus explorative research is initial research
conducted to
Background information
Better understand
Clarify a problem

It seeks explanations of observed phenomena,
problems, or features.
While descriptive research examines the what,
where, and when of a phenomenon, explanatory
research seeks answers to why and how types of
questions.
It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by
identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target
phenomenon.

Experiments can be conducted either:
 In laboratory setting or
 In the field (natural settings)
Experiments in laboratory setting:
When operating within laboratory env’t, the
researcher has direct control over most, if not all, of
the variables that could impact upon the outcome of
the experiment

Experiments in the field (natural settings)
 the researcher has less control over variables that
have effect upon the experimental variables but
will strive to exert whatever control is possible.

Qualitative involves studies that do not attempt to
quantify their results through statistical summary
or analysis
Quantitative research is the systematic and
scientific investigation of
Quantitave properties and phenomena
Their relationship

It is probable that your research may be cross-sectional
– the study of a particular phenomenon at
a particular time.
We say this because we recognise that most
research projects undertaken for academic courses
are necessarily time-constrained

study change and development
An example is the census conducted every 10
years,

3. Project Identification
Research project identification or selection is the most important
and crucial aspect of any research.
In the research process, the first and for most steps is the choice of
a suitable problem for investigation
Therefore, a considerable care must be taken while selecting a
research problem.
It requires a great deal of time, energy, and logical thinking on
the part of the researcher.
Practically speaking, several factors deter the selection of a
suitable problem by a researcher, especially if he/she is a beginner

Identification of a research project/ topic may be made
by a researcher by adopting either of the following
means;
1) By observation
2) Theory and Scientific Concepts
3) Previous Research
4) Practical Concerns
5) Personal Interest
6) Resource and Financial Support Interest

A researcher in his respective field of science may find
few concepts which are not answerable and a researcher
start to wonder about it, why it is happening
One of the sources of problems for a beginning
researcher is his/her own observation in a given
field.
The day-to-day observation of the occurrences in
the working place and out of the working
environment, socio-economic

You know that malaria incidence is high in low land
areas. This problem may produce
Eg Application Of GIS in Malaria Prevalence Modelling In Low
Land Areas- In Didessa Valley, Western Oromia

No research study ever answered all the questions that
may be asked about a particular subject.
New research findings always inspire new research
questions.
Sometimes it is because these findings are surprising, or
because they conflict with existing theory, or other
research findings

Consultation of research reports, bibliographies of books
and articles, periodicals, research abstracts, year books,
dictionaries and research guides constitutes an invaluable
source of a research problem in a given field
With the limitation of time, resources and financial
constrains it is not always possible to meet out all the
objectives set for the proposed study.

Therefore, there is always a scope to continue the previous
research work and the objectives which were left solved,
fully or partially, are covered in the later study.
With the limitation of time, resources and financial
constrains it is not always possible to meet out all the
objectives set for the proposed study.
 Therefore, there is always a scope to continue the previous
research work and the objectives which were left
unsolved, fully or partially, are covered in the later study.

Researcher may be motivated by looking into the problems in
the real world
Problems which are faced by him and the community around
him.
Much research problems are aimed at solving immediate
problems in the world.
Eg Application of GIS in flood modeling

Researcher has its own special area of interest so the
researcher is inspired by his own interest.
In such cases a researcher will be motivated by his own way
and he may follow his own criteria of selection of research
project

Availability of resource and financial visibility of the topic be
considered while a given topic is identified.
The interests of funding organization need to be identified

For a good research project identification a researcher must
look in many different places at the same time.
A researcher must do a thorough literature review,
interact to people working in the related stream and
 observe carefully the reality around him.

1. Availability and access to the data/ information needed for the proposed research
project.
2. Relevance of the research project as per the stream under which research is
performed.
3. Skill set and capability of a researcher to undertake the proposed research project
4. Usefulness and limitation of the proposed research project
5. Interest and willingness of researcher to conduct the proposed research.
6. Accessibility and workability for field work of the proposed research project.
7. Time required, financial support and equipment/ instruments to conduct proposed
research.
8. Potential to generate further research for later researcher.
9. Other specific criteria that relate to particular discipline, field of study or institution

A research proposal is a systematic plan, which
brings us to focus the preliminary planning that will
be needed to accomplish the purpose of the proposed
study.
It is just like a blueprint, which the architect
prepares before the construction of building starts.

More specifically, the research proposal has the
following importance:
It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of
the project.
It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the
researcher to follow.
It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding
the researcher while conducting the study.
It reduces the probability of costly mistakes.

Therefore, research project proposal is a written
statement of the research/project design explaining
The purpose of the study , that include justification,
rational and objectives
A detailed, systematic outline of a particular project,
including methodology and procedures
Required financial and time budget

Preparation of a full-fledged proposal is not a one-time
endeavour.
But is the result of continuous modification and
amendment through discussion with experts in the
field.

 Research proposal is needed to
 Use it as guide plan in the course of your project endeavor
 Convinces the other people
 Demonstrates expertise
 Demonstrates competency
 Serve as a contract

 An architect is using a blue print plan for construction of
complex building
 Likewise the researcher is using a research Project
proposal as a guide and plan of action
 When there is a clear plan of action from the beginning the
research is much more likely to proceed smoothly and will be
successful

The main function of any research
proposal is to convince
 other researchers,
 research funding agencies,
 educational institutions and
 supervisors/advisors that your
research is worth spending
resources on.
The research should inspire donors
about importance of his/her project

 Research proposal helps to demonstrate expertise in a
particular area of study.
With your research proposal you convince people that you
have enough understanding of the research topic to be able
of the research properly

Research proposal also helps to demonstrate competency in a
particular area of study.
 It is also important that your research proposal convinces
the reader that you have all the necessary skills to carryout
the proposed study.
 This can be done by describing an appropriate and feasible
research methodology.

 Research often involves contracts between different
individuals or groups or people.
 The proposal states clearly what each individual party is
expected to do, how resources will be used and when the
research will be completed.
 When your proposals approved it is same signing
agreement.

 Your discipline
 The community
 The state
 The nation
 The world or appropriate category

 What has already been done in the area of your project?
 How do you plan to carry the activity

There are certain elements that appear in the
preparation of the research proposal.
As a fact there is no single format for a research
proposal.
This is because
 every research project is different.
Different disciplines, funding organization and academic
institutions all have different formats and requirements

 Conventionally, a scientific research proposal should include :
1. The Title
2. Introduction
2.1 background of the study
2.2 statement of the problem
2.3 objectives of the study
2.4 hypothesis/ Research Questions
2.5 conceptual framework
3. Review of related Literature (this can appear in under chapter one as separate section)
4. Research Methodology
5. Work plan
6. Budget
7. References
8. Appendices/Annexes (if applicable)

The title of the research should be worded in
 clear -it gives sufficient information about the nature of study
Short -the title should not be too lengthy or too involved.
 specific to the area of study.
 The title should not be burdened by pompous words and
should not include terms of unscientific, rhetorical,
argumentative, emotional, or biased nature.
 The language in the title should be professional in nature
but not pedantic.

Project design and research methods in gis

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