Quantity Technique Solutions By Zaheer Bin Mehdi

1. QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES
Submitted to Sir Mr. Moin Ud Din
Name Zaheer Hussain.
Roll No. BU546686
Program COL MPA/MBA
Course code. 5564
Assignment No. 01
Semester Ist
Q# 01 Discuss Sampling techniques and explain the non-probability Sampling
techniques in detail with example.
Introduction to Sampling
It cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population they are
studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals – a sample – and use
those observations to make inferences about the entire population.
Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the characteristic(s) of
interest. In that case, the researcher's conclusions from the sample are probably
applicable to the entire population.
This type of correspondence between the sample and the larger population is most
important when a researcher wants to know what proportion of the population has a
certain characteristic – like a particular opinion or a demographic feature. Public opinion
polls that try to describe the percentage of the population that plans to vote for a
particular candidate, for example, require a sample that is highly representative of the
population.
What is Sampling
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from

2. a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include
simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
In business, a CPA performing an audit uses sampling to determine the accuracy of
account balances in the financial statements, and managers use sampling to assess the
success of the firm’s marketing efforts.
Sampling helps a lot in research. It is one of the most important factors which determines
the accuracy of your research/survey result. If anything goes wrong with your sample
then it will be directly reflected in the final result. There are lot of techniques which help
us to gather sample depending upon the need and situation. This blog post tries to
explain some of those techniques.
To start with, let’s have a look on some basic terminology
Population
Sample
Sampling
Population is the collection of the elements which has some or the other characteristic in
common. Number of elements in the population is the size of the population.
Sample is the subset of the population. The process of selecting a sample is known as
sampling. Number of elements in the sample is the sample size.
There are lot of sampling techniques which are grouped into two categories as
 Probability Sampling
 Non- Probability Sampling

3. The difference lies between the above two is whether the sample selection is based on
randomization or not. With randomization, every element gets equal chance to be picked
up and to be part of sample for study.
Probability Sampling
This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that every element of the
population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample. It’s alternatively
known as random sampling.
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi stage Sampling
Simple Random Sampling: Every element has an equal chance of getting selected to be
the part sample. It is used when we don’t have any kind of prior information about the
target population.
For example: Random selection of 20 students from class of 50 student. Each student
has equal chance of getting selected. Here probability of selection is 1/50
Single Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
This technique divides the elements of the population into small subgroups (strata)
based on the similarity in such a way that the elements within the group are
homogeneous and heterogeneous among the other subgroups formed. And then the
elements are randomly selected from each of these strata. We need to have prior
information about the population to create subgroups.
Cluster Sampling
Our entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then the clusters are
randomly selected. All the elements of the cluster are used for sampling. Clusters are
identified using details such as age, sex, location etc.
Cluster sampling can be done in following ways:
Single Stage Cluster Sampling

4. Entire cluster is selected randomly for sampling.
Two Stage Cluster Sampling
Here first we randomly select clusters and then from those selected clusters we
randomly select elements for sampling
Systematic Clustering
Here the selection of elements is systematic and not random except the first element.
Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of population. All the elements are
put together in a sequence first where each element has the equal chance of being
selected.
For a sample of size n, we divide our population of size N into subgroups of k elements.
We select our first element randomly from the first subgroup of k elements.
To select other elements of sample, perform following:
We know number of elements in each group is k i.e N/n
So if our first element is n1 then
Second element is n1+k i.e n2
Third element n2+k i.e n3 and so on..
Taking an example of N=20, n=5
No of elements in each of the subgroups is N/n i.e 20/5 =4= k
Now, randomly select first element from the first subgroup.
If we select n1= 3
n2 = n1+k = 3+4 = 7
n3 = n2+k = 7+4 = 11
Systematic Clustering
Multi-Stage Sampling
It is the combination of one or more methods described above.
Population is divided into multiple clusters and then these clusters are further divided
and grouped into various sub groups (strata) based on similarity. One or more clusters
can be randomly selected from each stratum. This process continues until the cluster
can’t be divided anymore. For example country can be divided into states, cities, urban
and rural and all the areas with similar characteristics can be merged together to form a
strata.

5. Multi-Stage Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant on the researcher’s
ability to select elements for a sample. Outcome of sampling might be biased and makes
difficult for all the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This type of
sampling is also known as non-random sampling.
Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Referral /Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Here the samples are selected based on the availability. This method is used when the
availability of sample is rare and also costly. So based on the convenience samples are
selected.
For example: Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of survey research, as it’s
quick and easy to deliver results.
Purposive Sampling
This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of our study.
Quota Sampling This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard. It selects the
representative sample from the population. Proportion of characteristics/ trait in sample
should be same as population. Elements are selected until exact proportions of certain
types of data is obtained or sufficient data in different categories is collected.
For example: If our population has 45% females and 55% males then our sample should
reflect the same percentage of males and females.
Referral /Snowball Sampling
This technique is used in the situations where the population is completely unknown and
rare.

6. Therefore we will take the help from the first element which we select for the population
and ask him to recommend other elements who will fit the description of the sample
needed.
So this referral technique goes on, increasing the size of population like a snowball.
Referral /Snowball Sampling

7. Non-probability sampling: Definition
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects
samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random
selection.
In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a chance of
participating in the study unlike probability sampling, where each member of the
population has a known chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like pilot survey (a
survey that is deployed to a smaller sample compared to pre-determined sample size).
Non-probability sampling is used in studies where it is not possible to draw random
probability sampling due to time or cost considerations.
Non-probability sampling is a less stringent method, this sampling method depends
heavily on the expertise of the researchers. Non-probability sampling is carried out by
methods of observation and is widely used in qualitative research.
Learn More: Types of sampling for social research
Types of non-probability sampling and examples
1. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling
technique where samples are selected from the population only because they are
conveniently available to researcher. These samples are selected only because they
are easy to recruit and researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the
entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test sample that represents the population. But, in
some research, the population is too large to test and consider the entire population.
This is one of the reasons, why researchers rely on convenience sampling, which is the
most common non-probability sampling technique, because of its speed, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.
An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to
researcher. Researcher can send the survey to students and they would act as sample
in this situation.
2. Consecutive Sampling: This non-probability sampling technique is very similar to
convenience sampling, with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single
person or a group of sample, conducts research over a period of time, analyzes the
results and then moves on to another subject or group of subject if needed.

8. Consecutive sampling gives the researcher a chance to work with many subjects and
fine tune his/her research by collecting results that have vital insights.
3. Quota Sampling: Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career
goals of male and female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in
the organization. These 500 employees are known as population. In order to
understand better about a population, researcher will need only a sample, not the entire
population. Further, researcher is interested in particular strata within the population.
Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.
For studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically the sample selected
should have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which means there should
be 250 males and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely, the groups or strata is selected
using quota sampling.
4. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgmental sampling, the samples are
selected based purely on researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words,
researchers choose only those who he feels are a right fit (with respect to attributes and
representation of a population) to participate in research study.
This is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to this sampling technique
is that the results can be influenced by the preconceived notions of a researcher. Thus,
there is a high amount of ambiguity involved in this research technique.
For example, this type of sampling method can be used in pilot studies.
5. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling helps researchers find sample when they are
difficult to locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and
not easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the
researchers find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to seek similar
subjects to form a considerably good size sample.
For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects
to refer other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a subjective sample to
carry out the study.
Learn more: How to Determine Sample Size
When to use non-probability sampling?
This type of sampling is used to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic exists in a
population.

9. This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at conducting qualitative
research, pilot studies or exploratory research.
Non-probability sampling is used when researchers have limited time to conduct
researcher or have budget constraints.
Non-probability sampling is conducted to observe if a particular issue needs in-depth
analysis.
Advantages of non-probability sampling
1. Non-probability sampling is a more conducive and practical method for researchers
deploying survey in the real world. Although statisticians prefer probability sampling
because it yields data in the form of numbers. However, if done correctly, non-
probability sampling can yield similar if not the same quality of results.
2. Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more cost-effective as
compared to probability sampling because sample is known to researcher, they are
motivated to respond quickly as compared to people who are randomly selected.
Disadvantages of non-probability sampling
1. In non-probability sampling, researcher needs to think through potential reasons for
biases. It is important to have a sample that represents closely the population.
2. While choosing a sample in non-probability sampling, researchers need to be careful
about recruits distorting data. At the end of the day, research is carried out to obtain
meaningful insights and useful data.