Slide © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights r.docx

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© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
A Topical Approach to
Life-Span Development 6e
John W. Santrock
Chapter Eleven:
The Self, Identity, and Personality
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The SelfSelf-understandingSelf: All characteristics of a
personSelf-understanding, self-esteem, self-conceptIdentity:
Who a person is, representing a synthesis of self-
understandingPersonality: Individuals’ enduring personal
characteristics
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The SelfSelf-understandingCognitive representation of the self,

substance of self conceptionsInfancy:Visual self-recognition
tests infantsEmerges gradually up to age 2; first in mirrorBy age
3: forms of self-awareness include "mine, me big, me do it"
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Figure 11.1 - Self-Recognition in Infancy
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The SelfSelf-understanding and early childhoodMore
psychologically aware of self and othersSelf-recognition
includes visual and verbalFive main characteristics of self-
understandingConfusion of self, mind, and bodySelf described
in size, shape, color, etc.
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The SelfSelf-understanding in childhoodFive main

characteristics of self-understandingConcrete descriptions: “I
live in a big house”Physical descriptions: “I’m not tall like
her”Active descriptions: "I can play games”Unrealistic positive
overestimations: “I know my ABCs” when s/he doesn’t know
themOccurs in older children as social comparison
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The SelfSelf-understandingEarly childhood and understanding
othersBy age 4: realize others make untrue statements to get
something or avoid troubleIndividual differences in social
understanding; some linked to caregivers’ conversationsMore
aware of others’ feelings, desires
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The SelfSelf-understandingMiddle and Late ChildhoodIncreased
awareness of social standingSelf-understanding becomes more
complexUnderstanding othersRealize others have access to more
informationAssume others understand them, too.
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The SelfSelf-understandingPerspective-taking: Ability to
assume another’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts
and feelingsImportant in children developing prosocial and
antisocial attitudes and behaviorsAffects peer status and quality
of friendships
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The SelfMiddle and Late Childhood Self-understanding: five
key changesInternal characteristics emphasizedMore referencing
in social descriptionsMore use of social comparisonsDistinguish
between real self and ideal selfRealistic in self-evaluations
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The SelfSelf-understanding in adolescenceAbstract and
idealisticSelf-conscious; preoccupied with selfContradictions
within the self: has multiple roles Fluctuating self over time and
situationsReal and ideal selves: constructed, comparedThoughts
of “possible selves”Self-integration in sense of identity

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The SelfSelf-understanding in adulthoodSelf-
AwarenessAwareness of strengths and weaknessesPossible
SelvesWhat one could or wanted to be, afraid to beLife
ReviewReview, evaluate life’s successes and failuresCan be
intense, quiet; common in old age
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The SelfSelf-esteem and self-conceptSelf-esteem: Self-worth,
self-imageRefers to global self-evaluationSelf-concept:
Domain-specific evaluations of selfDistinct: not really
interchangeable
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The SelfIssues in self-esteemModest correlation with school
performanceLinked to job performance; correlations
varyRelated to perceived physical appearance across life-
spanDepression lowers high self-esteemSelf-esteem in
adolescence appears linked to adjustment and competencies in
adulthood

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The SelfIssues in self-esteemNarcissism: Too much self-
esteemSelf-centered, self-concerned, conceitedLack of
awareness linked to adjustment problemsHappiness strongly
linked to self-esteem
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The SelfDevelopmental changes in self-esteemChildhood and
adolescenceSelf-evaluation accuracy increases across
elementary school years; more realisticMajority of adolescents
have positive self-image cross-culturallyGirls: small decreases
in self-esteem may be related to relationship authenticity
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The SelfDevelopmental changes in self-esteemConcern today:
Unmerited praise as child linked to inflated self-esteem in
college students; difficulty handling competition and
criticismAdulthoodResults vary on self-esteem

decreasingIndividual coping skills affects perceptions of
changes, events; social context matters
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Figure 11.3 - Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan
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The SelfDevelopmental changes in self-esteemAdulthood: Older
adults Emotion-related goals increase Health evaluation based
on peer comparisonsMay help maintain positive self-imageLow
self-esteem linked to being widowed or institutionalized;
experiencing physical decline/impairment; low religious
commitment
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The SelfStrategies for increasing self-esteemIdentify causes of
low self-esteemProvide/seek emotional support, social
approvalDevelop self-confidence and initiativeAchieveDevelop

coping skills
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The SelfSelf-regulationAbility to control one’s behavior
without having to rely on others for helpIncludes self-
generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughtsSelf-regulation
linked to higher achievement and satisfaction over the lifespan
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The SelfSelf-regulation: Infancy and early childhood12 to 18
mons.: Depend on caregivers for reminder signals about
acceptable behaviors2 to 3 yrs: Begin to comply with the
caregiver’s expectations in the absence of monitoringPreschool:
Learn to resist temptation and give themselves instructions that
keep them focused
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The SelfSelf-regulation: Middle/late childhood and

adolescenceCapacity for self-regulation increasesFew studies
done on adolescentsIncreased self-control, introspection, risk-
takingMore independence, advanced cognitive skillsBetter at
delaying gratificationMore social comparison may increase risks
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The SelfSelf-regulation: AdulthoodIncrease in self control in
middle yearsOlder adults have decline in perceived self-
controlAware of age-related lossesDecline of physical and
cognitive skills may be buffered by flexible adaptationSelective
optimization with compensation effective when pursuing
successful outcomes
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The SelfSelf-regulationSelective Optimization with
CompensationSelection: Reduction in
performanceOptimization: Continue practice, use of
technologyCompensation: Concealment; offsetting or
counterbalancing a deficiency

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The SelfSelf-regulation: Personal controlPrimary control
striving Try to change external world for needs and
desiresAttain personal goals, overcome obstaclesSecondary
control strivingTargets one’s inner worlds: motivation,
emotion, and mental representation
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Figure 11.5 - Changes in Primary and Secondary Control
Strategies Across the Life Span
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Identity What is identity?A self-portrait composed of many
piecesVocational/career, political, religiousRelationship,
achievement/intellectualCultural/ethnic, sexual,
physicalPersonality and interests
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Identity Erikson’s viewNeed to understand adolescent
developmentIdentity versus identity confusionAdolescents
examine who they are, what they are about, and where they are
going in lifePsychosocial moratoriumGap between childhood
security and adult autonomy, part of exploration for identity
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Identity Contemporary thoughts on identityLengthy process,
gradual and not crisisBegins as attachment in infancyInvolves
commitment/purpose, making decisionsYears of physical,
cognitive, socioemotional development can be merged into one
pathSome emerge with multiple identitiesConcerns today: many
not resolving identity
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Identity Developmental changesIdentity statuses by
MarciaCrisis: Period for exploring alternative
identitiesCommitment: Personal investment in identityYoung
adolescents primarily in statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or
moratorium

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Figure 11.6 - Marcia’s Identity Statuses
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Identity Developmental changesEarly adolescence to
adulthoodKey changes occur in early adulthoodMost dramatic
change — vocationalIncreased complexity in reasoning,
experiencesIncreased freedom has impactHigher education
linked to positive outcomesIdentity consolidation complete in
middle age
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Identity Family influencesIndividuality: Two dimensionsSelf-
assertion: Ability to have, give opinionsSeparateness:
Communicates individualityConnectedness: Two
dimensionsMutuality: Respect, sensitivity to others’

viewsPermeability: Openness to others’ views
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Identity Ethnic identityEthnic minority groups struggle to blend
into dominant culture and keep cultural identitiesEnduring
aspect of self with sense of membership in ethnic group; related
attitudes and feelingsAffected by sociocultural contextsPositive
ethnic identity linked to:HS achievement, low aggression, good
copingAffected by higher education
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PersonalityDefinition: Enduring personal characteristicsTrait
theories Traits: Ways to describe a person by behaviorsBasic
units/building blocks of personalityFive big factors:
OCEANLed to advancements in assessing personalityMost
believe personality is result of trait-situation interaction
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Figure 11.7 - Big Five Factors of Personality
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PersonalityViews on adult personality developmentStage crisis
view: Erikson, LevinsonLevinson’s seasons of a man’s lifeStage
and transitions occur in life spanTasks/crisis in each stage
shape personalityLevinson’s midlife crisis in 40s: try to cope
with gap between past and futureVaillant’s Grant Study
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Early Adult Transition: 17 to 22Entry life structure for early
adulthood: 22 to 28Age 30 transition: 28 to 33Culminating life
structure for early adulthood: 33 to 40Middle Adult Transition:
ages 40 to 45Entry life structure for middle adulthood: 45 to
50Age 50 transition: 50 to 55Culminating life structure for
middle adulthood: 55 to 60Era of late adulthood: 60 to ?Late
Adult Transition: 60 to 65
Levinson’s Seasons of Life
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PersonalityIndividual variationsIndividuals have different
experiences, ways of adapting, expectations, perceptions of
needs, and giving meaning to one’s lifeStage theories stress
stage crises too muchToo much emphasis on midlife crisisGreat
variation in how individuals experience stages (coping
abilities, emotions)
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Figure 11.9 - Emotional Instability and Age
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PersonalityLife events approachAlternative to stage
approachContemporary life-events approachHow a life event
influences individual’s development depends onThe life
eventIndividual’s adaptation to the life eventLife-stage
contextSociohistorical context
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Figure 11.14 - Life Events Framework
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PersonalityGenerativityErikson’s generativity versus
stagnationSeventh stage; important dimension in middle
ageGenerativity: Taking care of next generationMiddle-aged
adults develop in many waysStagnationSelf-absorption,
develops when one senses s/he has done nothing for next
generation
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Figure 11.12 - Changes in Generativity from the Thirties to the
Fifties
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PersonalityStability and changeMany longitudinal studies have
found evidence for both change and stability in personality in
adulthoodCosta and McCrae’s Baltimore StudyStability of big
five factors in college educatedBerkley Longitudinal
StudiesHelson’s Mills College StudyVaillant’s studies
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PersonalityCumulative Personality ModelWith time and age,
people become more adept at interacting with environment in
ways that promote stabilityOverall, personality is affected
bySocial contextsNew experiencesSociohistorical changes
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Figure 11.13 - Links Between Characteristics at Age 50 and
Health and Happiness at Ages 75-80
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The End
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A Topical Approach to
Life-Span Development 6e
Chapter Ten:
Emotional Development
John W. Santrock
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Exploring EmotionWhat are emotions?Feeling or affect in a
state or interaction characterized byBehavior that reflects
pleasure or displeasureConscious feelings: specific, intense
Physiological arousal
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Exploring EmotionWhat are emotions?Biological roots…but
shaped by culture and relationshipsFacial expressions of basic
emotionsBiological nature; same across culturesWhen, where,
and how to express emotions are not culturally universal
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Exploring EmotionRegulation of emotionA key dimension of
developmentEffectively managing arousal to adapt and reach a
goalInvolves state of alertness or activationStates (e.g. anger)
can be too high for effective functioning
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Exploring EmotionRegulation of emotionExternal sources
regulate in infancy, childhoodShift to internal, self-initiated
regulation with increasing ageBetter at managing
situationsSelects more effective ways of copingWide variations
in children’s abilities; adolescents have difficulty managing
emotions

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Exploring EmotionRegulation of emotionParents’ roles in
helping childrenEmotion-coaching approachMonitor child’s
emotionsNegative emotion is a coaching opportunity Emotion-
dismissing approachDeny, ignore negative emotionsLinked to
poor emotional regulation in child
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Emotional Competence SkillsHas awareness of own emotional
stateDetecting others’ emotionsUsing the vocabulary of
emotional terms in socially and culturally appropriate
termsHaving empathic, sympathetic sensitivity to
othersRecognizing inner emotions do not reflect outer
onesAdaptively coping with negatives; self-regulatory Aware of
emotions’ major impact on relationshipsSeeing oneself as
feeling the way one wants to feel
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Development of EmotionInfancy Primary emotionsPresent in
humans and animalsHumans: appears in first six months of life:
surprise, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgustSelf-conscious

emotionsSelf-awareness; emerges at 18 mos. or earlierEmpathy,
jealousy, and embarrassment
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Development of EmotionEmotional expression and social
relationshipsInfants: Two typesCrying – Most important for
communicationBasic cry: Rhythmic pattern Anger cry:
Variation of basic cryPain cry: Long, sudden initial loud
crySmiling: has powerful impact on caregiversReflexive smile:
Innate originsSocial smile: Response to external stimuli
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Development of EmotionEmotional expression and social
relationshipsFear: First appears about 6 mos.; peaks at 18
mos.Stranger anxiety: Fear and wariness of strangers; intense
between 9 and 12 mos.Affected by social context, stranger’s
characteristicsIndividual variationsSeparation protest — Crying
when caregiver leaves; peaks about 15 months of age
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Figure 10.4 - Separation Protest in Four Cultures
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Development of EmotionEmotional regulation and copingInfants
use self-soothing strategies for copingControversy: how
caregivers should respondBy age 2: language allows defining of
emotionsContexts influence emotional regulation
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Development of EmotionEarly childhoodYoung children
experience many emotionsSelf-conscious emotionsPride, shame,
embarrassment, and guiltFirst appear about age 18
monthsAbility to reflect on emotions increases with age
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Development of EmotionEarly childhoodAges 2 to 4: increased
number of ways and terms to describe emotionsLearn about
causes, consequences of feelingsAges 4 to 5: increased ability
to reflect on emotionsMiddle and late childhoodMarked
improvement in understanding, managing emotions
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Developmental Changes In Emotions During Middle and Late
ChildhoodImproved emotional understandingMarked
improvements in ability to suppress or conceal negative
emotional reactionsUse of self-initiated strategies for
redirecting feelingsIncreased tendency to take into fuller
account the events leading to emotional reactions Development
of a capacity for genuine empathy
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Development of EmotionCoping with stressOlder children have
more coping alternatives and use more cognitive coping
strategiesIntentional shifting of thoughtsBy age 10, most use
cognitive strategiesUnsupportive families, traumatic events may
lessen abilities
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Development of EmotionMiddle and late
childhoodRecommendations for helping children copeReassure
children of safety and securityAllow retelling and discussion of
eventsEncourage discussion of feelingsHelp children make
sense of events
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Development of EmotionAdolescenceTime of emotional turmoil
(“storm and stress”) but not constantlyEmotional changes
instantly occur with little provocationGirls more vulnerable to
depressionAdolescent moodiness is normalHormonal changes
and environmental experiences involved in changing emotions

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Figure 10.5 - Self-Reported Extremes of Emotions by
Adolescents and Their Parents
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Development of EmotionAdulthood and agingAdapt more
effectively when emotionally intelligentDevelopmental changes
in emotion continue through adult yearsOlder adults have more
positive emotions, report better control of emotionsFeelings
mellow; fewer highs and lowsPositive connections with friends
and family
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Figure 10.6 - Changes in Positive & Negative Emotion Across
the Adult Years

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Development of EmotionAdulthood and agingSocioemotional
Selectivity TheoryOlder adults become more selective about
their social networksEmotional satisfaction is highly valued,
positive emotional experiences maximizedMore frequent
association with neighborsMore motivated to achieve; gain
knowledge
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Figure 10.7 - Model of Socio-emotional Selectivity
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TemperamentTemperament Tendencies reflecting behavioral
style and characteristic way of respondingDescribing and
classifying temperamentChess and Thomas: three basic
typesEasy child — generally positive moodDifficult child —
negative reactions, cries oftenSlow-to-warm — low intensity
mood and activity levels; somewhat negative

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TemperamentDescribing and classifying temperamentKagan’s
behavioral inhibitionInhibition to unfamiliarShy/avoidance,
subdued, timid childExtremely uninhibitedExtraverted, social,
bold childInhibition shows considerable stability from infancy
through early childhood
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TemperamentDescribing and classifying temperamentRothbart
and Bates’ ClassificationExtraversion/surgencyPositive
anticipation, impulsivityNegative affectivityEasily distressed,
fear and frustration oftenEffortful control (self-
regulation)Attentional focusing, more cognition used
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TemperamentBiological Foundations and
ExperiencePhysiological characteristics are associated with
different temperamentsHeredity is aspect of temperament’s
biological foundations (twin and adoption studies)Attributes
become more stable over time as self-perceptions, behavioral

preferences, and social experiences form personality
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Developmental ConnectionsChild Adult Easy
temperamentUsually well adjusted in life
Difficult temperamentPoor adjustment, more likely to have
problems socially, in school and marriageInhibitionLow
assertiveness, less social support, job and school delaysGood
emotional controlGood emotional control
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TemperamentDevelopmental contextsGender may be important
factor that influences fate of temperamentMany aspects of
child’s environment encourage or discourage persistence of
temperament characteristicsGoodness of FitMatch between

child’s temperament and environmental demands
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TemperamentGoodness of fit and parentingSome temperament
characteristics pose more challenges than othersManagement
strategies that worked for one child may not work for next
oneBe sensitive to individual characteristics of childStructure
environment to be as good a fit as possibleAvoid labeling as
“difficult child”
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Attachment and LoveAttachment Close emotional bond between
two peopleSocial orientation in infantsFace-to-face play: infant-
caregiver interactionsStill-face paradigm: shows infants react
differently to people than objectsAges 1 to 2: more locomotion,
social play with peers, independence, goal-directed motivation
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Attachment and LoveSocial referencingChild reads emotional
cues in others, reactsBy second year of age: much better at
thisSocial sophistication and insight reflected in infant’s
perceptions of othersAdvanced social cognitive skills are
expected to influence attachment awareness
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Attachment and LoveTheories of attachmentFreud: infants
attach to person or object providing oral satisfactionHarlow’s
study proved otherwiseErikson: first year of life is critical time
for attachment developmentSense of trust or mistrust sets later
expectationsPhysical comfort plays a role in development
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Attachment and LoveTheories of attachmentBowlby: stresses
importance of attachment in first year and responsiveness of
caregiverDevelops in series of phasesPhase 1: birth to 2
monthsPhase 2: 2 to 7 months of agePhase 3: 7 to 24 months
of agePhase 4: 24 months and older

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Attachment and LoveIndividual differences in
attachmentAinsworth and the “strange situation”Measure of
infant attachment to caregiverRequires infant to move through a
series of introductions, separations, and reunionsSecurely
attached or insecureCriticisms: May not reflect real world
behavior Culturally-biased to Western children
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Ainsworth’s Attachment CategoriesSecurely attachedCaregiver
is secure base to explore environment fromInsecure
avoidantShows insecurity by avoiding caregiverInsecure
resistantClings to caregiver, then resists by fighting against the
closenessInsecure disorganizedShows insecurity by being
disorganized, disoriented

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Figure 10.11 - Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment
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Attachment and LoveInterpreting differences in
attachmentSecure attachment important in first year; provides
foundation for healthy developmentSome developmentalists
believe too much emphasis on attachment bond in
infancyIgnores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts
that exists in an infant’s worldIgnores highly resilient and
adaptive infants
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Caregiving Styles and AttachmentBaby’s AttachmentCaregiver
BehaviorSecureSensitive to signals,
availableAvoidantUnavailable or
rejectingResistantInconsistentDisorganizedNeglect or physically
abuse

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Attachment and LoveMothers and fathers as caregiversDramatic
increase in stay-at-home fathersMany have career-focused
wivesFathers have ability to nurture, be as sensitive and
responsive as mothersMaternal interactions: mostly child-care
centeredPaternal interactions: more likely to include play,
engage in rough-and-tumble acts
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Attachment and LoveChild careMost U.S. children have
multiple caregiversParental concerns: reduced emotional
attachment to parents, harm to cognitive development, improper
socializationAbout 2 million children currently receive formal,
licensed child careTypes of child care vary extensively in
United States

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Attachment and LoveParental leaveFar more extensive in other
countries than United StatesEurope led the way: paid fourteen-
week maternity leaveMost countries: restrictions as to minimal
employment period before leave takenIn the United States:
twelve weeks unpaid leave to care for newborns
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Attachment and LoveParental leaveIn most European
countries:Working parents get 70% or more of wages and paid
leave averages 16 weeksGender-equality family leave policies
in Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden)Sweden: most
liberal of all — 18 month leave with benefits for full and part-
time workers
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Attachment and LoveFive types of parental leave from
workMaternity leave: before and after birthPaternity leave:
more important if second child bornParental leave: allows either
parentChild-rearing leave: supplements maternity leave but

typically paid at much lower levelFamily leave: covers reasons
other than birthUnited States does not have paid leave policy
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Attachment and LoveVariations in child careMany factors affect
child care:Age of childType of child careQuality of program —
this makes a differenceNumber of hours per week the child is in
careHigh quality may not erase negative effectsSES or families
with few resources
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Attachment and LoveVariations in child careOngoing national
study in U.S. (NICHD)Patterns of use: infants being placed
soonerQuality of care: lower for low-income familiesAmount of
child care: extensive time lessened attachment sensitivity to
mother, more behavioral issuesFamily and parenting influences
are important
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Attachment and LoveVariations in child careChild care
strategies for parentsQuality of parenting is key to child
developmentMake decisions that enhance good
parentingMonitor child’s developmentTake time to find the best
child care
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Attachment and LoveAdolescenceSecure attachment to both
parents positively related to peer and friendship relationsTypes
of attachment to parentsDismissing/avoidant: caregiver
rejectionPreoccupied/ambivalent: inconsistent
parentingUnresolved/disorganized: high fear due to traumatic
experiences
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Attachment and LoveAdolescenceDating and romantic
relationshipsSpend lots of time dating or thinking about itForm
of recreationSource of status or achievementA way to learn
about close relationshipsFunction for mate selection

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Attachment and LoveAdolescenceDating and romantic
relationshipsYounger adolescents getting involvedComfort in
numbers; youth “hang out” in groupsMore time in mixed-gender
peer groupsDating involvement linked to later
adjustmentSociocultural contexts influences dating and role
expectations
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Attachment and LoveAdulthood and attachmentAdults count on
romantic partners to be a secure base to which they can return
and obtain comfort, security in stressful timesChildhood
attachment patterns can impact hereInfluences choices and
behaviorsSecure, avoidant, anxious attachmentsOther factors
like communication can impact
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Attachment and LoveAdulthood and romantic loveAlso called
passionate love or erosStrong components of sexuality and
infatuationComplex intermingling of emotionsOften
predominates early part of love relationshipAffectionate love or

companionate loveHave deep, caring affection for person
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Attachment and LoveAdulthoodSternberg’s triangular theory of
loveStresses three main components/dimensionsPassion:
physical, sexual attractionIntimacy: warmth, closeness, and
sharingCommitment: intent to remain togetherVarying
combinations create qualitatively different types of love
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Figure 10.15 - Sternberg’s Triangle of Love
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Attachment and LoveAdulthoodFalling out of loveCollapse of
close relationshipTragic feelings initiallyOver time —
happiness and personal development may benefitOne-sided
relationships are harmful

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The End

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