This document discusses educational psychology and school learning. It covers topics like motivation and reinforcement theories, learning of school subjects, transfer of learning, classroom management, and approaches to teaching subjects. Regarding classroom management, it discusses humanistic, democratic, and behaviorist models. It also addresses the concept of punishment and its role in school learning.

1. MODULE 4
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYAND SCHOOL
LEARNING
Introduction
 The knowledge educational psychology as a field of
study is highly acknowledged in the teaching and
learning process.
 Indeed, the knowledge and skills developed through
educational psychology can help in enhancing
students’ effective learning in the classroom.
 In this module we will examine the application of
educational psychology in the classroom context.
Specifically, we will explore the influence of motivation on
teaching and learning, classroom management, and transfer of
learning

2. Reinforcement Theories and School
Learning
 To better understand the application of theories of
reinforcement in the context of school learning one
needs to understand the motivation
 What is motivation?

3.  The importance to the teacher of understanding
motivation and factors that affect it cannot be
overemphasized
 Motivation or lack of motivation affects students
performance

4. Learning of school subjects
 To better understand students’ learning in schools,
one needs to understand the behaviour of students.
 Students’ behaviour at school have a significant
influence their learning outcomes
 As Piaget suggests, teachers be good psychologists
(i.e. they should strive to understand the behaviour
of their students)
The basic questions educators needs to themselves
are:
How can they maximize learning outcomes?
How can we make individuals learn much faster,
easily and meaningfully?

5.  School learning should not be seen narrowly as
involving learning of school subjects.
Rather, it should be seen broadly as involving
learning of new attitudes, analytical cognitive and
social skills and occurring new personality
dispositions.
Thus, meaningful learning should involve learning
how to learn (i.e. getting generalized cognitive skills
such as analytical mind that can be used across
different subjects).
It the application of generalized skills and attitude
that cut across subjects and lasts longer.

6.  This is in sharp contrast to the current practice
where teachers concentrate on the teaching subject
matter.
Key questions regarding approaches to teaching
subject matter (Omari, 2011)
i. Do school subjects have psychologically different
demands that learners have to cope with?
ii. Are some school subjects inherently more difficult
than others?
iii. Is the learning process of some subjects from from
that of other subjects?
iv. Do students of different abilities learn the same
tasks differently or in the same way but differ in
the speed of learning.

7. While educational psychologists have not
sufficiently provided answers to all of these
questions, it is reasonably assumed that:
a. Any one can learn ay subject or task of it is
appropriately structured, sequenced and taught
(Bruner, 1960).
b. No one subject is more difficult than another one
c. No one subject presents different cognitive
demands upon an individual learner

8. Variables to consider in teaching school subjects
 the variable approach to the teaching of school
subjects identifies the following factors as critical:
i. The length of the task
ii. Complexity level of the task
iii. The sequence of the learning activities
iv. The organization of the material
v. The familiarity of the learning materials to all
students
vi. Meaningfulness of the materials
vii.The Zeigarnick effect: this focuses on the extent to
which the learning was complete or incomplete on
the part of the learners.

9. i.e. did the learners experience a closure or were they still
left with curiosity as to what was the product.
Zeigarnick effect=Unfinished group tasks recalled x 100
Finished group tasks recalled
Teaching and Development of Creativity in the
Classroom
Research on the development of creative talents in the
classroom emphasize the idea of incompleteness of
learning tasks.
 According to this research, when tasks are incomplete
and open they do motivate and activate the learning
process.
In the context of classroom, the teacher may enhance
students’ creativity by creating the atmosphere where is
:
 Confrontation with ambiguities and uncertainties

10. Heightened anticipation and expectation
Where familiar things are made starange and strange
things are made familiar by analogy, thus creating a
sense of controlled excitement in the situation
Same things are examined from several different
viewpoints, such as psychological, sociological,
physical, emotional and philosophical.
Provocative questions requiring the learner to
examine information in new ways
Predictions from limited information required
Tasks are structured only enough to give clue and
direction
Encouragement of students to take the next step
beyond what is known.

11. Teaching School Subjects Effectively and Meaningfully
 Meaningful and effective teaching of school subjects
should be looked at from four levels (Mari, 2011):
a. Teaching a pool of facts that form the essential
backbone of the discipline area.
 Facts constitute a stable pool of knowledge that
learners are supposed to know. E.g. in General studies
the Revolution in Zanzibar occurred in …
b. Teaching concepts
 Each subject/discipline area has some basic and
general concepts that learners ought to know.
 They include principles, theories and laws that give
flesh to the facts. E.g. in Psychology we have
conditioning, reinforcement etc.

12. c. Teaching for generalization
 Generalization is made on the basis of observation
of facts , concepts , theories or principles. E.g. The
overall belief of behaviourists is that the
environment is critical for human learning and
development
d. Teaching of skills for acquisition of new knowledge
 It is important that learners acquire knowledge that
helps them to know how to start and proceed to the
solving of new problems, learning new attitudes
towards knowledge and the acquisition of a
questioning mind (inquiring mind/learning how to
learn).

13. Transfer of Learning
 The question of how present learning helps us in
future learning has been a concern for
psychologists for many decades.
 It has result into the concept of transfer of learning
Transfer of learning refers to the tendency of
humans to use the learning knowledge, skills, and
attitudes to anticipate and confront new situation
and solve new problems.

14. Ways by which present learning affects future
learning
Our today’s learning can affect learning tomorrow
or in the future either negatively or positively
(Proactive effects)
 our leaning today affects what we learnt yesterday
either negatively or positively (Retroactive effects)
 Thus, transfer of learning can be positive or
negative
Positive transfer of learning: Occurs when learning
in one context improves performance in some other
context. E.g. speakers of one language find it
easier to learn related than unrelated second
language

15. Negative transfer: Occurs when learning in one
context hinders learning in another context
Conditions of transfer
a. Thorough and diverse practice
 Transfer of learning may depend on extensive
practice of the performance in question in a variety
of context. This yields a flexible relatively
automized bundle of skills evoked in new
situations.
b. Explicit abstraction
 Transfer of learning sometimes depends on whether
learners have abstracted critical attributes/
principles of a situation.
 It focuses on the structure of the situation.

16. c. Active self-monitoring:
 Relatedly, meta-cognitive reflection on one’s
thinking process appears to promote transfer of
skills.
 It focuses on one’s own thinking process
d. Arousing mindfulness
 Mindfulness refers to a generalized state of
alertness to the activities one is engaged in and
to one’s surroundings.
 It is contrasted with a passive reactive mode in
which cognitions, behaviours , and responses
unfold automatically and mindlessly

17. e. Using a metaphor or analogy
Transfer is facilitated when new material is studied
in the light of previously learned material that
serves as an analogy or metaphor
Things known about the old domain of knowledge
can now be transferred to a new domain making
better understood and learned.
For example, student may understand how the heart
works by thinking of it as a pump.

18. Mechanics of transfer
 By mechanics of transfer we mean the
psychological paths by which transfer occurs.
The following are some of the paths by which
transfer occurs:
 Abstraction: The degree of abstraction regarding the
identity of attributes in situations helps to account
for transfer.
While highly identical elements can appear in very
different contexts, it is thus the degree of one’s
abstraction that will foster transfer of learning

19. Transfer by affordances:
 If the potential transfer situation presents similar
affordances and the individual recognizes them , the
person may apply the somewhat adapted action schema
there.
High road and low road transfer
 lo road transfer occurs when stimulus conditions in the
transfer contexts are sufficiently similar to those in a
prior context of learning to trigger well developed semi-
automatic responses.
High road transfer depend on mindful abstraction from
the context of learning or application of deliberate
search for connections: what is the general pattern?
What is needed? What principles might apply etc.

20. Teaching for transfer
 Creating conditions for transfer of learning e.g.
instruction in reading should involve extensive practice
(actual practice) with diverse materials to the point of
considerable automaticity
Encouraging learners to reflect on the material taught so
as to extract general widely applicable conclusions or
even questions.
Perkins and Salomon (1988) proposed two instrctional
strategies to foster transfer, namely hugging and
bridging
Higging exploits reflective trnsfer. It recommends that
instruction directly engage the learner in
approximations to the performances desired e.g. instead
of the teacher just talking about examination technique
he/she might give students trial examination.

21. Bridging :
Exploits the high road transfer
In bridging the instruction encourages the making of
abstractions, searches for possible connections,
mindfulness and metacognition.
E.g. the teacher might ask students to devise an
examination strategy based on the past experience, a
job counsellor might ask clients to reflect on their
strong and weak points etc.

22. Classroom management and discipline
 Classroom management constitute a single most
salient feature of the classroom
What is classroom management?
Is a general term referring to all the actions that
teachers take to organize instruction.
 Discipline is more specific term referring to actions
that teachers (and sometimes learners) make to
prevent or reduce misbehaviour or to respond to
behaviour problems once they occur.

23. Explaining classroom management and
discipline
 To Hogelucht & Geist (1997) proposed a
Negotiated Order Theory in explaining classroom
management and discipline
The theory views teachers and students as
essentially negotiating and communicating to each
other regarding the boundaries of acceptable and
unacceptable behaviour
 They negotiate the consequences of nonadherence
to the rules and sometimes the consequences of
exemplary behaviours as well.
 According to this theory, when teachers voice
dissatisfaction with events in the classroom, they are

24. in effect voicing disapproval with current classroom
order.
Likewise, students misbehaviours call for
renegotiation of the rules of the classroom order.
Importance of classroom management and
discipline
Why do you think classroom management and
discipline are important?

25. Approaches to classroom management
 There is no single approach that can best suits for
classroom management and discipline. However, the
following are proposed.
a. Using a variety of classroom management
strategies designed to maintain a positive
classroom climate that are highly effective in
avoiding behaviour problems
b. Using some specific learning startegoes that are
useful for short term management of behaviour
problems

26. c. Using problem solving conflict resolution startegies
geared toward achieving the long-term goal of self
discipline

27. Classroom management and discipline
models
 Models of classroom management and disciplne
can be broadly categorized into three namely,
Humanistic models, Democratic models and
Behaviourist models of classroom management.
A. Humanistic Models of Classroom Management
 This category of models put emphasis on
uniqueness and diginty of every individual student
 They view classroom as highly learner, rather than
teacher-centred.
 Recommend a minimum amount of classroom
intervention

28.  Important models of humanistic classroom
management include those of Carl Rogers and
Michael Marland.
i. Carl Rogers: Free to Learn
 According to Rogers, the goal of humanistic
teacher is to develop self discipline in students
 What is self discipline? Is broadly defined as
knowledge about oneself and the actions needed to
grow and develop as a person
 Like Maslow, Roger believed that all humans
(studentsincluded) have a basic desire to grow, to
develop and to become.
 Thus, the role of parents and teachers is to provide
the sort of supportive environment that facilitates

29. and fosters growth.
 This implies that the environment should accept
children unconditionally, should value them for who
they are , and should foster their growth.
 the teacher is the facilitator rather than the director
and students are active and fundamentally important
participants in the teaching and learning process
Weakness
 Rogers does not provide a list of specific classroom
management techniques that teachers can learn and
apply to their classrooms.

30. Strength
 Attention to the uniqueness of the individual
Putting emphasis on the development of personal
responsibilty
Importance of the teacher’s attitude towards the
students and
Emphasis on the climate of love.

31. B:Democratic Models of Classroom Management
Respects the individuality and the rights of learners
Emphasize the importance of their voices. Thus,
students are given the opportunity to participate in
important classroom management decisions.
Are relatively learner-centred
 Expect teachers to set reasonable limits for
students’ conduct to use reason and logic to identify
rules and goals and to determine appropriate
consequences of infractions of rules
Advocates of Democratic models are Jacob Kounin
and Drikurs.

32. C:Behaviourist Models of Classroom Management

33. Punishment and school learning
 The concept of punishment is closely associated
with behaviourism in that it is a stimulus contingent
upon emitting a wrong response to a given
stimulus.
 The use of punishment its both physical and non-
physical forms to change students behaviours and
enhance learning is one of the contentious issues in
psychology today (Omari, 2011).
What is punishment?

34. Forms of Punishment
 In whatever form, punishment are based on the
following premises (Omari, 2011).
Punitive/getting out: people generally punish to get
some emotional relief.
Retribution: Those who cause pain to others should
also test the pain so as to appreciate the painfulness
of their actions.
Reformation: Punishment has corrective effects i.e.
the pain will stamp out bad behaviours
Deterrence to others: people seeing or hearing
severe punishment given to offenders will desist
from doing similar offence.

35. Types of punishment
 Punishment in the classroom is generally
categorized into two types:
Presentation of aversive stimulus
 Include corporal punishment after undesirable
behaviour.
Range from a frawn to verbal aggression e.g. saying
stupid.
Removal of pleasant stimulus
 Include such actions as the removal of teacher’s
pleasant smile, forbidding a student to go home on
time etc.