Daniel Quintana November 26, 2018 COMM 101C Comm.docx

Daniel Quintana
November 26, 2018
COMM 101C
Communication Research Project:
School Gun Violence and Uncertainty Reduction Theory
The Problem
Gun control is one of the longest debated issues in American
history, and gun violence
had been a growing concern for individuals and their families.
Acts of gun violence are regularly
reported on the news; and consequently, fear of school
shootings have become an expected
concern for students and their parents. While there are many
facets to gun control, I chose to
concentrate my communication research on school gun violence.
The goal of this project is not to
argue either sides of the gun control debate; however, the goal
is to propose possible

communication strategies to help students develop their ability
to address concerns for school
safety. Issues surrounding gun violence creates stress and fear
in young people’s lives. Through
communication, I believe young people can address these issues
and feel both safe at school and
prepared to identify and respond to potential threats.
The Cornerstones
Of San Jose State University’s Communication Studies
department, this project primarily
intersects with three of the four department cornerstones:
Democracy, Diversity and Technology.
(Dept. of COMM Studies) Through my communication research,
I found that students can
promote democracy by engaging in dialogue and debate on gun
control. Students can learn from
each other’s different perspectives and develop their own
values, preparing them to engage in
policy surrounding gun control. They can encourage diversity
through communicating
compassionate with each other. They can utilize technology
through online training videos and

online peer communication. And, they can create a
compassionate community and reduce the
change of isolated and angered students acting out in aggression
or violence.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
I chose to address school shootings through the lens of the
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
(URT). In Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and
Application, Richard L. West and
Lynn H. Turner describe the theory,
“When strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their
levels of uncertainty in the
situation because uncertainty is uncomfortable. People can be
uncertain on two different
levels: behavioral and cognitive. They may be unsure of how to
behave (or how the other
person will behave), and they may also be unsure of what they
think of the other person
and what the other person thinks of them. High levels of
uncertainty are related to a
variety of verbal and nonverbal behaviors.” (West & Turner, pg.
137)
Student of different backgrounds and upbringings experience
uncertainty when meeting new

peers at school. Though relationships develop, students can also
develop uncertainty related
stress in regard to unfamiliar peers. Social differences and fear
can prevent students from
reducing these uncertainty stressors. Some students respond to
these uncertainties in a variety of
ways; ranging from bullying and isolation, to acts of anger and
violence. By developing the
necessary communication skills in high school, students can
reduce uncertainties in their peer
relationships. By reducing levels of uncertainty, students can
reduce harmful thinking and
behavior related to uncertainty induced stress. Exploring
solutions to reduce uncertainty in
relation to school gun violence, I found four peer-reviewed
academic articles from four
communication journals: Western Journal of Communication,
Kentucky Journal of
Communication, Communication Studies, and Communication
Monographs. These articles
discuss communication responses to school shootings, or
potential school shootings, that I find

particularly useful in reducing uncertainty related stress that
can lead to harassment and violence
in schools.
The Research
For Western Journal of Communication, Justin Eckstein and
Sarah T. Partlow Lefevre
analyze the public gun control debate that took place between
President Barack Obama and
National Rifle Association Executive Vice President Wayne
LaPierre following the 2012 Sandy
Hook school shooting. (Eckstein & Partlow Lefevre) Obama
proposed legislation to regulate
guns, “included background checks, an assault rifle ban,
magazine limits, mental health
resources, and research funds,” (pg. 226) and, LaPierre
“advocated putting ‘armed police officers
in every single school in this nation’ to thwart another mass
shooting.” (pg. 226) Eckstein and
Partlow Lefever distinguish that Obama argued that guns
exponentially increase the potential for
violence and LaPierre argued that “agency resides exclusively
in people.” (pg. 228) Eckstein and
Partlow Lefevre conclude that the debate did not result in any
significant change because neither

Obama nor LaPierre accepted their opposition’s starting point,
which makes it difficult for
argumentation to advance to a resolution. (pg. 228) They also
suggest cross arguing strategies,
where Obama could take on the opposing view that people kill
people and LaPierre could adopt
the view that guns kill people. Eckstein and Partlow Lefever
claim that considering the opposing
standpoint would be a reasonable way to advance their
arguments and reach a potential solution.
(pg. 228) Eckstein and Partlow Lefever argue the importance of
considering the opposing
standpoint in promoting a democratic society. They state,
“If guns are the problem, then regulation would prevent another
tragedy. But, if violence
stems from bad people, more guns may make sense. However,
since neither side is
willing to engage the other’s starting point, debate has broken
down and argumentation is
stripped of its important role in democratic society.” (pg. 238)
By considering the opposing standpoint, both parties can uphold
their fundamental values,

respect different values, and reach a reasonable solution to
issues of gun rights and gun safety in
schools. Though this debate does not provide an example of
argument resolution, Eckstein and
Partlow Lefever offer strategies that encourage people to
consider the values and beliefs that
differ from their own. This is particularly useful in teaching
argumentation skills as it pertains to
democratic involvement and school safety. By implementing
reasonable argumentation skills,
students can reduce uncertainty regarding guns in schools by
debating on issues of school
shootings and gun laws. They can also reduce uncertainties by
considering the views of peers
who’s values and beliefs are different from theirs.
For Kentucky Journal of Communication, Fred E. Fitch
analyzes the case study of a
university instructor who effectively responded to students who
were concerned about a fellow
student’s comments that suggested gun violence on the
homeless. (Fitch) This comment came
seven months after the Virginia Tech massacre, and concerned
students told the instructor that

they wanted to report the offending student. (pg. 69) The
instructor utilized appropriate resources
by seeking guidance from the course director. The course
director consulted with a psychologist
friend to learn the rules in assessing a threat. The psychologist
then suggested the instructor
collaborate with the campus counseling center. The instructor
and the counseling center executed
an intervention with the offending student who accepted
responsibility for their comments and
offered to apologize to the concerned students. By utilizing
these resources, the instructor was
able to protect the concerned students while protecting the
offending student dignity and right to
free speech. (pg. 70) From this case study, Fitch says, “course
directors and instructors can gain
both information and insight that can help in maintaining the
balance between free expression
and equality—especially when questions of security come into
play.” (pg. 70) I believe that
students can too gain insight and information from this case
study. When someone makes a
comment of violence towards another person or group of people,

students can learn how to seek
support from available resources in order to assess a potential
threat while taking the rights of the
offending person into consideration. By utilizing available
resources and considering the rights
of both sides of the conflict, the instructor was able to assess a
potential threat and ease tensions
in the classroom. Though the responsibility of handle concerns
for threats of violence should not
fall solely on the instructors or students, this case study can
provide students with the
communication skills to effectively and democratically voice
concern. Threats of violence can
create stress and uncertainty pertaining to student intention and
student safety. Providing
students with the skills to identify and report concerning
communication will help reduce
uncertainty; and, these skills will help students to identify and
prevent legitimate threats.
For Communication Studies, Jessica L. Ford and Seth S. Frei
study the efficacy of the
message medium and message framing in influencing students
to complete a five-minute active
shooter response training video titled Run, Hide, Fight; created

by the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security. (Ford & Frei) Ford and Frei first objective
was to determine which media (e-
mail, text, or Twitter) and which message frame (fear based or
direct information) were more
effective in getting college students to complete the training
video. Their second objective was to
understand the impact of the training video on students’ “safety
knowledge,” “safety self-
efficacy” and “personal campus safety salience.” (pg. 439) Ford
and Frei discovered, “The main
effect for message frame was not significant” and “The main
effect for message medium was
significant.” (pg. 448) Additionally, “Post hoc analysis revealed
that those receiving the email
were more likely to complete the video than those in the text-
message condition.” (pg. 448) And,
“…an e-mail with a fear-based frame was more likely to lead to
video completion than a Tweet
with a fear-based message” (pg. 448) In other words, Ford and
Frei showed that the students in
their study were not significantly influenced by neither rhetoric
nor prose in completing the five-

minute training video. However, they did find that students who
received an email notification
for the training were more likely to complete the training than
those who saw it through text or
tweet. Ford and Frei also found that completion of the training
video significantly increased
students’ campus safety salience, students’ safety knowledge
and students’ safety self-efficacy.
(pg. 449) Ford and Frei show that completion of the active
shooter response training video got
more students thinking about the importance of campus safety;
and, students felt more confident
in their abilities to respond appropriately in the event of a
school shooting. This case study is
limited in that it only reflects a specific school population in a
specific region of the country. The
findings may not apply to different student populations across
the country. Therefore, it
shouldn’t be assumed that all students would best by motivated
by an e-mail above any other
medium; and this does not mean that the prose or rhetoric of a
message frame should not be
considered when creating persuasive messages for students.
What this research does give us is an

approach to determining the effectiveness of messages to
specific groups of students. By testing
the message frame and message medium, educators and
administrators can use communication
technology to determine the best way to encourage training that
will reduce students’
uncertainties with potential gun violence in school.
For Communication Monographs, Sarah J. Tracy and Timothy
P. Huffman analyze the
911 recording of the communication between school bookkeeper
Antoinette Tuff and Michael
Hill. Hill entered McNair Discovery Learning Academy in
DeKalb, Georgie, armed with an
AK47 assault rifle and almost 500 bullets and the intention to
kill himself and others. Tuff used a
variety of compassionate communication techniques which
successfully encouraged Hill to
surrender to authorities, resulting in zero injuries or fatalities.
(Tracy & Huffman) Tracy and
Huffman identify the three components of compassion:
recognizing, relating and acting/reacting.
(pg. 31) Through their analysis, Tracy and Huffman identify the

ways in which Tuff was able to
recognize Hill’s suffering, relate to his pain, and was able to
act/react with Hill to reach a
rational and safe solution. In order to “set the groundwork for
communicating compassion to an
unreceptive target,” Tracy and Huffman propose,
“Sufferers are more likely to accept compassionate action and
perceive compassion when
the potential compassion provider engages in a) deferential
face-enhancing
conversational actions, b) communication
convergence/mimicking conversational
actions, and c) conversational actions that will buy time and
allow people to cool down
from an amygdala hijacked state (or a neurological state that
makes people respond
quickly in threatening situations, however, this state also makes
the person receive and
process information irrationally)” (pg. 44)
By saving face, or showing Hill respect and validation, Tuff
followed Hill’s instructions
immediately. She also showed deference by asking Hill how he
would like her to act and called

him “sir” several times in the beginning of the interaction. (pg.
42) Tuff mirrored Hill’s verbal
and nonverbal communication almost exactly. With
philosophical and scientific research, Tracy
and Huffman concluded that, “through mirroring, [Tuff] was
better able to recognize and
empathize with [Hill’s] suffering; [and] through mirroring,
[Tuff] became more likeable to and
better able to gain the compliance of [Hill].” (pg. 43) Through
deferential face-saving and
mirroring communication techniques, Tuff was able to reduce
tensions enough to make Hill
accept her compassionate action. In order to “co-create hope,”
Tracy and Huffman propose,
the potential compassion provider(s) co-create(s) a hopeful
vision for the future. Hope
can be communicatively co-created in the context of compassion
through a) listening for
cynicism and resignation and following up on more hopeful
futures, b) minimizing the
negativity or severity of the situation, c) employing positive

intensity in language, and d)
using terms of endearment that frame the sufferer as respectable
and lovable.” (pg. 46)
Tuff listened to a conversation Hill had with a family member
on the phone. Hill mentioned that
he stopped taking his medication and should have checked into
the hospital. Tuff downplayed
the negative aspects of Hill’s lack of self-care and emphasized
the fact that he hadn’t hurt anyone
yet. By using calm, positive and optimistic verbal and nonverbal
communications, Tuff was able
to get Hill to adopt a problem-solving perspective. Tuff told
Hill that he is loved by the family
member on the phone and called him “baby” and “sweetie,”
which framed Hill as a sufferer who
deserves love and not as a villain. (pg. 45) By engaging in these
compassionate communication
techniques, Tuff was able to establish a hopeful alternative
option than the one Hill entered the
school with. In order to “generate trust through vulnerable self-
disclosure,” Tracy and Huffman
propose,

the potential compassion provider engages in self-disclosure
that creates a mutually
relatable problem or vulnerability. This increases identification
and the ability to
compassionately relate, [and] this increases the probability of a
mutual emergence of
compassion.” (pg. 47)
Tuff disclosed to Hill that she was recently divorces, had a son
with special needs, and
previously considered suicide. (pg. 46) By communicating self-
disclosure, Tuff was able to
obtain empathy from Hill, showing him that his struggles can
have a better outcome. This
showed Hill that he is not alone, and it allowed him to trust
Tuff, allowing Hill to accept Tuff as
a decision-making partner in this ordeal. And finally, to address
the “tole of physical presence
for compassion,” Tracy and Huffman propose, “Potential
compassion providers to sufferers who
are initially resistant to compassion are more likely to recognize
suffering, compassionately
relate, and provide compassionate action when they are

physically proximal to the sufferer.” (pg.
48) Tuff had an opportunity to escape the situation, which could
have led to deadly results for
others. Staying present with Hill and offering to stay to
surrender with him allowed Hill to accept
Tuff’s compassionate actions. Proxemics nonverbal
communication is crucial in communicating
compassion. This case study provides the most important aspect
of my research project.
Teaching compassionate communication in schools has the most
potential in supporting those
suffering mentally and emotionally. By creating a
compassionate school environment, troubled
youths are more likely to receive the support they need for their
specific issues, that if untreated,
could lead to plans for school shootings. The responsibility of
hostage negotiations should not be
placed on the students. When faced with an active shooter,
students should be encouraged to
prioritize their own safety. However, this case study shows the
power of compassionate
communication. By teaching compassionate communication, we
can alleviate bullying and

isolation of troubled youths. If students can effectively
communicate compassion, they may be
able to identify potential threats before they happen and
together with faculty support, can help
troubled peers get the love and support that is crucial in
preventing future school shootings.
Application of Research
I chose these articles because they study the communication of
individuals surrounding
issues of gun violence in schools. What I want to do with this
research is to create a space for
students to develop communication skills that will help reduce
uncertainties with issues of gun
violence, as well as the skills to reduce uncertainties in their
interpersonal relationships. I would
like to incorporate communication studies curriculum for high
school students that will help
students to develop these communication skills.
Regarding the Western Journal of Communication article that
analyses the gun control
debate between Barack Obama and Wayne LaPierre, I propose
curriculum that focuses on
understanding opposing views. The curriculum should

unbiasedly focus on the opposing views
of the debate. Students will develop their own opinion of gun
control though what they’re taught
at home and through their own experiences. Instructors can
emphasize the importance of
understanding views that differ from their own. By using gun
control as the context for this
discussion, students can reduce uncertainties surrounding the
great unresolved debate of gun
control. By engaging in study and discussion of debate, students
can learn how to reduce
uncertainty with peers who have opposing views in a healthy
and productive way. They will be
more skilled in reducing other peer uncertainties and more
prepared to engage in civil discussion,
inspiring them to engage in discussing legislation that concerns
them. This will prepare them for
democratic engagement in addition to uncertainty reduction.
Regarding the Kentucky Journal of Communication which
analyzes the actions of a
professor’s response to verbal threat of violence in the
classroom, I propose curriculum that

addresses threats of violence, the social impact of those threats,
and how students and staff can
utilize available resources to address concerns for violence.
Students can analyze threatening
messages of violence. They can learn about the available school
and community resources that
are most effective in reporting threatening language. By
studying the right to free speech and
identifying actual threats of violence, students can better
identify actual threats. This will help
students reduce uncertainties with students who use violent
language. They will be
knowledgeable about how to and with whom to communicate
concerns. By practicing
hypothetical situations, students can feel more secure in their
abilities to reduce uncertainties in
the classroom when faced with communicated messages that
create uncertainty related stress.
This will help students promote diversity through the
responsibilities of free speech and
community engagement.
Regarding the Communication Studies article that studied the
effectiveness of message
medium and message framing in persuading students to

complete an online active shooter
training video, and how completion of the training video can
positively influence students’
knowledge, self-efficacy and salience surrounding campus
safety, I propose a solution for both
students and administrators. Administrators can use similar
communication research techniques
to determine which communication technology would be most
effective in reaching their
students, and which types of message frame will be most
persuasive to their students. And, by
engaging in online trainings and incorporating digital
communications methods, students can use
technology to reduce uncertainties regarding school safety. This
will be a way to incorporate
technology with the in-class curriculum proposals previously
mentioned.
And finally, regarding the Communication Monographs article
analyzing the 911
recording of a school faculty member who used compassionate
communication techniques to
prevent a would-be school shooting, this proposal could be the
most impactful in reducing

uncertainties. I propose implementing school curriculum that
focuses on techniques for
communicating compassion. I believe this will be the most
valuable communication studies
curriculum that will help students reduce uncertainties in their
interpersonal peer relationships.
By studying and practicing techniques to communicate passion
to peers, students can reduce
uncertainties by incorporating expressions of compassion in
their peer relationships. By
communicating compassion, students can become more familiar
with students they perceive as
different from themselves. This will help reduce uncertainties
for all students, making students
feel familiar and safe with their peers, and potentially prevent
at-risk students from utilizing
violence as an unnecessary means of dealing with uncertainty
related stress. This will help to
promote both democracy and diversity to student communities,
and in effect, influence more
democracy and diversity to their greater communities.
What May Come
By incorporating communication studies in high school

curriculum that are geared towards
reducing uncertainties, students will be able to effectively
engage in interpersonal
communication with their peers, reduce the stresses related to
uncertainties, and promote
democracy, diversity, and utilization of technology. I realize
that incorporating these proposals in
all schools across America would be a significantly uphill
battle. With budget cuts within public
schools and a lack of funding from the government, it may be
reasonably impossible to make this
happen with the current Trump administration. But with the
current political climate – the
political and racial division in this country – the need for
reducing uncertainties among our
student population is crucial for encouraging a democratic and
equitable future. For now, to
incorporate these proposals, we must rely on the innovation and
resourcefulness of dedicated
parents and teachers to incorporate these proposals. The best
way to promote these proposals, is
to promote this research project to parents and educators. By
utilizing digital communications

and promotional efforts to reach these parents and teachers, we
would be using technology to
promote a diverse and democratic world.
What’s Next?
I chose to start with gun control as a starting point for my
research as gun violence is far too
common in America. In addition to school gun violence, I was
also interested in police brutality
hate crime gun violence. Due to the broadness of the gun
control issue in this country, I chose to
focus on K-12 students as they are often politically voiceless,
and they have the potential to bring
diversity and democracy to the future of our country. By
utilizing the Uncertainty Reduction
Theory to my research approach, I discovered that reducing
uncertainties in schools will help
prevent school shootings and will produce more effective and
compassionate communicators in
this world. Moving forward, I would like to shift my focus away
from gun control specifically
and more towards mental health and communication skills of
youths. I would like to explore the
effects of bullying and ways to prevent it. Though gun control

is an important issue, I believe the
source of them are often a due to untreated mental health issues
and their relation to
communication. Next, I would like to explore how
communication theories can improve mental
health issues through communication studies.
References
Department of Communication Studies. (n.d.). San Jose State
University. Retrieved November
26, 2018, from http://www.sjsu.edu/comm/about/
Eckstein, J., & Partlow Lefevre, S. T. (2017). Since sandy hook:
Strategic maneuvering in the
gun control debate. Western Journal of Communication, 81(2),
225-242.
doi:10.1080/10570314.2016.1244703
Fitch, F. E. (2008). Freedom of speech vs. student safety: A
case study on teaching
communication in the post-virginia-tech-world. Kentucky
Journal of Communication,

27(1), 67-74. Retrieved from
http://libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.c
om/login.aspx?direct=true
&db=ufh&AN=98060919&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Ford, J. L., & Frei, S. S. (2016). Training for the unthinkable:
Examining message characteristics
on motivations to engage in an active-shooter response video.
Communication Studies,
67(4), 438-454. doi:10.1080/10510974.2016.1196381
Tracy, S. J., & Huffman, T. P. (2017). Compassion in the face
of terror: A case study of
recognizing suffering, co-creating hope, and developing trust in
a would-be school
shooting. Communication Monographs, 84(1), 30-53.
doi:10.1080/03637751.2016.1218642
West, R. L., & Turner, L. H. (2018). Introducing
communication theory: Analysis and
Application (Sixth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Education.
Nina Malayeri

Professor Bettina
COMM 101 C
November 25,2018
Equality For Women In The Workforce
Introduction:
Imagine putting in years of effort and hard work with going to
class, taking tests,
working, and graduating then being held to a higher standard as
someone else in your
workplace. This is a feeling that a majority of women all around
the United States feel
after graduating college, gaining experience, and working hard
all to be considered less
qualified than a man. In the United States and many other
places all over the world for
years before carrying into our current generation women have
been seen as less
favored and a minority when being compared to men. In the
workplace, and often other
aspects of the world women continue to have to prove
themselves in order to be taken
seriously, and treated equally in the workplace. Although
women sometimes even have

more experience, and more education in certain fields men still
end up having a voice,
being dominant, and getting over compensated when it comes to
salary, promotions,
and the hiring process. I find that this issue relates to our
communication studies
cornerstones of democracy, and diversity. Democracy is defined
as on the SJSU
website as “ affirms the balance of individual freedom and
socio-political consensus
shaped through dialogue, argument, and persuasion between
individuals and groups.”
(SJSU Department of Communication Studies). This problem
intertwines with the
democracy cornerstone, because the topic of unequal treatment
of women in the
workplace needs to be revised by diversity, women need a
democracy, they need their
individual freedom, and this should shape others through
dialogue, ,argument and
persuasion. It also ties into diversity which is defined by our
department as “Diversity

explores the variety and complexity of communication efforts to
shape beliefs, values,
and perceptions in different communities and cultures.” (SJSU
Department of
Communication Studies). We need to use this cornerstone to
help shape others beliefs
values, and perceptions on the issue, and help bring a positive
outcome for women by
bringing awareness of this issue to other individuals. When it
comes to the clear
discrepancies in women's wages and treatment in the workplace,
Noelle Neumann's
Spiral of Silence Theory becomes relevant because it helps
support the idea of women
being seen as a minority with little say in the workplace while
men are seen as a
majority having full entitlement and seniority, and it helps
others better understand how
this is a communication issue that can only be fixed if it is
addressed and acknowledged
by all of us in the workplace.
Research Question:
One question that tends to be overlooked by many in our

generation is How is
the unequal treatment of women in the workforce an issue? And,
how can Noelle
Neumann's Spiral Of Silence Theory help others better
understand why women often
feel their views are considered minority.
Theory: “Spiral Of Silence Theory”
“ A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to
examine the beliefs of
others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to
conform to what they
perceive to be the majority view.” (West & Turner 2018). This
further shows how this
theory is relevant to my research because women in the
workplace often view
themselves as having a minority view with little recognition in
them voicing their opinions
since men are always considered to have the majority view, a
majority of the time
leaving women without the confidence to speak up on the
inequality because they fear

the reality, which is men being favored. Although the spiral of
silence theory was
originally studied to evaluate media and those seen as having a
minority / majority
opinion, this theory can always be observed from a different
view point besides media
and public opinion. There is not only majority and minority
views and opinions when it
comes to the media and cultures, there are also these views
when we look at it in terms
of the workplace. For example, many fields have been labeled
as dominant like
engineering, and if a women were to apply although she has the
qualifications like any
other person would she knows that if she is going in an
interview up against a male
competitor for the position she will feel less confident because
she will automatically be
looked at as less fit for the job then the male applying. “ Silence
theory suggests that
people who believe that they hold a minority viewpoint on a
public issue will remain in
the background where their communication will be restrained;
those who believe that

they hold a majority viewpoint will be more encouraged to
speak. Those in in the
minority will be less assertive in communicating their opinions,
thereby leading to a
downward spiral of communicating their opinions, thereby
leading to a downward spiral
of communication” (West & Turner 2018). This can be used to
help understand why
women in the workforce are often hesitant and do not speak up
on receiving unfair
treatment even if they are aware of the unfair treatment.
Literature Review:
While doing my research I came across many beneficial articles
that provided a
substantial amount of statistics to further validate that women
are treated unequally in
our current and past generation in terms of the workplace. In the
first article I read “
Salaries 18% Below Average; Females Earn Less Than Males”,
I found it to be one that
provided many strengths rather than limitations because in the
article they pinpointed

salary differences based on gender differences. This article was
a survey for the
Association of Schools of Journalism and Mass Communication
that focused on the
wage gaps between men and women in the field of mass
communication, and the
gender differences that come along with it. The first thing that
stood out to me in this
article was the clear salary difference between men and females
which was nearly a
five thousand dollar difference. “ Table 2 reports that the
average salary for male faculty
was $31,860 while the average for females 26,516” ( Stuart,E,
Dickey,E 1986). Not only
did the survey show that the salary for women was already
lower than men's, but in
addition to that the study also proved that women are less likely
to get an increase in
their salary when compared to men. “ The study also showed
that the average female
salary has increased less in the last 2 years that has the average
male salary” (Stuart,E,
Dickey,E 1986). This article proved out the obvious that many
others fail to see without

the statistics behind them, women's salaries are already at a
lower rate than mens, not
only are they being started off with a lower pay to begin with,
but they are not given
recognition the way men are to have an increase in their salary.
My second source, Gender Discrepancies in a Gendered
Profession: A
Developing Theory For Public Relations, which was written by
Linda Aldoory, and
Elizabeth Toth. I think this is my strongest source not only
because my sources are
educated and credible, but because I feel that this article points
out how women's
treatment is unequal in the communication field, and how this is
in fact a communication
problem within our field. Toth and Aldoory are both apart of the
department of
communications Aldoory from University of Maryland, and
Toth from Syracuse
University. The article explains gender discrepancies in
gendered professions, and they

further point out how even though Public Relations is a field
made up primarily of
women, men are still favored and given more benefits and
advantages when it comes to
benefits, salary, and promotions. “ Although the PR professions
is almost 70% women
today, men are often favored for hiring, higher salaries, and
promotion to management
positions” (Aldoory,L, Toth,E 2002). In addition to that, there
is even a larger gap in the
salary when it comes to the pay of women that are in Public
Relations, yet again further
proving that men are given more opportunities and recognition
then women. “ In 1999,
Impulse Research for PR Week reported that in public relations,
women earned 38%
less than men. The average salary for men was $81,920,
whereas the average salary
for women was $59,026” (Leyland, 2000). It is sad to say that
even in a field where
women are primarily the ones doing the jobs, men are still give
the higher advantage.
Disregarding the fact that women make up 70% of the Public

Relations field now a days
they are still given less opportunity to move up, or improve in
terms of positions and
salaries.
In a Journal Article, Unequal Pay: The Role of Gender, which
was written by
Mohamed G. Alkadry and Leslie E. Tower they touched base
further on how their are
not only discrepancies in pay, but how there is agency
segregation when it comes to
jobs for women. It is disappointing to see that the fields that are
labeled as female
dominant occupations are likely to pay lower wages, while
occupations that are male
dominated are more likely to have higher wages. In this article
the term “ Glass ceiling “
was also referred to quite frequently when they were talking
about position and agency
segregation. Agency segregation was one strength that I think
further helped argue my
argument, because imagine being designated jobs that are
“feminine” only to be paid
less, then on top of it have a man come in to a field that are

supposed to be female
dominant and still get handed more than you. Women are
“gender -typed” and often
designated with more “female positions. ““ The gender typing
of women not only affects
the types of occupations they pursue but also the types of
agencies they work for. The
image of “caring” women results in women working in agencies
that provides services
such as education and social services “ (Alkadry, M., & Leslie
E. Tower. (2006). Women
are limited and gender typed, because they are women they are
expected to work in
positions that are more of a caring image, while still getting
paid less even though they
are being limited and restricted in terms of job types that are
likely to hire them. Not only
are they getting paid less for jobs that are considered
“Redistributive agencies rather
than distributive agencies. “ Newman (1994) has argued that
women are more likely to
be employed in redistribute agencies than in regulatory or
distributive agencies.

According to Lowi, redistributive agencies are those concerned
with health, welfare, or
education, and primarily concern themselves with the
reallocation of money and
provision of services to certain segments of society. “ (Alkadry,
M., & Leslie E. Tower.
(2006) Women are limited to “feminine positions” and even
being in positions that are
seen as female dominant, men are still able to come in, take
their job maybe even at a
higher position and get paid more.
Recommendation:
After going through and conducting my research, it only helped
me further
expand on my theory. I chose the Spiral of Silence Theory not
because of the focus on
media or public opinion, because I believe there is a Spiral of
Silence in the
communication field as well. Women are not only seen as
having a minority view in the
workplace because males usually take over dominance, but also
because of the evident
mistreatment of women in the workplace with constant

restrictions and obstacles they
face. This theory helped me see this issue in a different light
because of the fact that
women are indeed isolated and fear speaking up when it comes
to these
circumstances. Clearly men are favored, offered better
positions, and offered better pay.
With women being aware of that, and having fought in previous
generations for equal
pay they see themselves as a minority because they fear that
their voice will not be
heard, therefore they do not speak up about this issue. It is
extremely unfortunate that
even after the equal pay act of 1963 women are still not viewed
in the same light that
men are. They are constantly set up for failure, and quite
honestly this is degrading to
women that have continued to have to fight for them rights and
equality. To approach
the problem of unequal treatment of women in all categories of
the workforce it would
be helpful if others were able to understand the Spiral of
Silence theory and understand

how this makes women in the work force a minority, and use
that as a way to defend
and better understand women. If we are able to understand this
issue then each of us in
the workplace should be able to put our foot down and stand for
it. The more awareness
that is brought to this issue, the more others will find the need
to correct it. If we shut
down as women ,and do not stand up for ourselves we will only
set up our future
generations for failure. If women are not treated equally, and
they are segregated and
limited to opportunities in succeeding, clearly their opinion is
considered to be a minority
view. If we as a whole society are able to see this problem, and
apply Spiral of Silence
theory in a positive way to uplift and give women a voice,
rather than ignoring their voice
then there may be changes in the way women are treated in the
workforce. In order to
fix a problem you have to realize its a problem first, then find
the solution after.
Reflection:

If other individuals are able to approach the issue of women not
being heard and
treated equally in the workforce, then some change may be
possible. It is important to
first recognize a problem before correcting it as I previously
said. Many people fail to
recognize the discrepancies between male and females, and the
treatment of males
and females in the workforce. It is not always by choice that
they choose to not see this
as an issue, but many people are unaware or have not
experienced the inequality that
takes place. This often happens with women in other
circumstances as well ,they fear
speaking up because they worry that because they are women
they will not be heard so
what is the point. We witnessed this in our recent “ Me too “
movement. If we come
together one at a time it gives others the courage to be
passionate and stand for what
they believe in. Spiral of Silence theory is a great way for
people to view this issue,
because looking at the theory outside of the media and public

opinion it is a valuable
theory that stresses the importance of being able to have a voice
and say, when people
fear that their opinion or say will not be valued, they refrain
from saying anything at all,
and if women hold off on speaking their opinion and standing
up for themselves in the
workforce we may have an neverending future of unequal
treatment and pay for the
generations to come.
From the beginning of my research project I knew immediately
that this is one I
wanted to focus on. Many may call me a “feminist” which I am
not denying, and I am
okay with that. I chose this issue to research and further look
into because I am
personally passionate about women being treated equally in all
aspects. I feel that often
there are double standards, and higher expectations that are held
for women in all
aspects of life. Going forward I want to take this research and
expand it in both my
professional and personal life. In terms of professional life
when I graduate SJSU I plan

on working in a Human Resources field. With that being said, I
want to make sure that I
am able to offer women the equal rights and wages that they
deserve. I personally have
experienced an am currently apart of this, and I personally have
experienced these
discrepancies because I have been paid less than a male that is
in my position and
happens to have a significant amount of less experience than
me. I hope that going
forward once I am in a position of higher power I am able to
give women the play that
they deserve, and correct any differences that I may witness as
being apart of a
corporate field. I think that it is important to be passionate
about a topic, and if you are
passionate about it you are more likely to have more drive. In
terms of my personal life I
hope to bring awareness to this issue while being an advocate
for women. The issue is
a lot more deep rooted than just salaries, promotions, and the
hiring process. Women

are constantly held to different expectations than men, and
many times their voice is not
heard. We witness this in everyday situations, the work place,
school, personal
relationships. Men have always been favored and seen as
dominant with more say, and
I think that with our current generation and the issues that have
come up in terms of
women empowerment it is important to bring light to these
issues.
Conclusion:
It is visible through statistics, personal experiences, and case
studies that women
have always had to put up a fight for their pay, and fair
treatment when it has come to
men dating back hundreds of years. women have experienced
years of pay
discrimination, and agency segregation, as well as sexism when
it comes to the
workforce. This is an issue that many people think have faded
away with our
generations changing, and all of the rights that have been made
to equally protect

women and their equal pay. However, there are still large gaps
when it comes to
women's salaries, promotions, hiring process, and major
selection. It is evident that men
are paid more, move up faster in the workplace, and ultimately
are favored at a higher
desire then women. Even in fields where women make up a
majority of the employees
for example (PR, HR) , men still somehow are given more
opportunities. This is an
issue that needs to be addressed and seen in a different light, by
those who refuse to
stand up for it, and refuse to even see it as a issue.

References
Aldoory, L., & Toth, E. (2002). Gender Discrepancies in a
Gendered Profession:
A Developing Theory for Public Relations. Journal of Public
Relations Research, 14(2),
103–126. Retrieved from
om/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=ufh&AN=6264009&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Alkadry, M., & Leslie E. Tower. (2006). Unequal Pay: The Role
of Gender. Public
Administration Review, 66(6), 888-898. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/stable/4096605
Department of Communication Studies. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.sjsu.edu/comm/about/
Stuart, E., & Dickey, E. B. (1986). Salaries 18% below average-
females earn

less than males. Journalism Educator, 41(3), 23–25. Retrieved
from
om/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=ufh&AN=14530721&site=ehost-live&scope=site
om/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=6264009&site=ehost-
live&scope=site
live&scope=site
http://www.jstor.org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/stable/4096605
http://www.sjsu.edu/comm/about/
live&scope=site
live&scope=site
Running head:The Influence of Violent News in the United

States 1
Communication Research Project Assignment
Vanessa L. Cruz
San Jose State University
The Influence of Violent News in the United States
2
Abstract
News content has greatly influenced public opinion, popular
culture, and the representation of
our society. Today, more than ever, with the help of current
technology and instant news at our
fingertips, society can easily become influenced by these
messages received. In particular, the
rise of news content focused on gun violence is a recurring
news story today that holds many
effects to the viewing audience. Most people get their
information about violent crime from the
news; however, the media is distorting the reality of mass
shootings by the way the stories are

presented to the public. Gun violence in news media is an issue
that I would like to explore
because I am concerned that this topic and how it is presented
in the news is influencing violent
behaviors within our society. I plan to focus on gun violence in
television news and how it has
influenced a rise of violent behaviors in more recent years. This
phenomenon of reporting on
mass shootings has become a global issue within the United
States.Whether we are mindful of it
or not, viewing gun violence through news media has affected
us all in some way by creating
more aggressive behaviors and implying that incidents like this
are our social reality. The media
is responsible for creating important content on issues that
society relies on in order to
understand their social responsibilities to our community. If the
media fails to report all aspects
of a story, people will ultimately be effected.
To help me explore the ways in which the media has placed a
heavy concentration on violent
content in news media, I hope to explore the use of Framework
and how the Cultivation Theory

is applied through media outlets. I will try to make sense of the
media’s agenda and the messages
they are trying to establish with increasing violent news content
and continuous focus on the
shooters. I also hope to explore the process of how we got to the
point in the United States,
where violent news content is a form of normalcy. By taking a
look at these issues through the
3
lens of The Cultivation Theory, I hope to understand the effects
of viewing this violent content
and how it has shaped the society we are currently living in.
Violent acts in news content has
seemed to become a love affair for viewers in the United States,
and the media is partially
responsible for this fad. I will break down the process of how
the media became a powerful and
influential means of violent consumption.
Introduction
What is Violence
There are many interpretations of what defines violence.

Although violence is typically known to
be associated with physical actions, Millwood(2007) simply
advocates that there is not enough
studies conducted on how people come to define something as
violent. Therefore it is
challenging to grasp a clear definition of what violence is since
everyone has their own version
of what it entails. In Millwood’s own group study conducted of
both adults and children, she
attempts to understand what is seen as screen violence in the
viewers own perspectives. Results
of her group study varied based on the viewers own feelings of
anxiety and aggression. Millard
suggests that the viewers own feelings of anxiety and
aggression stem from continuously
viewing most of their real life violence through violence
perceived in the media. Although not all
violent content received is accurate of most viewers daily
realities, the effects of viewing
violence in the news inflicts aggression and antisocial
behaviors. Viewers will be both
subconsciously and consciously exposed to violent content
through the media whether society
has a definite definition of what it entails or not.

News Media
News media is a form of mass media that creates and delivers
news content through print,
broadcasted news, and the internet. The media has been
somewhat consistent in how it has been
4
covering mass shootings in the United States over the last
several years. Once an unfortunate
event occurs all other news drops and the media will go around
the clock with the story,
primarily focusing on the shooter. One of the first things we
typically find out is a background
history of the shooter. News outlets will bombard us with the
shooters full name, his upbringing
and if there were any previous signs of distress. Journalist,
Robin Lloyd(2018) states that many
mass shooters have admitted they are seeking fame and have
attempted to maximize their
number of fatalities to achieve that fame. By providing a focus
of who the perpetrator is, the
media is reinforcing bad behavior, not to mention motivating

copycat offenders who see this as
another way to achieve the attention they are seeking. Lloyd
also states that there are several
news anchors who refuse to state these offenders full name
while reporting on the issue. My
concern is if news reporters feel strongly about not focusing on
the shooter or naming them, then
why do media gatekeepers feel it is necessary to provide
viewers details of the shooters life when
they have taken the lives of many innocent ones? Why is it
constantly the first thing that is
reported in news media after a mass shooting? Is it necessary to
know who these perpetrators
are? Focusing on who the shooter is, rather than the crime that
was committed or the victims of
those crimes is distorting the reality of mass shootings.
Framework & Cultivation Theory
In an attempt to understand why the media tends to focus
coverage on the offender and less on
the victims, I needed to understand how the media frames their
content. Based on the research of
(McCombs, M. and Shaw,D., 2017), media framing is referred
to the way the media depicts

certain perspectives from which a story is told. Media
gatekeepers use framing as a way to focus
attention on certain events and can be used as a way of telling
society what to think about.
Viewers are influenced by the media on the basis of what is
being told to them about their social
5
reality. Although the news is not an exact representation of
most realities, it presents various
views of a small reality through a selective process.
Cultivation Theory implies the same shaping of our society but
solely focuses on television
effects. It is important to understand the effects of viewing
violent content and how it has shaped
the society we are currently living in. Cultivation theorists
(Gerbner et al., 2017) suggest that
television can have long-term effects that are indirect but can be
significant. According to
Gerbner, some of these effects can lead to more aggressive
behaviors which I will discuss in
further details to come. Gebner also suggest that massive
television exposure by viewers subtly

shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and for
our culture as a whole. It is
important that members of society become aware of media
framing and the understanding of
cultivation theory, along with how they are applied in news, so
that we can all become critical
viewers of it’s content and to shape our own reality.
Literature Review
Effects of Violent Content
Watching news media creates heavy influence on the viewers of
what their everyday world is
like. The media is responsible for shaping the viewers
conceptions of social reality and
ultimately for our culture as well. According to (Grizzard et al.,
2017) research has presented the
effects of viewing graphically violent content in news media
can lead to aggression and
antisocial outcomes. In Grizzard’s experimental study in which
he examined news footage from
major American broadcast networks, he focused on violent
frames used in news media.
Broadcast networks used media frames and still images of
violent acts which froze the image but

continued to use sound bites of what took place at the crime.
The results from viewing violent
images in the news creates a visual stimuli which Grizzard
suggest can have a negative effect
6
and consequences toward the perpetrator. Ultimately the study
suggest that viewing graphic
violence in news media can lead to indirect build up of
aggression and anxiety in viewers over
time.
Scholar Nicole Martins(2018) conducted an experimental test,
in which the goal was to test the
link between media violence exposure and its effects. Results
showed that viewing violent media
news stories lead to aggressive behavior immediately after
exposure. In the long-run, the study
suggests that exposure to violent news in childhood is
associated with aggression in adulthood.
The media has been fascinated with focus on violent news
coverage in the last several years
feeding society their daily dose of aggression. However,

according to Bartsch (2016), these
messages our society receives does not reflect their daily
realities. As a result of the media’s
heavy concentration on violent content, our society has become
fascinated with aggressive
behaviors and fantasies leaving the viewers wanting more. In an
interview with 39 participants
from different backgrounds regarding how viewers use and
make sense of violent content, many
interviewees expressed that they were left deeply disturbed and
overwhelmed after viewing
violent content. Some interviewees also discussed and reflected
their own violent impulses and
thoughts while viewing violent news content. Although the
violent content was referred to as
traumatizing, interviewers also explained that these experiences
viewed in the news were also a
form of extreme physiological arousal.
As a result of heavy violent news content in more recent years,
society has become numb and
desensitized to these aggressive behaviors. The public has
become fascinated with this type of
violence and evil characters since the media has focused on
them. Bartsch’s findings suggest that

viewers are learning terror from violent media content which is
not an exact representation of
7
their everyday lives. It is important that society become critical
of the news content in order to
recognize and live our own practical realities.
Framework in News Media
The media has become a powerful source in constructing our
culture by using particular news
angles. The pattern of media framing immediately following a
mass shooting incident suggest
that the media focuses on the shooter rather than the victims,
survivors, or the community
affected. Ruth DeFoster(2017) mentions that news frames tend
to highlight “problem
definitions” such as mental health, gun control, drug use, and
lack of school security as the
reasoning for these crimes. Media framing is used as a way to
promote a particular problem,
while outlining another problem. We see this happen quite often
in news coverage of mass

shootings where the media focuses on the personal problems of
the shooter. News media places
blame on everything, but rarely the shooter themselves.
The more fatalities, use of multiple weapons, age of perpetrator,
and location are all factors in
how the media considers coverage of mass shootings. Robin
Lloyd(2018) points out that in a
recent study of mass media coverage in printed news media, 72
percent of mass shooting during
a 50 year period were covered by The Times. During this span
of time the mass shooting at
Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida received
the most coverage not because it
had the most casualties, but mainly because it involved a
younger shooter and took place at a
school where there are many innocent bystanders. Highlighting
these stories of casualties in such
rural areas of a community can create fear, anxiety and can
influence the audience to think of
their society as a fearful place.
If media gatekeepers continue to chose to present narrow
perspectives and sensational coverage
of the shooter, we could provoke copycats because we keep

encouraging them. As DeFoster
8
presents, copycat incidents usually occur within two weeks of a
highlighted mass shooting
incident covered in the news. Everytime an incident occurs, the
shooter then becomes the topic
of the week. The media focuses on the shooter in search of
understanding by taking a closer look
about them personally rather than covering the other issues at
hand. Several news angles could
be taken into consideration and covered, such as gun control,
school safety, the victims and the
survivors instead of encouraging other conclusions. Society
needs to hear all perspectives on
news coverage relating to these tragic news stories.
Cultivation Theory in News Media
Cultivation Theory was developed by George Gerbner in which
he examined the long-term
effects of Television. With the popularity of online media and
having access to news through
electronic devices, the theory still applies both to online and

television media. In a study
conducted by Hey Yeung Lau(2015) using survey questionnaires
to 258 undergraduate students
in an attempt to understand the effects of television and online
media. The results indicated that
viewing of the two was an important factor in the interviewees
concept of social reality, in
addition to their own behavioral intentions. Lau’s study
introduces the phrase, “Mean World
Syndrome,”which suggest an idea that the world is worse than it
actually is. Viewers who fall
under this phrase are viewed as being exposed to more violent
content through heavy viewership.
Lastly, Lau’s study found that viewers with more vivid
memories of the violent content, the
more likely they were disconnected with the real world.
Conclusion
According to Muschert(2006), public opinion rarely remains
focused on one issue for too long.
Issues within the media usually gain public attention, then fade
away until the next topic of
interest captures the public's attention. With new technologies
and instant news at our fingertips,

9
our societies attention spans are getting shorter and shorter.
Viewers are becoming more
distracted by what the media thinks we need to know, in
addition to news outlets competing
more than ever for their viewers attention. In the process of
trying to gain viewers, media
gatekeepers seem to focus on the negative issues at hand. By
framing mass shootings a societal
problem and placing blame on mental health, lack of school
security or gun control we are
dismissing the shooter as the suspect and only encouraging it to
happen again.
If the media is going to continue covering news stories on mass
shootings, we need to do so with
caution and also hear stories from all angles. It is the public's
right to have access to this
coverage, but maybe we can have more ethical ways of
reporting on it. One recent change
occurred during the coverage of the Parkland shooting where
the news coverage focused more on
the victims and less on the offender. Social groups, such as

“Don’t Name Them” and “No
Notoriety” have begun lobbying to not name these shooters.
Refusing to name the shooters in
news media may help deny the attention these perpetrators are
seeking and deter from future
attacks.
Originally mass shootings appeared in the news media as an
issue of concern to the communities
in which they occured. Today, the media is distorting these
incidents by framing the perpetrators,
by humanizing them and in the process offending the survivors.
Although unethical, it is not
clear why the media continues to focus on coverage of the
shooters. America has become
fascinated with violence and this may be the media’s way of
gaining their audiences attention.
We have gone astray from covering these events as a community
concern to glorified coverage
of the shooter. News reportage has shown no empathy for the
victim. We rarely hear their names
and that is due to America’s fascination of evil perpetrators
involved in addition to instant news
at our fingertips. Coverage of mass shooting will be the
highlighted story of the news round the

10
clock and can be found highlighting the shooter on multiple
channels throughout the day. Often,
members of society remembers names of murders and not the
victims since we do not
acknowledge them in news media. As a viewers we need to be
mindful of how stories are
gathered and told through the lens of the media in order to have
a clear and critical view of the
issue at hand.
References
Bartsch, A., Mares, M., Scherr, S., Klob, A., Keppeler, J., &
Posthumus, L. (2016). More Than
Shoot-Em-Up and Torture Porn: Reflective Appropriation and

Meaning-Making of
Violent Content. Journal of Communication, 66(5), 741-765.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12248
DeFoster, R., & Swalve, N. (2018). Guns, Culture or Mental
Health? Framing Mass Shootings as
a Public Health Crisis. Health Communication, 33(10), 1211-
1222.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1350907
11
Grizzard, M., Huang, J., Weiss, J. K., Novotny, E. R.,
Fitzgerald, K. S., Ahn, C.,Chu, H. (2017).
Graphic Violence as Moral Motivator: The Effects of
Graphically Violent Content in
News. Mass Communication & Society, 20(6), 763-783.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1339804
Lau, H.Y.(2015). Cultivation Effects of Television Broadcasting
and Online Media. Department
of Journalism and Communication. 2(3),13-16.

Lloyd, R. (2018). Media Coverage of Mass Shootings: Is it Part
of the Problem?
https://undark.org/2018/03/08/media-coverage-of-mass-
shootings-misses-the-mark-for-d
ecades.com
Martins, N., Weaver, A. J., & Lynch, T. (2018). What the Public
“Knows” About Media Effects
Research: The Influence of News Frames on Perceived
Credibility and Belief Change.
Journal of Communication, 68(1), 98-119.
https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqx004
Milwood, A.(2007). The Meaning and Definition of Violence.
International Journal of Media
and Cultural Politics, 3(3), 289-305.
Muschert, G.W., & Carr, D. (2006). Media Salience and Frame
Changing across Events:
Coverage of Nine School Shootings, 1997-2001. Journal
& Mass Communication
Quarterly, 83(4), 747-766.
om/login.aspx?direct=true

12
Nilofar Hussain
COMM-101
Professor Bettina
March 26th, 2019
Intro:
Communication problems due to language barriers are difficult
to deal with when interacting with people. I chose this because I
faced problems as being bilingual. Speaking a different
language, I had to overcome some language barriers in the
United States. This inspired me to look at the various theories
presented for intercultural communication. West and Turner
mention the communication accommodation theory which will
help support individuals with language barriers. This theory
explains how people will try to accommodate or adjust to the
other person’s way of communication. This can be done in two
ways: convergence and divergence. When there is a strong
liking from a group, convergence will occur and groups that
have a strong cultural pride will use divergence to highlight
their identity.

1. Yue QIN, & BLACHFORD, D. R. (2017). A Smooth Journey
to Integration? A Case Study of Integration of English
Proficient Chinese Immigrants in Canada. Intercultural
Communication Studies, 26(1), 24–41. Retrieved from
http://libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=125835295&site=eho
st-live&scope=site
Qin and Blachford made observations on how Chinese English-
proficient immigrants performed in a professional and social
environment. In addition, they looked at how the immigrants
integrated the process in Canada. This connected to Berry’s
discussion on acculturation in two dimensions of keeping their
home culture and obtaining the new culture. The data was
collected on two groups of 10 English proficient Chinese
immigrants through interviews. The data revealed several
factors such as although being proficient in English gives them
the ability to live a different life, it still takes them adjustments
to like up to the new cultural environment. Moreover, language
is not a determining factor for integration into a society, rather
economic and home culture plays a strong role in integration.
This will help in the background information for my topic
connecting to convergence and divergence.
2.
Giles, H., & Ogay, T. (2007). Communication accommodation
theory. Explaining communication: Contemporary theories and
exemplars, 293-310.
http://doc.rero.ch/record/306556/files/2007_gilesogay_cat.pdf
The communication accommodation theory gives a variety of
framework that supports the idea of individuals to create,
maintain, or decrease the social interactions. There are different
ways given by this theory to accommodate the communication,
the motivations and what consequences might be faced. This
article goes in depth on communication in various places, ages,

and the media. This article gives the principles of CAT
(Communication accommodation theory) as well as language
barriers associated with the intergroup model and being able to
influence the attitudes of the opposite group members.
3.
Ayoko, O. B., Härtel, C. E., & Callan, V. J. (2002). Resolving
the puzzle of productive and destructive conflict in culturally
heterogeneous workgroups: A communication accommodation
theory approach. International journal of conflict management,
13(2), 165-195.
https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/eb022873?jour
nalCode=ijcma
This study explored the behaviors of communication in a
culturally diverse group as an approach to communication
accommodation theory. The study hypothesized that the type of
conflict in a culturally diverse group is affected by
communication behaviors during the interaction of
communication. The data was analyzed from participant
observations, some self reports, public observations, and self
report questionnaires. This study revealed that the more diverse
groups used discourse management strategies, the more they
experienced conflict. In addition, speech interruptions were a
leading cause to conflict. Groups that were involved in
reversing the breakdown in communication were better able to
manage their problems. This article will give support to the
usage of CAT.
4.
Rogerson-Revell, P. (2010). “Can You Spell That for Us
Nonnative Speakers?” Journal of Business Communication,

47(4), 432–454. https://doi-
org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/10.1177/0021943610377304
This article explored the role of speech accommodation from
native and nonnative speakers of English in a variety of
international business meetings. This study utilized several
ways to collect data such as documentary style, participant
interactions, questionnaires, and observations. It revealed how
participants needed to adjust (accommodate) language for others
in order to reach an understanding. They used some convergent
strategies to accommodate for the linguistic differences. This
describes for CAT can be useful in both native and nonnative
English speakers. This article will further support CAT and how
individuals will accommodate or adjust themselves.

Daniel Quintana November 26, 2018 COMM 101C Comm.docx

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