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CHAPTER 3 the story of the slave ship, the Zong: - in November of 1781, after 3 months at sea the Zong was nearing the ‘New World’ from the western coast of Africa - had started with 471 African individuals intended for the slave trade - fresh water was very low and disease had broken out - in accordance with the ‘economics’ of the slave trade and the norms of the time, the slaves were considered ‘cargo’ – no different from livestock - the ‘cargo’ had been insured at the beginning of the trip — slaves that died of natural causes (lack of water, disease) would not be covered by the insurance — however, if the slaves died from being thrown overboard while still alive, the ship owners’ insurance would cover the lose — hoping to save water and reduce the spread of disease, 54 sick slaves were chained together and thrown overboard — over 2 days, more live slaves were thrown overboard (total: 132 persons) at 1st the insurance company was going to pay, but a new freed slave, Equiano (living free in England now) made an abolitionist aware and a new trial determined the slaves were people, not cargo or livestock and the ship owners did not get the insurance foundations of US - beginning in 1600s and through 1700s the US is an agricultural society - land and labor are needed - to get land and labor 3 groups were made into minority status — these groups joined the colonies, then the US through colonization — these 3 groups are still having problems today (Native American, African American, Hispanic/Mexican American) two themes throughout this text 1) what the current subsistence technology is for a specific time period) (impacts majority – minority relations at that time (subsistence technology: how a society provides for basic goods, services (shelter, food, water) for its people) (see table) what’s important hunting / gathering / foraging human energy little stratification - dependent of what nature provides agriculture human energy and animal energy - more surplus - increased stratification - majority / minority relationship is likely to be patriarchal - land ownership - cheap, easily controllable workforce industrialization addition of other energy sources, culminating in electricity - even more surplus - even more stratification - capital to build factories, buy machinery and raw materials, pay workers post industrialization / information electricity human energy - high stratification education 2) what the contact situation is when 2 or more groups first make contact (impacts majority – minority relations at the time and later) the initial contact situation - application of the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses - they are not mutually exclusive; they look at similar, overlapping issues - much can be learned by applying both hypotheses — Noel hypothesis Noel Hypotheses at contact conditions result Noel Two or more groups come together if the following conditions exist - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups resul.

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CHAPTER 3 the story of the slave ship, the Zong: - in November of 1781, after 3 months at sea the Zong was nearing the ‘New World’ from the western coast of Africa - had started with 471 African individuals intended for the slave trade - fresh water was very low and disease had broken out - in accordance with the ‘economics’ of the slave trade and the norms of the time, the slaves were considered ‘cargo’ – no different from livestock - the ‘cargo’ had been insured at the beginning of the trip — slaves that died of natural causes (lack of water, disease) would not be covered by the insurance — however, if the slaves died from being thrown overboard while still alive, the ship owners’ insurance would cover the lose — hoping to save water and reduce the spread of disease, 54 sick slaves were chained together and thrown overboard — over 2 days, more live slaves were thrown overboard (total: 132 persons) at 1st the insurance company was going to pay, but a new freed slave, Equiano (living free in England now) made an abolitionist aware and a new trial determined the slaves were people, not cargo or livestock and the ship owners did not get the insurance foundations of US - beginning in 1600s and through 1700s the US is an agricultural society - land and labor are needed
- to get land and labor 3 groups were made into minority status — these groups joined the colonies, then the US through colonization — these 3 groups are still having problems today (Native American, African American, Hispanic/Mexican American) two themes throughout this text 1) what the current subsistence technology is for a specific time period) (impacts majority – minority relations at that time (subsistence technology: how a society provides for basic goods, services (shelter, food, water) for its people) (see table) what’s important hunting / gathering / foraging human energy little stratification - dependent of what nature provides agriculture human energy and animal energy - more surplus - increased stratification - majority / minority relationship is likely to be patriarchal - land ownership - cheap, easily controllable workforce industrialization addition of other energy sources, culminating in electricity - even more surplus - even more stratification - capital to build factories, buy machinery and raw materials, pay workers post industrialization / information electricity human energy
- high stratification education 2) what the contact situation is when 2 or more groups first make contact (impacts majority – minority relations at the time and later) the initial contact situation - application of the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses - they are not mutually exclusive; they look at similar, overlapping issues - much can be learned by applying both hypotheses — Noel hypothesis Noel Hypotheses at contact conditions result Noel Two or more groups come together if the following conditions exist - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups resulting in inequality and institutionalized discrimination in the form of ethnic or racial stratification figure 3.2 below uses Noel’s hypothesis to understand the creation of prejudice and racism the model below uses the Noel hypothesis to understand how minority group status is created
application of the Noel hypothesis: some form of inequality (often racial or ethnic stratification) will emerge if 3 conditions exist at time of contact - ethnocentrism – all other cultures are compared against one’s own culture — to a certain degree low ethnocentrism (having pride in one’s own group) is good; it creates a sense of solidarity, cohesion, a sense of belonging to a group, pride in that group — however, ethnocentrism is problematic when a hierarchy is added to the categories; some groups are considered better than others — ethnocentrism can set social boundaries - competition groups compete over a scarce, valued resource; competition can result in prejudice (attitudes), discrimination (actions); almost anything can be a scarce resource — motivation to establish superiority - power differential among the groups (group with greater power is able to achieve goals, even if other group opposes these goals); amount of power can be determined by — size of group (greater size, more power) — degree of organization, discipline, leadership — resources (anything that can help the group to accomplish goals; can include money, information, land; can also include access to adequate education, etc.) power: ability of a group to achieve its goals, even others
oppose it — Blauner hypothesis Blauner Hypothesis Is the initial contact due to colonization or immigration? - if initial contact is immigration, the individuals in that group will encounter fewer problems with prejudice, discrimination - if the initial contact is colonization there will be more prejudice and discrimination from the beginning and these problems will persist longer and be harder to overcome - colonization: forced by military, political, economic power — creates more problems for prejudice, discrimination (at the time and into the future) — there are large inequalities; cultures are attacked — overall, reduced assimilation - immigration: a least somewhat voluntary slavery Spain (and to some extent Portugal) had been ahead of Britain in conquering land (mostly in Central and South America) - acquisition of gold, silver from these areas increased Spain’s power - in contrast, Britain had only 2 colonies (Plymouth – Protestant families and Jamestown – founded as commercial enterprise) — also Britain did not find the large quantities of gold and silver found by Spain - by 1619 Britain has only 2 small, struggling colonies origins of slavery in America colonial Jamestown, August 1619 - Dutch ship is off course and needs provisions — all they had to trade were 19 or 20 persons from Africa — — these individuals may have been intended to be slaves in those parts of the Americas where slavery was recognized
— — however, in Virginia at this time they likely became indentured servants (contract laborers – a contract is put together – specifies how long the servitude is, type of labor, living conditions) (see * below) - when contract is up, person is freed, often given ‘freedom dues’ (usually including land, starter seed, etc.) * in early 1600s England did not legally acknowledge slavery; therefore England and her colonies did not (openly) practice slavery as pointed out in the story regarding Anthony, the status of Africans in Virginia was ambiguous for several decades - Anthony, and others in similar situations, became land owners and were considered the same as any other resident — Anthony brought in his own indentured servants the institution of slavery is developed - slavery has existed throughout recorded history, and most likely prior to recorded history — some feel that slavery would not have taken hold in societies that are strictly foraging (hunting and gathering) since it would be necessary to have a surplus(which foragers do not accumulate) and the subsequent inequalities for slavery to be viable by the mid 1700s in colonial America, slavery was accepted and practiced by Britain and her colonies - beginnings of institutionalization of slavery: laws and customs that support slavery emerge - concept of a person as chattel: one person owning another person (different from indentured servant where that person’s labor, energy is owned for a set period of time) — as chattel slaves were not just providing labor, energy; also loss of basic civil rights such as decision of where to live, who to associate with, even relationships with spouses / children
role of religion – initially colonists could not enslave someone who had been baptized Christian; this changed indentured servitude - 2 parties enter into a contract which specifies conditions of service (what type of work, how many hours a day / days per week), length of service (typically 4 – 7 years) — sometimes used to pay off a debt - was already in use in Britain, so was brought to the colonies - indentured servitude turned out to not be as profitable as hoped in the colonies — after the 4 – 7 year contract, that labor is lost — due to horrific living conditions in colonies, many indentured servants didn’t even live long enough to fulfill their indenture, so another loss — once the indenture is over, not only are these laborers released, but the law stated that they should be given ‘freedom dues’ which usually included their own land, starter seed, possibly other stuff like a plow or clothing (thus freed indentured servants are now competitors) - indentured servitude is where a master owns another person’s labor for set period of time under specific conditions — this is not the same as slavery where one person totally owns another person; the ‘owned’ person (slave) is considered no more than property, livestock, chattel — — slaves’ civil rights no longer exist labor supply problems - initially colonies (then the US) were agricultural subsistence technology — at this time agriculture was (human) labor intensive - the plantation system emerged in the south where 2 things were necessary — large areas of land to grow (and then export): sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice — a large, very cheap, easily controlled labor force (necessary
since profit margins tended to be small) - initially Jamestown (started as a business enterprise, nothing to do with religion) relied on indentured servants from Britain and north west Europe 8/14/18 application of the Blauner Hypothesis - considers two different initial relationships (on a continuum) — colonization and immigration — and hypothesizes that: — minority groups created by colonization will experience more intense prejudice, racism, and discrimination than those created by immigration — the disadvantaged status of colonized groups will persist longer and be more difficult to overcome than the disadvantaged status faced by groups created by immigration colonized minority groups: - are forced into minority status by superior military, political power, technology of colonizer - are subjected to massive inequalities and attacks on their cultures - are assigned to positions from which any form of assimilation is extremely difficult and perhaps even forbidden - are identified by highly visible racial or physical characteristics that maintain and reinforce the oppressive system - experience greater prejudice and discrimination at the beginning, which continues longer than immigrant groups immigrant minority groups: - are at least in part voluntary participants in the host society and have at least some control over their destination and their position in the host society - do not occupy such markedly inferior positions as colonized groups do and retain enough internal organization and resources to pursue their own self-interests - boundary between majority group and immigrant group is not
as rigid, especially if both are perceived as being racially similar - commonly experience more rapid acceptance and easier movement to equality as boundaries between groups are not so rigidly maintained, especially when the groups are racially similar groups that are treated as both immigrants and colonized, have a status intermediate between that of immigrant groups and colonized groups using the Noel Hypothesis to explain why black indentured servants (and not the other 2 groups) became enslaved table 3.2 The Noel Hypothesis Applied to the Origins of Slavery Three Causal Factors Potential Sources of Labor Ethnocentrism Competition Differential in Power white indentured servants yes yes no American Indians yes yes no black indentured servants yes yes yes - all 3 groups encountered ethnocentrism - all 3 groups experienced competition with the majority group
- differential in power is the key variable here — at beginning power between Europeans and Native Americans was fairly equal — — in some ways the Native Americans had greater power: greater numbers and their weaponry was better than the muskets and cannons of this early period — Native Americans had good organization (after all, they were not ‘subdued’ until late 1800s) plantation system of agriculture - emerged in south where crops were more likely to need a lot of hands on labor - to maximize profits this labor should be low cost and easily controlled — slavery solved this problem - indentured servants used at beginning, no longer viable — the contracts meant that their labor was owned for only 4 – 7 years — word was spread in Britain and surrounding areas that the living conditions in the colonies was difficult — once the contract was over, giving them ‘freedom dues’ was an extra cost (and, since land was often part of the freedom dues, possible competitors were created) - slavery allowed plantation owners (landowners) to generate profits, status and success - bringing persons into the colonies from the African continent was very cost-effective - attempts at enslaving Native Americans (Indians) did not work — knew the layout of the land and could more easily run away — when running away, easy to blend in with other Native Americans — over time fewer and fewer Native Americans left in the eastern colonies (warfare, disease, being relocated) 8/10/17 3 groups were exploited to acquire land and needed labor that could be easily controlled
- Native Americans were exploited for their land - African Americans were exploited for their labor - Hispanic / Mexican Americans were exploited for both labor and land paternalistic relations - especially in the southern colonies which used a plantation based economy to flourish - plantation based economy — a small group of elites who are wealthy and own land - paternalism emerged as the relationship between elite owners and slaves — very large power differentials — huge inequalities — elaborate and repressive systems of control over minority group by majority group — barriers between groups are caste like (ascribed characteristics) — elaborate and highly stylized codes of behavior, of communication between groups — overt conflict was rare (too great power differentials) ascribed – those characteristics we are born with such as sex, race achieved – characteristics that individuals gain through effort (skills, status such as having a BA) - our society today puts greater emphasis on achieved characteristics without recognizing the limiting factors of ascribed characteristics paternalism – the group with greater authority / control restricts the autonomy of another group, supposedly in the best interests of the less powerful group (in reality the concerns / needs of the less powerful group are not considered)
slavery - slaves were defined as chattel (property) and had no civil or political rights - master determined the type and severity of punishment - slaves were forbidden by law to read or write - marriages were not legally recognized and masters separated families - slavery was a caste system, or a closed stratification system (a child’s status (slave or free) is based on the status of the mother – also known as the one drop rule - a rigid, strictly enforced code of etiquette had slaves show deference and humility when interacting with whites - unequal interactions allowed elites to maintain an attitude of benevolent despotism toward slaves — often expressed as positiveemotions of affection for their black slaves Mw 2/5 mwf 2/7 the powerlessness of slaves made it difficult for them to openly reject or resist the system, however, slaves: - revolted - ran away (many with the help of the abolitionist Underground Railroad) - used the forms of resistance most readily available to them— sabotage, intentional carelessness, dragging their feet, and work slowdowns with the development of the institution of slavery, a distinct African American experience accumulated and traditions of both resistance and accommodation developed side by side African American culture: created as a response to slavery - found in folklore, music, religion, family and kinship
structures understanding the creation of slavery - power differentials - inequality - institutional discrimination — legal and political institutions created to give power over slaves terminology: American Indians, Indians, Native Americans, First Peoples, Indigenous peoples, AmerIndians (all refer to same group) American Indians (Native Americans) - at least 500 different cultures in Americas prior to arrival of Europeans — a lot of variation in subsistence technologies, cultures, languages, sizes, home territory, histories — therefore there is no one entity of ‘Native Americans’ - 1763: England said the tribes were “sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land” — each tribe was to be treated as a nation-state — would be compensated for any lands taken - as Europeans arrived in east and moved west, lands were taken from Native Americans — also, food sources, culture taken away - many tribes, nations, cultures have been lost — even many groups that still exist have lost languages, aspects of culture — other groups are much, much smaller than before arrival of Europeans — — some death due to warfare; a lot more due to diseases (some deliberately imposed) and destruction of food sources as land was taken Native Americans and the Noel Hypothesis:
- initially not great differences in weaponry, resource bases between Europeans and Native Americans — over time EuroAmericans gained greater power in all areas and were able to defeat Native Americans sovereignty – to what degree are a people self-governing - can a people enter into a treaty with another people? — if so, how binding is that agreement? - in 1763 Britain ruled that the different tribes should be considered “sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land” — therefore lands could not be simply taken away; decisions would be made with treaties signed — any lands taken would be compensated for - after Revolutionary War, the new government did not acknowledge sovereignty of the Native American groups gender relations - as there were different cultures, tribes had differing family systems, including a great deal of variety in gender relations — some tribes were patriarchal — though many tribes practiced gendered division of labor; some tribes allowed women a lot of power - upon contact with EuroAmericans the gender relations of many tribes changed; some becoming more patriarchal, some less patriarchal — overall: change in gender roles Native Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: - Native Americans are a colonized minority group — have had and continue to have high levels of prejudice, racism and discrimination
- similar to African Americans, Native Americans have been controlled through a paternalistic system (the reservation system) — coercive acculturation 10/17/17 Mexican Americans Spain had been exploring / exploiting Mexico before England had her colonies - Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded in 1598 (almost 10 years before Jamestown was founded) - as EuroAmericans sought land as they moved west, they made contact with Mexico Texas - in 1820s, many Anglo Americans were moving into east Texas to grow cotton - by 1835 outnumbered Tejanos (Texans of Mexican descent) 6 to 1. - when US annexed Texas in 1840s, a war erupted between US and Mexico — settled with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and much of what is now known as the south-west US was ceded to the US - 1852: Gadsden Purchase – more southwest territory acquired colonization - with these lands ceded to the US, the inhabitants (had been citizens of Mexico) were now a conquered, colonized minority - though the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo said that any person’s of Mexican descent living in these ceded lands could keep their land (language as well), many legal, illegal and quasi legal techniques were used to get these lands territory ceded to US in Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo could be thought of as being in 4 areas that roughly correspond to the US states of Texas, California, New Mexico and Arizona - these areas differed, resulting in different relationships with
the US - overall all these areas were sparsely settled - economy largely based on farming, herding - Catholic Church was a foundation of culture, family life and was dominated by the elite class of wealthy landowners Gold Rush – 1849 - people (mostly middle class, single men) came to California to mine gold - soon more Anglos than Californios (native Mexicans living in California) - Anglos had greater power, taking over California land and political power - in the beginning California was on track to be a multi-ethnic, multilingual state — as Anglos gained greater power, this did not happen - using violence, biased laws, discrimination, and other means of exploitation Californios were repressed New Mexico - here original Mexicans were able to retain some political, economic power — the group here was larger and had resources in mobilizing for political activity the contact for Mexican Americans - since these areas varied, so did the contact situation vary - end result: both colonization and immigration statuses for persons of Mexican descent (then and now) — Mexican Americas became a minority group Mexican Americans and the Noel Hypothesis: - the prejudices towards African Americans was transferred to Mexicans (mostly the poorer Mexicans who were stereotyped as lazy and shiftless) - Mexicans consisted of Spanish, Native American and some
African - highly Roman Catholic in a time when Catholicism was not accepted by US majority both land and labor were desired by US Anglos Anglo-Americans used their superior numbers and military power to acquire control of the political and economic structures and expropriate the resources of the Mexican American community—both land and labor. Mexican Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: - culture and language were suppressed even as their property rights were abrogated and their status lowered also subjected to coercive acculturation however, Mexican Americans were in close proximity to their homeland and maintained close ties with villages and families this constant movement across the border with Mexico kept the Spanish language and much of the Mexican heritage alive in the Southwest (sojourners) - for Mexican American women, the consequences of contact were variable even though the ultimate result was a loss of status within the context of the conquest and colonization of the group as a whole the kinds of jobs available to the men (mining, seasonal farm work, railroad construction) often required them to be away from home for extended periods of time, and women, by default, began to take over the economic and other tasks traditionally performed by males however, poverty and economic insecurity placed the family structures under considerable strain
like black female slaves, Mexican American women became a very vulnerable part of the social system comparing minority groups each of these three groups, became involuntary players in the growth and development of European and, later, American economic and political power all three were overpowered and relegated to an inferior, subordinate status against their will, and were coercively acculturated in the context of paternalistic relations in an agrarian economy meaningful integration was not a real possibility, and in Gordon’s (1964) terms, we might characterize these situations as “acculturation without integration” or structural pluralism. Mexico, Canada and the United States Like the Spanish in Mexico, the French in Canada tended to link to and absorb indigenous social structure - however, French-Canadians, similar to Mexican Americans, full assimilation has been (continues to be) difficult 5 chapter 4 – industrialization and dominant-minority relations; from slavery to segregation and the coming of the postindustrial society story at beginning: author Richard Wright discusses lives of blacks in kitchenettes of the urban north to what had been in rural south (early 1900s) - kitchenette – very small housing; bathrooms shared by many families; each family usually had a small, utilitarian kitchen
- housing is substandard, over-priced - poor living conditions - easy for landlords to exploit renters – charging outrageous rents for buildings that often should’ve been demolished subsistence technology – how a society provides basic needs of members - when subsistence technology changes, the relationship between minority / majority is effected Table 4.1 Three Subsistence Technologies and the United States Technology Key Trends and Characteristics Dates Agrarian labor-intensive agriculture; control of land and labor are central 1607 – early 1800s Industrial capital-intensive manufacturing; machines replace animal and human labor early 1800s to mid 1900s Postindustrial shift away from manufacturing to a service economy; the ‘information society’ mid 1900s to present industrialization and the shift from paternalistic to rigid competitive group relations - industrialization began in England in mid 1700s, then to Europe and US - use of machines & other energy sources leads to increase in production, increase in economy, available goods, services — from agrarian / paternalistic to industrial / competitive US as an agrarian society - relationships between groups is paternalistic, with dominant groups paternalistic to minority groups (example: slavery, Native American reservations where
minority groups are – supposedly – looked after for their own ‘best interests’ (reality is that the best interests of the majority is promoted)) under industrialization – 2 forms: rigid competitive and fluid competitive relations as compared to paternalistic, the rigid competitive allows for a bit more freedom - some freedom in choosing housing - some freedom in choosing employment - somewhat more education for children - however, all of this threatens the dominant group (especially the lower income dominant group) who then want to minimize minority group members from effectively competing the impact of industrialization on the racial stratification of African Americans: from slavery to segregation reconstruction - federal government enforced new laws (civil rights to newly freed slaves) - was positive for newly freed slaves, but short lived - from about 1865 - 1880s - 15th amendment - African American males (women do not have the right to vote at this time) can vote — at first very successful - which upset elite southern Whites — initially newly freed slaves were able to vote (including some Blacks being voted into office), set up schools for Africa American children, start businesses, own land / homes after reconstruction - reversal into more exploitation, inequality 1. slavery - lack of literacy, uneducated, lack of power 2. tradition of racism continued and is passed on from generation to generation
- backed up racist treatment of African Americans - assumption: Blacks are racial inferior - a ‘heritage of prejudice and racism’ throughout the South (and some groups / individuals in the North as well) de jure segregation (also called ‘Jim Crow’ system) - ‘by law’ - legal institutions back up segregation - segregation: minority status groups (and individuals) forced to be separate from dominant groups (even the non-elite classes of dominant group) - segregation in housing, education, jobs, etc. - inferior treatment of Blacks demanded (not just backed up) by legal system de facto segregation – by tradition (ostensibly because it is what people want) sharecropping - (impacted both poor whites and blacks) more problematic for blacks than whites (blacks less likely to read / know someone who did read; then taken advantage of by plantation owners — such as what was actually in the contract (and what newly freed slaves were told was in the contract) - tenant farming - type of ‘leasing’ land - poor whites and blacks given seed, food, materials, clothing, etc. in exchange for a ‘share’ of the profit at end of harvest - anything that they were given in beginning is considered part of their >debt= to the plantation owner - frequently what the ‘debt’ was could / would change at discretion of plantation owner (to plantation owners benefit) the great migration - one difference for southern Blacks after end of slavery - no longer - legally - tied to one plantation (for the most part – ‘sharecropping’ could create problems) - therefore had freedom to relocate (and would compete with other minority status
groups for low-paying jobs) - many went north to urban areas and factory jobs life in the north - yes, some positives (able to vote, get education for kids, get away from racial ‘etiquette’ - more job opportunities) - however, the ongoing prejudice and discrimination still created problems dual labor market - primary labor market — stable employment, decent wages — jobs in large bureaucracies - more secure, etc. - secondary labor market — unstable employment, poor wages — competitive market - low-paying, low-skilled jobs - not secure; lack benefits — split labor market - within the secondary labor market split labor market - based on Marxism which sees 2 and only 2 classes (socio- economic statuses) — capitalists - own the means of production — labor - sell their labor for subsistence wages - there are at least 2 divisions within the secondary labor market (this is the split) - all sell labor for subsistence wages - at least one group resembles the capitalist regarding perceived racial grouping and or ethnicity - at least one group does not resemble the capitalist regarding perceived racial grouping and or ethnicity - creates an advantage for capitalists - keep the split labor markets in competition with each other - therefore capitalists win because their overhead is lower, since they can spend less $ on paying labor (split labor markets are each willing to take the job for less $ since something is better than nothing) - it is often to the capitalists advantage to further stir things up
by bringing attention to racial / ethnic differences Matewan – movie that depicts split labor market https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matewan competition with white ethnic groups - before we discussed the large influx of European immigrants into the US in mid to later 1800s - at the time when blacks are beginning to migrate north, European immigrants beginning to have upward social mobility - as ethnic whites leave low income housing, communities, blacks more in — however, white ethnics still dealing with prejudice, discrimination from elite whites — jobs, adequate housing still a struggle for many — and elite whites - wanting to reduce their overhead / increase profits - use incoming blacks as strikebreakers, scabs when ethnic whites tried to form unions — increased inter-racial problems at low end of economic hierarchy incoming blacks did, however, help out the social situation of ethnic whites - in that now the elite whites are putting the focus of their prejudice, discrimination - less on the ethnic white origins of black protest W.E.B. Du Bois - had at least one Ph.D. - advocated that blacks should strive for as much mainstream education as possible - wanted better public schools for blacks as well as whites - joined with white liberals - eventually founding NAACP — National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 2/14/18 Booker T. Washington
- agreed with Du Bois that education was important - but disagreed in that he felt it was best for blacks (at this time) to stay in their niche, their communities and do as well as possible there Marcus Garvey - born in Jamaica - came to US - was a printer - rather than blacks working into mainstream society, he advocated separatism — even advocated for a movement of freed slaves and descendants moving back to Africa - began movement towards Black Nationalism, Black Pride shift from rigid to fluid competitive relationships - the rigid competitive systems (such as Jim Crow) associated with earlier phases of industrialization have given way to fluid competitive systems of group relations - in fluid competitive relations, there are no formal or legal barriers to competition. Compared with previous systems, the fluid competitive system is closer (not there yet) to the American ideal of an open, fair system of stratification in which effort and competence are rewarded and race, ethnicity, gender, religion, and other “birthmarks” are not as important dimensions of minority-group status acculturation and integration structural pluralism / inequality - not assimilation - blacks created and lived in a separate sub-culture / sub-society (neighborhoods, schools, churches, businesses) - Rosewood - at this time beginnings of middle class blacks - over time many middle class blacks moved out of inner cities, frequently leaving the other blacks in a more problematic situation industrialization, the shift to a postindustrial society, and
dominant-minority group relations: general trends - paternalistic system no longer useful - urbanization provided more (not a bunch more) potential for education, etc. - populations of African Americans - in sub-communities were able to organize occupational specialization - increase in jobs - need production, transport, sales of goods, services - jobs became more specialized as complex tasks were broken down into smaller steps that frequently did not require as much skill, knowledge - industrial, urban society no longer controlled by paternalism - a complex industrial structure has emerged - growth of white-collar jobs and the service sector — movement from industrial to information / service jobs — — deindustrialization - part of postindustrial society — most job growth in service sector; most service sector jobs are no- skill / low skill requirements — but there is variation, some do require more education, etc. and have larger salaries bureaucracy and rationality - large workforces and specialization (and sub-specialties) required that a middle management system come forth - bureaucracies developed to organize the large industrial structures, including middle management - bureaucracies - supposedly based on rationality — people get jobs, promotions based on performance, abilities — reality: bureaucracies are not as rational as they seem extractive (primary) jobs - produce raw materials manufacturing (secondary) jobs - transform raw materials into finished products service (tertiary) jobs - nothing is produced - services are provided
the growing importance of education credentialism - benefits elite because they can ‘afford’ getting more credentials afford: 1. cost of the education (tuition, fees, books, transportation) 2. cost of a family member not being in the labor force — increase in student debt without the means to pay it off competition with white ethnic groups - before we discussed the large influx of European immigrants into the US in mid to later 1800s - at the time when blacks are beginning to migrate north, European immigrants beginning to have upward social mobility - as ethnic whites leave low income housing, communities, blacks more in — however, white ethnics still dealing with prejudice, discrimination from elite whites — jobs, adequate housing still a struggle for many — and elite whites - wanting to reduce their overhead / increase profits - use incoming blacks as strikebreakers, scabs when ethnic whites tried to form unions — increased inter-racial problems at low end of economic hierarchy incoming blacks did, however, help out the social situation of ethnic whites - in that now the elite whites are putting the focus of their prejudice, discrimination - less on the ethnic white 2/16/18 mwf globalization - world is getting ‘smaller’ - we are tied to other nations, other cultures through: trade, information sharing (etc. computers), transportation (taking a plane to Japan or ???) - we can look at the relationship between the US and other countries as similar to dominant groups within US to minority
status groups - U.S. has become an economic, political, and military world power - our worldwide ties have created new minority groups through population movement and have changed the status of others. - dominant-minority relations in the U.S. have been increasingly played out on an international state as the world has essentially "shrunk" in size and become more interconnected by international organizations gender inequality in a globalizing, postindustrial world - deindustrialization and globalization are transforming gender relations along with dominant-minority relations - in many traditional and sexist societies, women are moving away from their traditional “wife/mother” roles, taking on new responsibilities, and facing new challenges - the changing role of women is also shaped by other characteristics of a modern society: smaller families, high divorce rates, and rising numbers of single mothers who must work to support their children as well as themselves - in part, the trends worldwide parallel those in the United States - according to a recent United Nations report, indicators such as rising education levels for women and lower rates of early marriage and childbirth show that women around the world are moving out of their traditional status Mw 2/14/18 they are entering the labor force in unprecedented numbers virtually everywhere, and women now comprise at least a third of the paid global workforce hate groups https://www.splcenter.org how does the SPLC define hate group? https://www.splcenter.org/20171004/frequently-asked-
questions-about-hate-groups#hate group definition of a hate group by Southern Poverty Law Center “an organization that – based on its official statements or principles, the statements of its leaders, or its activities – has beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics.” how does the FBI define hate crime? https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/civil-rights/hate-crimes “A hate crime is a traditional offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias. For the purposes of collecting statistics, the FBI has defined a hate crime as a “criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity.” Hate itself is not a crime—and the FBI is mindful of protecting freedom of speech and other civil liberties.” “The organizations on our hate group list vilify others because of their race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation or gender identity – prejudices that strike at the heart of our democratic values and fracture society along its most fragile fault lines.” chapter 8 notes – Asian Americans: model minorities? chapter begins with a story of a sociologist, riding in a taxi - he was born in the US of Japanese heritage (grandfather came to US in 1880s) - taxi drive asks him how long he was in the US (the answer is since birth) - brings up the perception of ‘other’ around Asian Americans focus of this chapter: Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans (oldest Asian groups in the US; often considered to
be ‘model minorities’) - model minorities stereotype: successful, affluent, highly educated, not suffer from minority group status (remember this is a stereotype) - intersectionality importance – a new immigrant to the US with little education, little knowledge of English, little money will have a different experience than someone educated in the US (possibly through college), raised in a middle class status household why an increase in immigration from the Philippines and India into the US? - both colonized — India by Britain — Philippines 1st by Spain, then the US current demographics - Asian Americans are about 5.6% of the total population (2012) – see table 8.1 above — contrasted with African Americans (13%) and Hispanic Americans (16%) - overall, rapid growth in numbers of Asian Americans in US recently — one reason: immigration changes in 1965 — one of the largest growing groups – Asian Indians — rapid growth is expected to continue - 10 largest Asian groups in fig 8.1 below - high percentage of foreign born in Asian American population — 88% of Asian Americans are either 1st generation (foreign born) or 2nd generation (their children) — — see figure 8.2 below - similar to Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans are - likely to identify with country of origin 1st
origins and cultures great diversity in languages, cultures, religions - Asian cultures are much older than the founding of the US - these cultures are quite different from each other, but there are some similarities similarities: - group membership is more important than the individual — some of above from Confucianism which emphasizes a person is one part of the larger social system, one part of the status hierarchy — — therefore loyalty to group, conformity to societal expections and respect for superiors are important - it is important to be sensitive to the opinions and judgements of others; avoid public embarrassment, giving offence — guilt / shame dichotomy — — Asian cultures: emphasis on not bringing shame to the family / group from others (if someone goes against societal expectations, they are bringing shame onto their family / group) — — — emphasis on proper behavior, conformity to convention and how others judge one, avoid embarressment (to self or to others), avoid personal confrontations — — — overall desire to seek harmony — — Western culture emphasizes individuals develop personal consciences and we need to avoid guilt (if someone goes against societal expectations, they are guilty of ... — Westerners guided by personal sense of guilt) - generally (but not always) traditionally patriarchal — in China foot binding was practiced for many generations the above tendencies are more likely for individuals new to the US, but not as likely for individuals / families in the US for many generations there is greater diversity within the Asian American population
than the Hispanic American population Contact Situations and the Development of the Chinese American and Japanese American Communities Chinese Americans - immigration push and pull from China - began in early 1800s — push (from China) – social unrest in China due to colonization of China by different European nations plus a rapid increase in population — pull (to the US) – economic opportunities such as Gold Rush ‘Yellow Peril’ – example of social construction of a racial group - term began in newspapers; meant to depict Chinese immigrants in a negative, demeaning way - without any regard for differences in culture, it was applied to Japanese immigrants Noel Hypothesis at contact and the following conditions exist result 2 or more groups come together - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups stratification racism application of Noel Hypothesis to Chinese immigration - yes, power differential from the beginning - ethnocentrism existed from the beginning - in the beginning little to no competition for jobs (robust economy and there were many jobs Americans did not want)
— in fact, the Chinese immigrants were often praised for being industrious, tireless — when the economy declined and jobs became more scarce, competion and then stratification / racism — — Gold Rush of 1849 no longer providing jobs for Chinese immigrants; completion of the railroads, which had employed many Chinese immigrants (as well as other groups such as Irish immigrants) — — also more Anglo-Americans are arriving from east coast, increasing need for jobs Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 - by law, Chinese immigrants were not allowed to become citizens (therefore very little to nothing in political and other sources of power) - virtually banned all immigration from China - though many Chinese men that immigrated from China had not initially wanted to stay, some were staying — since it was mostly men that came over, once the Chinese Exclusion Act passed, bringing women over was not possible — plus antimiscegenation laws prevented Chinese men from marrying white women - this ban continued until WW II, when the US made a distinction between Chinese and Japanese — at this point, China is our ally, so now acceptance — however, at this point, Japan is our enemy (even US Japanese Americans put into ‘relocation’ centers) — at start of WW II, Chinese immigration into US increased somewhat, increased even more with legal changes in immigration in 1965 split labor market - the Chinese immigrants could be used by business owners to thwart organized labor, so native-born workers saw them as a threat and pushed for the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act
‘delayed’ 2nd generation - number of Chinese in US declined after Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (see fig 8.3 above) - most of those that remained were men; ratio of women to men was 1:25 - due to antimiscegenation laws forbading Chinese men from marrying white women, very slow growth for a 2nd generation (those born in the US) - took until 1920s for 1/3 of Chinese Americans to be native born — since the 2nd generation is often a link between the 1st generation and majority society, the delay of a 2nd generation increased isolation of Chinese immigrants the ethnic enclave - discrimination forced Chinese immigrants from smaller cities, rural areas - most came to larger cities, in particular San Francisco (but, also LA) - in the cities ethnic enclaves developed — continued isolation — ability to maintain culture — though ‘China towns’ had existed from the beginning, these ethnic enclaves became more important — many of the men who stayed were skilled artisans, experienced business owners, etc – so recreated a semblance of Chinese society — allowed for continuation of culture (language, traditions, religion, values, dress) — China town enclaves became self-contained - there were efforts by Chinese immigrants to contest racist legislation, other descrimination, but lack of power (not even being citizens) prevented any real progress — at this point, China is itself colonized, so not able to speak for Chinese in the US
survival and development - exclusion and discrimination continues into 20th century - some economic opportunity in 2 business types: restaurants and laundries — restaurants – at this point, very few came from majority community; served Chinese, mostly single men — laundries – was used by majority society and was somewhat economically successful; however as more homes got washers (and then dryers), their use dwindled - the second generation grew up in these enclaves the 2nd generation - more contact with majority society - abandoned some traditional customs; not as loyal to the clan system that had been so important to the 1st generation - importance of WW II – many job opportunities outside of the enclave opened up — those who served in WW II could take advantage of the GI Bill and get advanced education (which improves employment opportunities) — some of this group are the background for the concept of model minority (a minority that has done well dispite prejudice, discrimination) — in reality, the Chinese American population has many at ends of a continuum (some doing well; others around poverty level) — occupational structure can be considered bipolar Japanese Americans - when Chinese Exclusion Act implemented in 1882, immigration from Japan began (there was now a vacuum for low skilled, low pay labor) the anti-Japanese campaign - Japanese immigration also began on the west coast, with similar employment
- prejudices, discrimination against Chinese immigrants were applied to Japanese immigrants (ex: ‘Yellow Peril’) - 1907 – agreement between US and Japan – the Gentlemen’s Agreement — drastically cut immigration of men into US, but did allow women — same antimiscegenation laws forbade Japanese immigrants from marrying white women — male Japanese immigrants brought Japanese wives to US (either women they had been married to prior to their leaving or women they married ‘in proxy’); this continued until 1920s’ restrictive immigration policies — as seen in fig 8.3 above, a Japanese 2nd generation was able to begin soon after the arrival of male immigration (unlike Chinese 2nd generation) - many of the Japanese immigrants that came to US were skilled farmers; many found economic stability in some type of farming — many majority people were concerned with result of the Alien Land Act (CA legislature, 1913); non-citizens (anyone from Asia) could not own land — not successful; Japanese 1st generation (not citizens; Issei) got around this by putting the land in the names of their children (2nd generation, and, therefore citizens) ethnic enclave - similar to Chinese immigrants, Japanese immigrants create their own subsociety — most in rural, agriculture; some in cities — did business mostly within the Japanese American community - though 2nd generation Japanese Americans (Nisei) were successful in educational attainment, it did not mean they got jobs commenserate with their education relocation camps - December 7, 1941 Imperial Japan attacks Pearl Harbor (in
Hawaii); almost 2,500 die - before Pearl Harbor, already a lot of anti-Japanese sentiment in US; FBI had been collecting information on Japanese American ‘leaders’ who were frequently sent to relocation camps earlier than other family members and without family knowing what had happened — the camps they were sent to were more restrictive - President Franklin D. Roosevelt and congress declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941 - the prejudice and discrimination already aimed at Japanese Americans increased; a lot of concern about their loyalty to the US since the US was now at war with Japan - February 1942 Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 — internship lasted through most of the war – a total of 3.5 years - result: West coast Japanese Americans were ‘relocated’ to various camps in western US relocation camp conditions – most were 2nd generation, therefore US citizens - behind barbed wire - armed guards - traditional Japanese American family life is challenged — women gain some status — the 2nd generation (Nisei) have more power, freedom as opposed to traditional Japanese American families - most families had a matter of weeks, many just a few days notice - could only bring what they could carry – therefore left many family heirlooms, etc behind - sold off property, etc at extremely low prices; some places just abandoned in the hope that they would be home soon military service - at first Japanese American citizens were not allowed to enter military due to loyalty concerns
- when allowed into armed forces, put into segregated units, where they did very well - not allowed to enter armed forces until they answered questions indicating their loyalty — some objected to some of these questions, and made statements along the lines of “I would like to serve if my father, brother, uncle, etc is no longer in separate relocation camp chapter 2 – assimilation and pluralism: from immigrants to white ethnics current US diversity can be observed by noting there are around 300 different languages spoken in the US - on one hand sharing a common language (not that everyone should know only this language) helps with communication - however, a language is important for passing on a culture (in fact, about ½ of the 300 languages belong to different Native American groups) - acceptance / non-acceptance of different languages is just one aspect of dealing with diversity — 2 concepts are important: assimilation and pluralism assimilation – a process that takes place over time where distinct / separate groups merge together - a common culture is shared - during assimilation, differences between groups is decreased pluralism – different groups within one society remain separate, distinct from each other - any social or cultural differences continue over time though these processes can be considered either end of a continuum, they are not mutually exclusive - a society can have a variation of degrees of assimilation / pluralism
- even within specific minority groups some may prefer assimilation / some may prefer pluralism 1820s – 1920s many immigrants came from Europe into US - 1820s – 1880s – old immigration - 1880s – 1920s – new immigration - 1960s – present – last wave of immigrants assimilation – overall: a process where distinct, separate groups merge over time - melting pot (a type of assimilation): refers to a type of assimilation where the different groups have a somewhat equal contribution to the new culture — theoretically, it is a positive, egalitarian perspective — however, this was not what happened - Anglo-conformity (Americanization) was the reality — incoming groups are pressured into giving up prior culture, language, religion, etc and conform to American / Anglo culture — done so that the British / American ways (including the English language) would be dominant traditional perspective on assimilation - Robert Park - Milton Gordon - human capital theory Robert Park – race relations cycle (1920s, 30s) - after contact (immigration / colonization) there is competition and conflict between groups - the process becomes assimilation — assimilation is inevitable when — the society is democratic — the society is industrial - as US society became more industrialized, modern, urban racial and ethnic groups would no longer be as important
question: Is the US both democratic and industrial (definitions below) - democracy: political system based on fairness, impartial justice; all groups are treated equally under the law - industrial: rationality is important — people are hired, promoted, fired based on merits, abilities, talents not race, ethnicity criticism of Park - no time frame is given; considering that Native Americans were here first, African Americans began arriving in the 1600s and the southwest was ceded to Mexico to the US in the mid 1800s — how long should it take? — if no time frame, when can ‘inevitable’ be expected?; therefore can’t test — lack of detail about how assimilation occurs Milton Gordon – described a total of 7 processes of assimilation; 3 are discussed in this text - culture: way of life: language, beliefs, norms, values, customs, technology, etc - social structure: networks of social relationships that organize society; connect individuals to each other; connect individuals to larger society; including groups, organizations, communities, etc — primary sector: intimate, personal interpersonal relationships (families, friendship groups) — secondary sector: more public groups, organizations — — tend to be task oriented, impersonal — — very large; can include businesses, factories, schools, colleges, public institutions 1. acculturation / cultural assimilation - a process; one group (minority / immigrant) learns the culture of another, usually dominant group - for immigrants to US: language, food, how to eat, values,
gender roles, etc - considered a prerequisite for integration 2. integration / structural assimilation: process where a minority group enters social structure of dominant society - begins in secondary sector, then primary sector - individuals first form more public relationships; then more personal (primary) relationships 3. intermarriage / marital assimilation - substantial integration into primary sector where many minority group members marry dominant group members acculturation without integration: acculturation, by itself does not ensure eventual integration - dominant group can exclude minority from secondary, primary sectors, limit opportunities - ‘Americanization without equality’ - applies to many minority status groups, especially racial / ethnic minorities table 2.1 Gordon’s Stages of Assimilation stage process 1. acculturation the group learns the culture of the dominant group, including language and values 2. integration (structural assimilation) a. secondary level b. primary level members of the group enter the public institutions and organizations of dominant society members of the group enter the cliques, clubs and friendship groups of the dominant society
3. intermarriage (marital assimilation) members of the group marry with members of the dominant society on a large scale more recent thoughts on Gordon - Gordon proposed that assimilation sub processes would occur one after another (linear progression) - however, some of these sub processes are independent from others - assimilation is not always linear; some groups reduce assimilation, become more traditional human capital theory: not an assimilation theory, can help answer why some immigrant groups acculturate, integrate faster than others - status attainment, success based on that person’s human capital: education (considered an investment), personal values, skills - direct result an individuals efforts, personal values, skills, education - suggests that individuals that acculturate, integrate sooner, easier have personal resources, cultural characteristics of group members — immigrants coming into the US with some cultural characteristics (ex: speaking English) have an easier time — implication: those groups that don’t acculturate as fast are somehow lacking (maybe education, also values, group characteristics) — — this fits in with the traditional American ideals discussed earlier – hard work, ‘right’ choices, motivation, good character allows for upward social mobility criticism of human capital - doesn’t account for all factors that affect social mobility - doesn’t recognize that the US is not open, equally fair to all
pluralism - article by Horace Kallen, 1915 - rejected Anglo-conformist model, proposed that groups could have integration, equality without extensive acculturation - US culture could be a mixture of interdependent cultures / peoples - groups have separate identities, cultures, organizational structures - initially was not accepted / the tradition views above were preferred; pluralism did not fit into the expectations of that time - interest in pluralism has increased since about the 1960s — increased diversity in US (fig 1.1 below) — — though some see this increased diversity as a problem; propose reduced immigration, English Only, no bilingual education — throughout the world many nation-states have (or are considering) breaking into smaller groups — — ex: former USSR types of pluralism - cultural pluralism: groups have not acculturated or integrated; each has distinct identity — Native Americans are sometimes cultural pluralistic – living on reservations, keeping original language, culture, values — Amish also have distinct culture - structural pluralism: minimal cultural differences, but occupy different locations in social structure — a group is acculturated, but not integrated; group has adopted US culture, not does not have full / equal access to US institutions (education, employment, neighborhoods, clubs, churches (ex: separate churches according to race in US today)) - integration without acculturation (reverses Gordon’s stages); groups that have had some economic success without acculturation (keep language, culture, values) — enclave minority group: has own neighborhood, interconnected businesses that help with economic survival
— — businesses serve their own community, sometimes outsiders (ex: Chinatowns) — middleman minority group: groups that have interconnected businesses throughout the larger community – helps with economic survival — both enclave minority group and middleman minority group are successful partly due to cooperation and mutual aid within the group (might be weakened if there were greater acculturation) — both can be considered as type of assimilation or as type of pluralism (which are not opposites) other group relationships - separatism: when the minority group wants to severe all ties with the dominant group (political, cultural) — beyond pluralism — some Native American groups favor this; also considered in Scotland, Hawaii, French Canada - revolution: when the minority group wants to create a new social order either along with some dominant group members or a complete reversal of the social order - forced migration – Trail of Tears - expulsion – Chinese Exclusion act of 1882; Native Americans put on reservations - extermination / genocide – Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (targeted not just Jews; also Poles, Roma, homosexuals, those with disabilities) - continued subjugation keeping minority group in a powerless, exploited position (ex: slavery) from immigrants to white ethnics – 1820s – 1920s industrialization and immigration subsistence technologies – how a society provides for the basic needs of its members (food, clothing, shelter)
- only 3 now hunting, gathering (foraging) subsistence technology - only human energy - means of providing needed items (shelter, food, clothing) is through what nature does / does not provide — since nature is fickle, some years can be good, other years not good — little likelihood of developing surplus — since surplus drives inequalities (some benefit from the surplus, but other don’t benefit – their situation remains the same) — cooperation is encouraged agricultural - energy: human and animal (plows, carts, etc.) - is labor intensive, low productivity, all family members needed to participate to provide what was needed - with improved methods of growing, producing food, surplus begins — also – if fewer people are needed to produce the food, some people can begin to specialize in things such as pottery making, making clothing, etc. - people get their food, shelter, etc. needs met by either producing what they need themselves or using what they produce to barter for other things - what is important: land ownership and ability to get cheap, easily controlled labor - surplus is created, then increased stratification industrialization (industrial revolution): first in Great Britain around 1760, then moved to US and continental Europe - transition from agricultural subsistence technology to industrial subsistence technology - individuals and families are not just producing what they can and bartering
- increasing use of wage economy – people in paid employment, earn money, use this money to purchase needed items (food, shelter, etc.) — families make ‘money’ and use this to buy necessities — people are making things, not for their own use or to barter; they make items that will be sold to others — early on especially, these wages are not living wages (thus, both parents and sometimes children need to be in paid employment). - energy – continuing with human / animal energy; increase in other energy sources such as water, steam, coal, gas, oil — eventually becomes electricity - many who came to US were frequently pushed out of homelands due to various aspects of industrialization in homelands (many went to cities in Europe hoping to get ‘good’ factory jobs; not enough factory jobs in Europe since it was not industrializing at same rate of US, so don‘t need as many workers); end up coming to US to work in factories - came to US where they fit into our industrialized work force (most come into US low or non-skilled; factories need low skilled workers, many jobs are such that even non-skilled can find employment with a little practice — productivity of society increases, even more surplus - new industrial technologies were ‘capital intensive’ — need to invest heavily in machines, equipment, processes of production (land no longer as important) — human labor (even in rural areas) no longer as important — — technology increases agricultural yields without an increase in human labor (tractors, etc.) — — rather than small, family farms, farms get bigger and bigger (possible with tractors, etc) US rise to a global power results from combination of European immigration and industrialization
3 subgroups of immigrants 1. Protestants from north, west Europe 2. mostly Catholic from Ireland, southern Italy, southern/eastern Europe 3. Jews, mostly from eastern Europe 1. Northern / Western Protestant Europeans - this group resembled US dominant group in racial and ethnic characteristics (including religion; though many Protestants did not consider Roman Catholics to be truly Christian, other Protestant groups were more or less accepted - less racial, ethnocentric rejection for these groups - sending nations were similar in development to US, so immigrants more likely to have education, skills, money which helped them settle into US - many went to Midwest, frontier areas - generally did not form ethnic enclaves (as with Italians) so not concentrated; not considered a threat (socially or economically), more easily accepted Norway - also settled in upper Midwest states - were farmers in homeland, were able to buy farmland - realized that they needed help to cultivate the land; recruited a labor force through family, friends in Norway - chains of communication / immigration resulted – more
coming into US from Norway over period of time Germany - today about 15% of Americans have German roots; this is more than any other single immigrant group - has had a large impact on US economy, politics, culture - German immigrants of early 1800s were likely to farm - later in 1800s German immigrants, not as likely to become farmers (not as much land available) - came with working skills, were artisans, so were able to settle in urban areas and do well 2. immigrant laborers from Southern / Eastern Europe, Ireland; mostly Catholic - not as accepted as prior group — not Protestant (at a time when Catholics were not considered Christian by many Protestants) — not educated, many illiterate in own language — — Ireland: long colonization by Britain greatly reduced educational attainment — had few skills – were largely poor farmers - Irish immigrants came during the Old Immigration period — others came after 1880s Potato Famine - the potato blight was not limited to Ireland - Irish saying: God sent the blight, but the English landlord sent the famine - to stay on family lands Irish had to pay rent to English landlords — in the form of food stuffs — while the potato crops are failing, a lot of food went to England (milk products, pork products, grain) peasant origins - not educated, without skills, mostly illiterate
- were culturally different; group / family more important than individual — did not fit into US culture of individualism, industrializing, capitalist values - Irish / southern Italians were considered different races - Irish immigration was largely single people – young males and females (teens in many cases) - some early Italian immigrants were brought over as contract laborers regional and occupational patterns - settled in urban areas - without education or skills, employment in largely manual labor (factories, mines, mills, construction, railroads, including Italian immigrants digging the first NYC subway tunnels) assimilation patterns - upward social mobility unlikely for 1st, 2nd generations; some by 3rd generation - upward social mobility positively impacted by partly by educating younger generations 3. Jews, mostly from Europe; part of New Immigration (after 1880s) - European laws had deprived many Jews of owning land, farming — therefore had settled in cities, knew trades; did not have a huge adjustment to city life — most men had a trade (tailors, skilled laborers), so were able to find decent employment in the cities — those without trades did manual labor - though the 1st 2 groups came as families, they also came as single adults (leaving area of origin as economic refugees) — Jews left area of origin as religious refugees, most arrived as family units — — due to the severe persecution in Europe, these religious
refugees were more likely to feel as though there was no going back to ‘old country’ - somewhat easier adjustment to US urban life (came as families, not likely to return, have trades for employment) - ethnic enclaves: lived in densely populated areas, created networks of businesses, very cohesive group, were able to offer financial help to others - essentially – this group was able to reach some degree of economic equality before widespread acculturation - prior to raising families Jewish women were in the work force (largely garment industry) — after having children they continued employment, but as piece work; often the whole family (including children) were involved Americanized generations - children of immigrants (2nd generation) learned more English, were exposed to American culture, values in public schools - in many families, it was expected children (2nd and 3rd generations) go into professions; with excellent and free or inexpensive education through college - as education and entering professions became profitable to Jewish immigrants, mainstream society resented this and began limiting (through quotas) number of Jewish students assimilation patterns - today Jewish Americans are above average in education, income and occupational prestige chains of immigration - true for all groups - some members come to US, begin establishment, write home - family, neighbors, friends would follow - these chains created cohesiveness that allowed for sharing of resources among new and old immigrants (ex: information is exchanged, general help getting settled, money, job offers,
family news) - immigrant groups differed in how long an enclave remained important table 2.3 median household income, percent of families living in poverty, and educational attainment for selected ethnic groups (US Census, 2008) median household income percentage of families living in poverty percentage who completed high school or more percentage who received an undergraduate degree or more All Persons $30,056 10% 75.2% 20.3% Russian $45.778 3.6 90.8 49 Italian $ 36,060 4.9 77.3 21 Polish $34,763 4.3 78.5 23.1 Ukrainian $34,474 4
77.5 28.3 Swedish $33,881 4.5 84.3 27.4 German $32,730 5.5 82.7 22 Slovak $32,352 3.8 78.2 21.6 Norwegian $32,207 5.1 85.9 26 Irish $31,845 6.5 79.6 21.2
campaign against immigration: prejudice, racism and discrimination – encountered by all groups; degree and how long varied anti-Catholicism - up until this time, US was Protestant (yes, many variations, but had similarities) - Catholics were considered to be very different; some even felt they were not Christian — celibate clergy, cloistered nuns, Latin masses — even rumors that the Pope would relocate to US and take over the US government — — these rumors were repeated in mid 1900s when John F. Kennedy was running for president - due to how Catholicism spread throughout the world (added onto existing faith practices), substantial differences among Irish, Italian, Polish Catholics so they usually set up independent parishes anti- Semitism (intense prejudice, racism, discrimination specifically targeting Jews) - pogroms (disturbance; from very mild to the Nazi’s ‘final solution’) began in Europe - for some Christians Jews were the killers of Christ (regardless of historical fact) - stereotypes of Jews: crafty business owners / materialistic money lenders — Jews went into businesses in the cities due to not welcome in farming areas — usury (charging interest for loans) was forbidden to Catholics in premodern Europe, so Jews took on this role,
leading to stereotype of being greedy and materialistic - initially (when numbers were small), not a lot of anti- Semitism in US - as more Jews left Europe, increase in prejudice, discrimination; especially as 2nd and 3rd generations were successful - peak of anti-Semitism in US – before WW II — a boat load of European Jews came to the US, but were turned away; almost 300 of that group died in Europe successful exclusion - based on quota system, the National Origins Act of 1924 drastically reduced immigration to US - using the census of 1890, limited immigration to 2% of people on that census - most generous quotas to those from Northern / Western Europe - many feel that this was responsible for many Jews not getting into the US and then dying in Europe patterns of assimilation the importance of generations - as is true to today, 1st generations don’t immediately assimilate; assimilation not until 3rd generation (or later) in general, the sequence for 3 generations 1st generation – begins process of assimilation; becomes slightly acculturated / integrated - settle in ethnic neighborhoods - limited attempt at acculturation / integration - focus is on family, group - men somewhat more likely to integration (need to learn language in workplace, etc) 2nd generation – quite acculturated, highly integrated into
secondary sectors of society (social marginality) - learn parents’ language at home; socialized into ‘old country’ ways / values which frequently stress family, not individuality - therefore are in conflict with the values they learn in public school (be independent, competitive) - hoping for upward social mobility, likely to move out of ethnic neighborhoods - more acculturated than parents - have learned to speak English fluently - more occupation choices than 1st generation - are upwardly mobile, but many are limited due to prejudice / discrimination - are ‘Americanized’ and raise their children that way - generally want to disassociate from ‘old country / ways’ 3rd generation – finishes acculturation process; has high levels of integration at secondary and primary levels - grandchildren of the 1st immigrants - are very much American, but have ties to grandparents, ethnic neighborhood; likely to speak English only (maybe a few words or phrases in ‘old’ language) above is presented in linear fashion, but this was not always the reality ethnic succession - prejudice / discrimination towards earlier ethnic groups is lessened as another group (considered to be a larger threat) comes in - this also means a push into higher social mobility, leaving their ethnic neighborhood for the next group - fits in with Gordon’s concept of integration at secondary level - can be understood by looking at 3 pathways of integration (politics, labor unions, religion)
politics - Irish arrived when the corrupt political machines of the 1800s were forming - they were not responsible for them, but did take advantage of them - corrupt politicians such as Boss Tweed (of Tammany Hall, NYC) used their position to ‘buy’ votes, favors from the Irish — if the Irish cast votes in their favor, the politician would give them municipal jobs, licenses (such as to run a butcher shop) - created economic opportunities and linked them to larger society labor unions - though most other immigrant groups participated in the labor movement, the Irish played a larger role - since many Irish were leaders in the labor movement, they were able to gain status, power - the average Irish worker (and other workers) benefited with job security, better wages - labor unions consisted of various immigrant groups - labor union leaders were intermediaries between working class white ethnics and larger society - women were also very active in the labor movement (a 4 month strike by mostly Jewish and Italian young women helped workers with wages, fewer work hours per week (had been 56 – 59 hours per week) - a deadly fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company (around 140 women, girls died either from the fire itself or from jumping to the street from several stories up) was responsible for improved working conditions, safety — Triangle shirtwaist fire religion - unlike immigrants from Northern / Western Europe, the Irish were Catholic - this was the start of the Roman Catholic church in the US; the
Irish dominated this institution for a long time - despite the unity of the Roman Catholic church, countries varied in customs and festivals - when other Catholic groups came (Italian and Poles) they ended up created their own parishes with their customs, festivals other pathways - crime — though we associate organized crime with the Italian Mafia, other immigrant groups were able to achieve upward social mobility through crime — Prohibition provided a very fertile ground for the then illegal manufacturing and distributing of alcohol — — in particular the Irish and Germans took advantage of this; their cultures were enmeshed with wine and beer - sports — sports offer a pathway to success without needing education, English fluency structural mobility - as industrialization grew, low skilled manual labor jobs were reduced; to be competitive in the new jobs, education is important - in the 1930s, a public school education became more available - after WW II (1950s) the G.I. Bill offered G.I.s a college education - overall, each generation acquired more education, achieved higher social mobility - see table 2.3 variations in assimilation (degree of similarity, religion, social class) degree of similarity - different immigrant groups varied in degree of prejudice,
discrimination encountered - those groups that the majority considered to be more similar in culture, perceived race were more accepted - emergence of preference hierarchy favoring people from Northern / Western Europe over Irish and those from Southern / Eastern Europe; Protestants favored over Catholics and Jews religion - the different immigrant groups not only kept to their own groups, they were also separate according to religion - Protestant, Catholic, Jews tended to live in different neighborhoods, had different workplace niches, separate friendship networks, and chose marriage partners from different pools - for many groups, religion continued to be a difference social class ethclass: intersection of the religious, ethnic and social class boundaries - people tend to associate with others, marry within their ethclass gender - not as much historical research of female immigrants - in general, men were more likely to immigrate first, then send for wives, families when housing, employment, general stability - immigrants from Ireland in 1800s were about 50/50 single male and female young adults, teens — most Irish females were employed in domestic work — being associated with (maybe living with) a family offered ‘respectability’ - most immigrant women were in paid labor prior to marriage; but not after marriage — in more patriarchal societies, the role of women outside the
home was more restricted — since many immigrant men did not earn enough, their wives often participated in paid labor – either outside of the home or inside the home — — if outside the home, women from more patriarchal families were likely to have jobs that were female dominated - the immigration of Jews was different from other groups in that entire families came together — more likely to work in the garment industry - in most groups, women were the ‘keepers of culture’; husbands spent more time in the majority world, but women were closer to home — not as important to learn a new language — continued with old ways of dressing, preparing food, celebrating holidays sojourners (birds of passage) come to new area to make money; intention is always to go home, maybe buy some land - not as necessary to learn language, customs — therefore not as accepted by majority group - many Italian laborers were sojourners - since Jews were fleeing extreme religious persecution and would not be going back they came as entire families — since they were here to stay, they were very committed to becoming American (language, citizenship, customs) the descendants of immigrants today geographic distribution – as depicted in figure 2.5, various groups are distributed throughout the states s - single largest category is German American (white area on map; from Pennsylvania to Pacific)
- Irish more concentrated in Massachusetts, where most first arrived - Italians more likely to arrive in New York City; more Italian Americans around NYC - higher concentrations for Native Americans, African Americans and Mexican Americans is partly due to institutional discrimination integration and equality - these immigrant groups are mostly assimilated (see table 2.3) - of the groups on this table; they are all at or above ‘all persons’ for income and education the evolution of white ethnicity – white ethnics have not just assimilated in continuous, linear fashion - 1. principle of third generation interest — though the second generation wants distance from ‘old country’ and ways, the third generation (or subsequent) wants to know more — over time, the US has become more tolerant of differences, more accepting of different ethnicities - 2. in 1960s, as African Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native Americans are seeking civil rights, they are also re- establishing cultures — therefore greater interest by white ethnics in prior culture as well (ethnic revival) symbolic ethnicity - individuals have as part of their self-identity an ethnic background, which has minor importance - this ethnic background is likely to be important during certain holidays (St. Patrick’s Day, Columbus Day), but otherwise not that important - this interest in ethnicity tends to be superficial, voluntary and changeable (since many Americans are mixtures of many different ethnic groups, some of us might put greater emphasis
on one ethnic background at one time, but another ethnic background at another time will contemporary immigrants follow the traditional path to assimilation? - some say yes - others suggest a segmented (fragmented) assimilation — some groups assimilating earlier than others; some groups desiring more separation chapter 5 – African Americans – from segregation to modern institutional discrimination and modern racism chapter begins with a story of a black man describes his experience of being ‘other’ - his experience of ‘otherness’ was that, as an adult, black male, society often considers him someone who will do harm to others - regardless of reality otherness: otherness: marginalized in society The End of De Jure Segregation - de jure segregation – segregation of blacks / whites according to law — also referred to as Jim Crow; emerged after end of reconstruction after end of Civil War — meant to keep freed slaves as exploitable work force; limit power - after end of slavery, plantation owners were able to remain in production through sharecropping — however, as agriculture technology became more mechanized, this high degree of hands on labor wasn’t as important; freed slaves and families have greater probability of leaving the south — also, with industrialization, many blacks move to urban north where the more restrictive Jim Crow laws were not practiced
— slowly, blacks gain some political power in north; are also able to organize some — — little by little, de jure segregation is reduced wartime developments - 1941 – US is not yet at war; however, getting ready for possibility of war - racial discrimination was common in employment; jobs were often segregated with Sleeping Car Porters being a job for blacks — poor pay, worked long hours, had to pay for own uniforms, food, lodging - A. Philip Randolf, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters threatened to march on Washington - Executive Order 8802 signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt which banned discrimination in defense related industries (railroads were considered important to defense) - this is significant 1. a group of African Americans had their grievances heard and got what they wanted 2. government made a commitment to fair employment rights for blacks the Civil Rights Movement – series of attempts to end legalized segregation, help with huge inequalities faced by blacks - included: protests, demonstrations, lawsuits, courtroom battles Brown vs Board of Education (Topeka) 1954 (originally filed for Linda Brown) - began as 5 separate court cases, were consolidated by Supreme Court - Oliver Brown’s name was put first on list (felt having a man first, increased their chances) - essentially reversed the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision that said ‘separate but equal’ - the culmination of decades planning by NAACP (National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People) — objective: attack Jim Crow by identifying situations where the civil rights of African Americans had been violated; bring suit against that agency — goal: Supreme Court declares segregation unconstitutional in that case and all similar cases Linda Brown - though, in principle schools were desegregated, the ideology behind Jim Crow / segregation continued; Brown V Board of Education was continually fought, especially in the south - Prince Edward County (central Virginia) got around B v B of E by closing its public schools — all white children went to private schools for 5 years; no education for black children nonviolent direct action protest - 1st protest: bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, December 5, 1955, to December 20, 1956 - March 2, 1955 – Fifteen year old Claudette Colvin refused to give up her seat on the bus and her case was initially going to be used by the NAACP — however, after the incident she became pregnant by a married man and the NAACP hesitated to use her case since she would be put down due to the mores of the time — her pregnancy would also have been used against her in trial due to the social mores of the time — was also in Montgomery, Alabama - December 1, 1955 Rosa Parks also refused to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama - NAACP used Rosa Parks’ case to bring to the Supreme Court nonviolent direct action: confronted de jure segregation on the streets, not in court or legislatures - example the Montgomery bus boycott - based on Christianity, Henry David Thoreau and Gandhi
- objective is to confront the forces of evil(institutions) , rather than the individuals doing the evil; desire to win friendship, support of enemies - Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote a lot about nonviolent direct action (which can be (and has been) used in many other applications) — at the time of the bus boycott, King was a new pastor in Montgomery; he lead this effort - used many techniques depending on the situation: sit-ins, protest marches, demonstrations, prayer meetings, voter registration drives — response to these nonviolent direct actions was violence by police as well as groups like the KKK landmark legislation – 2 laws passed in 1964 and 1965 by Congress – both initiated by Lyndon B. Johnson 1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination on grounds of: race, color, religion, national origin or gender - applied to publically owned places such as swimming pools, parks, businesses and other facilities open to the public (and any programs receiving federal aid) 2. Voting Rights Act of 1965 - the same standards are to be used to register all citizens to vote (federal, state and local elections) — banned literacy tests, whites only primaries, etc — especially helped Southern blacks to vote the success and limitations of the Civil Rights Movement 1. changing subsistence technology - the rigid competitive system of Jim Crow is not enforceable when population industrializes and moves to urban areas 2. an era of prosperity - the 1950s into the 1960s was a prosperous time for the US - this prosperity reduced the intensity of intergroup competition
(especially in the north; not so much in the south) - when times are prosperous, reduced resistance to change - overall, minority groups are not as likely to be considered a threat 3. increasing resources in the black community - the prosperity also increased the economic and political resources of blacks - interconnected African American controlled organizations and institutions emerged (example: churches, colleges) 4. assimilation goals - the goals of the Civil Rights Movement were seen to be appropriate and reflective of US values (liberty, equality, freedom, fair treatment) by many (mostly northern whites / not so much by the south) 5. coalitions - alliances with other, more powerful groups increased resources of black community - example: white liberals, Jews, college students 6. mass media (especially TV) - when mass media showed footage of blacks being attacked for demonstrating their rights — this was frequently the first time northern whites really saw / understood what was going on though de jure segregation was ended, discrimination in jobs, distribution of wealth, political power, etc continued Developments Outside the South de facto segregation - inequality, segregation that appears to be voluntary by both blacks and whites, but isn’t - this de facto (by tradition) segregation results from
government and quasi government agencies (real estate boards, school boards, zoning boards) - in the north racial discrimination wasn’t as overt but existed (labor unions, employers, white ethnic groups, etc) - African Americans have dealt with greater poverty, higher unemployment, lower quality housing, inadequate schools - blacks expressed concerns with above through urban unrest and the black power movement urban unrest - riots began in 1965 in Watts, Los Angeles and spread throughout US cities - though racial riots were not new, but the new riots were more likely to be blacks rather than whites as aggressors — in particular white owned businesses in black neighborhoods were targeted — another concern – police brutality the black power movement - loose coalition of organizations, spokesperson – many proposed viewpoints that to some degree differed with the civil rights movement - some groups preferred not assimilation into white society, but increased black control over schools, police, welfare programs, other public services - emphasized black pride, African heritage, Black Nationalism - some felt that assimilation would require blacks to become part of the system of oppression - these concerns were brought out by Marcus Garvey in the 1920s the Nation of Islam - made distinction between racial separation and racial segregation — racial separation – a group becomes stronger with autonomy and self-control
— racial segregation – system of inequality – black community is powerless and controlled by majority - desire to develop own resources and be able to deal with majority group from a position of power - best known spokesperson – Malcolm X Protest, Power, and Pluralism the black power movement in perspective - by late 60s, US weakens in its commitment to racial change, racial equality — didn’t just go away, but went underground — at this point black power is part of US black culture, awareness gender and black protest - though often relegated to clerical type positions, African American women provided an important cornerstone for the movement Black-White Relations Since the 1960s: Issues and Trends - numerous advances in black / white relations and inequality, but a long way to go also - many thought that the US entered a ‘post-racial’ era with the election of Barack Obama - however, we saw increases in hate groups and hate crimes towards blacks after his election wins and inaugurations - over the last year and a half prejudice and discrimination towards blacks and other groups (Jews, Muslims, Hispanics, some Asians) have had a huge increase continuing separation - in 1968 a presidential commission looked at urban unrest; then warned that US was ‘moving towards 2 societies, one black, one white, separate and unequal’ - as stated above, though there was a brief period when many
(not all) felt racism towards blacks was no longer, we now know this is not true – and hadn’t been true during that time period - over time, there have been more riots; example the 1991 beating by the police of Rodney King — riots emerged after the trial that acquitted the police officers of almost all charges - in 2009 in Oakland, CA, Oscar Grant (23 year old black man) was shot in the back by police officers at a subway station — the officer shooting him claimed Oscar was reaching for a weapon, but Oscar had no weapon the criminal justice system and African Americans - in the US considerable mistrust between law enforcement and the black community a biased criminal justice system? - a long history of abuse, harassment, mistreatment of black citizens by police - police often perceived as an ‘occupying force’ - perception of bias increased after Trayvon Martin was killed by George Zimmerman - recent (2007) research: blatant and overt discrimination has been reduced, but biases remain (but this same study done in 2017 may have different results) - today these biases are more subtle, not always seen, especially by majority society - black children, juveniles and adults more likely to be watched, followed, arrested than white juveniles / adults the war on drugs - not just a ‘war on drugs’ – the war has been aimed primarily at the form of a drug (cocaine) that is cheaper and therefore used more in the black community - though both powder cocaine (used by more upper class whites) and crack cocaine (used more by lower class blacks) are illegal, their abuse is differentially treated
— punishments for crack cocaine have been much more severe than powder cocaine - in figure 5.1 we see higher arrest rates for drug abuse violations for black juveniles than for white juveniles - a similar finding in research done on use of marijuana — though use rates are the same for black / white youth, black youth are 3.5 times more likely to be arrested — according to Brent Staples, this is due to black being more likely to be watched, stopped, frisked and profiled racial profiling - police use race as an indicator in trying to determine whether a person is suspicious or dangerous - recent study on preschoolers and grammar school children also found that black children were more likely to be perceived as more ‘dangerous’ - these tactics increase the resentment, distrust and fear of law enforcement by the black community the new Jim Crow? - some see the above as a continuation of Jim Crow in that once arrested, blacks are more likely to be brought to trial, convicted (especially of felonies) - the stigma of a felony conviction drastically reduces gainful, legitimate employment; ineligible for many government programs including student loans — result: individuals are marginalized, excluded, treated as second class citizens increasing class inequality the black middle class - evidence of black middle class families from prior to Civil War — mostly due to occupations / businesses that serve African
American community - though everyone was hit hard by the recession (2007), it was especially problematic for black families - figure 5.2 shows the disparity in wealth (accrued over time) for blacks / whites urban poverty - the manual labor / factory / manufacturing jobs have left US cities, where many blacks are concentrated - as our society has moved into a post industrial subsistence technology, service jobs are prominent — however the more stable, better paying service jobs require more education, but the inner cities have very inadequate schools - blacks more likely to live in highly impoverished neighborhoods and do not have equal access to societal resources, such as education that allows for upward social mobility modern institutional discrimination closed networks and racial exclusion - a study in 2003 looked at students graduating from a trade school - the black and white students were very similar in education, training, etc; however, whites almost always got jobs afterwards and these jobs were better paying and more secure - interviews revealed that training / personality were not the reason for the differences — what mattered was not ‘what you know’ but ‘who you know’ — white students had access to better networks in the job market the differential impact of hard times - overall, African Americans are more vulnerable to both medical and economic problems
- hits this population earlier, hits harder, creates more stress, last longer - example: unemployment rates in figure 5.3 - another example: home ownership (which is an important part of wealth creation) - 2008 survey — compared to white families black and other minority families are 3 times more likely to have been victims of the subprime home loans — then, due to these loans are 2 times more likely to lose a home to foreclosure — in many instances the black community was specifically targeted for these loans the family institution and the culture of poverty 2 ways of explaining black, inner city poverty 1. ‘culture of poverty’ 2. structural culture of poverty - the black family is structurally weak (primary proponent was Patrick Moynihan, 1965) — more female headed households — higher rates of divorce, separation, desertion, illegitimacy — the above supposedly represents a ‘crumbling’ family structure, thus leading to more and more poverty - in figure 5.4 we see black / white differences have increased - therefore the ‘logical’ conclusion would be to ‘fix’ the ‘flaws’ in black families, the community structural - the matriarchal family structure, etc are NOT causing the
problems, but are the result of these problems - the real problem is related to many structures of society — continuing prejudice and racism reduces educational, housing opportunities; decreases employment possibilities — in particular African American men not as able to support a family due to: high rates of unemployment, incarceration (higher than majority population, but not due to any innate character differences), violence (including death) - black families are more likely to be in poverty since men are not as able to support families and black women are at the bottom of income hierarchy - some of these male / female employment differences result from de-industrialization — good blue collar jobs are gone; what’s left are the female concentrated, low income service jobs - overall, the problem of poverty in the inner city, black community is a reflection of the racism (and sexism) in our society figure 5.5: income by race / gender mixed race and new racial identities - in the US ‘race’ is usually thought of as a black / white issue - more ‘mixed’ children are being born - society (and how individuals see themselves) is not as starkly black / white as before possible identities for ‘mixed race’ individuals (from a small sample, not generalizable in percentages – but useful as a tool of understanding) 1. border identity — those with ‘border identity’ do not see selves as either black or white - validated border identity — see selves as biracial and society ‘validates’ this (family, friends, community)
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CHAPTER 3the story of the slave ship, the Zong- in Novembe.docx

  • 1. CHAPTER 3 the story of the slave ship, the Zong: - in November of 1781, after 3 months at sea the Zong was nearing the ‘New World’ from the western coast of Africa - had started with 471 African individuals intended for the slave trade - fresh water was very low and disease had broken out - in accordance with the ‘economics’ of the slave trade and the norms of the time, the slaves were considered ‘cargo’ – no different from livestock - the ‘cargo’ had been insured at the beginning of the trip — slaves that died of natural causes (lack of water, disease) would not be covered by the insurance — however, if the slaves died from being thrown overboard while still alive, the ship owners’ insurance would cover the lose — hoping to save water and reduce the spread of disease, 54 sick slaves were chained together and thrown overboard — over 2 days, more live slaves were thrown overboard (total: 132 persons) at 1st the insurance company was going to pay, but a new freed slave, Equiano (living free in England now) made an abolitionist aware and a new trial determined the slaves were people, not cargo or livestock and the ship owners did not get the insurance foundations of US - beginning in 1600s and through 1700s the US is an agricultural society - land and labor are needed
  • 2. - to get land and labor 3 groups were made into minority status — these groups joined the colonies, then the US through colonization — these 3 groups are still having problems today (Native American, African American, Hispanic/Mexican American) two themes throughout this text 1) what the current subsistence technology is for a specific time period) (impacts majority – minority relations at that time (subsistence technology: how a society provides for basic goods, services (shelter, food, water) for its people) (see table) what’s important hunting / gathering / foraging human energy little stratification - dependent of what nature provides agriculture human energy and animal energy - more surplus - increased stratification - majority / minority relationship is likely to be patriarchal - land ownership - cheap, easily controllable workforce industrialization addition of other energy sources, culminating in electricity - even more surplus - even more stratification - capital to build factories, buy machinery and raw materials, pay workers post industrialization / information electricity human energy
  • 3. - high stratification education 2) what the contact situation is when 2 or more groups first make contact (impacts majority – minority relations at the time and later) the initial contact situation - application of the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses - they are not mutually exclusive; they look at similar, overlapping issues - much can be learned by applying both hypotheses — Noel hypothesis Noel Hypotheses at contact conditions result Noel Two or more groups come together if the following conditions exist - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups resulting in inequality and institutionalized discrimination in the form of ethnic or racial stratification figure 3.2 below uses Noel’s hypothesis to understand the creation of prejudice and racism the model below uses the Noel hypothesis to understand how minority group status is created
  • 4. application of the Noel hypothesis: some form of inequality (often racial or ethnic stratification) will emerge if 3 conditions exist at time of contact - ethnocentrism – all other cultures are compared against one’s own culture — to a certain degree low ethnocentrism (having pride in one’s own group) is good; it creates a sense of solidarity, cohesion, a sense of belonging to a group, pride in that group — however, ethnocentrism is problematic when a hierarchy is added to the categories; some groups are considered better than others — ethnocentrism can set social boundaries - competition groups compete over a scarce, valued resource; competition can result in prejudice (attitudes), discrimination (actions); almost anything can be a scarce resource — motivation to establish superiority - power differential among the groups (group with greater power is able to achieve goals, even if other group opposes these goals); amount of power can be determined by — size of group (greater size, more power) — degree of organization, discipline, leadership — resources (anything that can help the group to accomplish goals; can include money, information, land; can also include access to adequate education, etc.) power: ability of a group to achieve its goals, even others
  • 5. oppose it — Blauner hypothesis Blauner Hypothesis Is the initial contact due to colonization or immigration? - if initial contact is immigration, the individuals in that group will encounter fewer problems with prejudice, discrimination - if the initial contact is colonization there will be more prejudice and discrimination from the beginning and these problems will persist longer and be harder to overcome - colonization: forced by military, political, economic power — creates more problems for prejudice, discrimination (at the time and into the future) — there are large inequalities; cultures are attacked — overall, reduced assimilation - immigration: a least somewhat voluntary slavery Spain (and to some extent Portugal) had been ahead of Britain in conquering land (mostly in Central and South America) - acquisition of gold, silver from these areas increased Spain’s power - in contrast, Britain had only 2 colonies (Plymouth – Protestant families and Jamestown – founded as commercial enterprise) — also Britain did not find the large quantities of gold and silver found by Spain - by 1619 Britain has only 2 small, struggling colonies origins of slavery in America colonial Jamestown, August 1619 - Dutch ship is off course and needs provisions — all they had to trade were 19 or 20 persons from Africa — — these individuals may have been intended to be slaves in those parts of the Americas where slavery was recognized
  • 6. — — however, in Virginia at this time they likely became indentured servants (contract laborers – a contract is put together – specifies how long the servitude is, type of labor, living conditions) (see * below) - when contract is up, person is freed, often given ‘freedom dues’ (usually including land, starter seed, etc.) * in early 1600s England did not legally acknowledge slavery; therefore England and her colonies did not (openly) practice slavery as pointed out in the story regarding Anthony, the status of Africans in Virginia was ambiguous for several decades - Anthony, and others in similar situations, became land owners and were considered the same as any other resident — Anthony brought in his own indentured servants the institution of slavery is developed - slavery has existed throughout recorded history, and most likely prior to recorded history — some feel that slavery would not have taken hold in societies that are strictly foraging (hunting and gathering) since it would be necessary to have a surplus(which foragers do not accumulate) and the subsequent inequalities for slavery to be viable by the mid 1700s in colonial America, slavery was accepted and practiced by Britain and her colonies - beginnings of institutionalization of slavery: laws and customs that support slavery emerge - concept of a person as chattel: one person owning another person (different from indentured servant where that person’s labor, energy is owned for a set period of time) — as chattel slaves were not just providing labor, energy; also loss of basic civil rights such as decision of where to live, who to associate with, even relationships with spouses / children
  • 7. role of religion – initially colonists could not enslave someone who had been baptized Christian; this changed indentured servitude - 2 parties enter into a contract which specifies conditions of service (what type of work, how many hours a day / days per week), length of service (typically 4 – 7 years) — sometimes used to pay off a debt - was already in use in Britain, so was brought to the colonies - indentured servitude turned out to not be as profitable as hoped in the colonies — after the 4 – 7 year contract, that labor is lost — due to horrific living conditions in colonies, many indentured servants didn’t even live long enough to fulfill their indenture, so another loss — once the indenture is over, not only are these laborers released, but the law stated that they should be given ‘freedom dues’ which usually included their own land, starter seed, possibly other stuff like a plow or clothing (thus freed indentured servants are now competitors) - indentured servitude is where a master owns another person’s labor for set period of time under specific conditions — this is not the same as slavery where one person totally owns another person; the ‘owned’ person (slave) is considered no more than property, livestock, chattel — — slaves’ civil rights no longer exist labor supply problems - initially colonies (then the US) were agricultural subsistence technology — at this time agriculture was (human) labor intensive - the plantation system emerged in the south where 2 things were necessary — large areas of land to grow (and then export): sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice — a large, very cheap, easily controlled labor force (necessary
  • 8. since profit margins tended to be small) - initially Jamestown (started as a business enterprise, nothing to do with religion) relied on indentured servants from Britain and north west Europe 8/14/18 application of the Blauner Hypothesis - considers two different initial relationships (on a continuum) — colonization and immigration — and hypothesizes that: — minority groups created by colonization will experience more intense prejudice, racism, and discrimination than those created by immigration — the disadvantaged status of colonized groups will persist longer and be more difficult to overcome than the disadvantaged status faced by groups created by immigration colonized minority groups: - are forced into minority status by superior military, political power, technology of colonizer - are subjected to massive inequalities and attacks on their cultures - are assigned to positions from which any form of assimilation is extremely difficult and perhaps even forbidden - are identified by highly visible racial or physical characteristics that maintain and reinforce the oppressive system - experience greater prejudice and discrimination at the beginning, which continues longer than immigrant groups immigrant minority groups: - are at least in part voluntary participants in the host society and have at least some control over their destination and their position in the host society - do not occupy such markedly inferior positions as colonized groups do and retain enough internal organization and resources to pursue their own self-interests - boundary between majority group and immigrant group is not
  • 9. as rigid, especially if both are perceived as being racially similar - commonly experience more rapid acceptance and easier movement to equality as boundaries between groups are not so rigidly maintained, especially when the groups are racially similar groups that are treated as both immigrants and colonized, have a status intermediate between that of immigrant groups and colonized groups using the Noel Hypothesis to explain why black indentured servants (and not the other 2 groups) became enslaved table 3.2 The Noel Hypothesis Applied to the Origins of Slavery Three Causal Factors Potential Sources of Labor Ethnocentrism Competition Differential in Power white indentured servants yes yes no American Indians yes yes no black indentured servants yes yes yes - all 3 groups encountered ethnocentrism - all 3 groups experienced competition with the majority group
  • 10. - differential in power is the key variable here — at beginning power between Europeans and Native Americans was fairly equal — — in some ways the Native Americans had greater power: greater numbers and their weaponry was better than the muskets and cannons of this early period — Native Americans had good organization (after all, they were not ‘subdued’ until late 1800s) plantation system of agriculture - emerged in south where crops were more likely to need a lot of hands on labor - to maximize profits this labor should be low cost and easily controlled — slavery solved this problem - indentured servants used at beginning, no longer viable — the contracts meant that their labor was owned for only 4 – 7 years — word was spread in Britain and surrounding areas that the living conditions in the colonies was difficult — once the contract was over, giving them ‘freedom dues’ was an extra cost (and, since land was often part of the freedom dues, possible competitors were created) - slavery allowed plantation owners (landowners) to generate profits, status and success - bringing persons into the colonies from the African continent was very cost-effective - attempts at enslaving Native Americans (Indians) did not work — knew the layout of the land and could more easily run away — when running away, easy to blend in with other Native Americans — over time fewer and fewer Native Americans left in the eastern colonies (warfare, disease, being relocated) 8/10/17 3 groups were exploited to acquire land and needed labor that could be easily controlled
  • 11. - Native Americans were exploited for their land - African Americans were exploited for their labor - Hispanic / Mexican Americans were exploited for both labor and land paternalistic relations - especially in the southern colonies which used a plantation based economy to flourish - plantation based economy — a small group of elites who are wealthy and own land - paternalism emerged as the relationship between elite owners and slaves — very large power differentials — huge inequalities — elaborate and repressive systems of control over minority group by majority group — barriers between groups are caste like (ascribed characteristics) — elaborate and highly stylized codes of behavior, of communication between groups — overt conflict was rare (too great power differentials) ascribed – those characteristics we are born with such as sex, race achieved – characteristics that individuals gain through effort (skills, status such as having a BA) - our society today puts greater emphasis on achieved characteristics without recognizing the limiting factors of ascribed characteristics paternalism – the group with greater authority / control restricts the autonomy of another group, supposedly in the best interests of the less powerful group (in reality the concerns / needs of the less powerful group are not considered)
  • 12. slavery - slaves were defined as chattel (property) and had no civil or political rights - master determined the type and severity of punishment - slaves were forbidden by law to read or write - marriages were not legally recognized and masters separated families - slavery was a caste system, or a closed stratification system (a child’s status (slave or free) is based on the status of the mother – also known as the one drop rule - a rigid, strictly enforced code of etiquette had slaves show deference and humility when interacting with whites - unequal interactions allowed elites to maintain an attitude of benevolent despotism toward slaves — often expressed as positiveemotions of affection for their black slaves Mw 2/5 mwf 2/7 the powerlessness of slaves made it difficult for them to openly reject or resist the system, however, slaves: - revolted - ran away (many with the help of the abolitionist Underground Railroad) - used the forms of resistance most readily available to them— sabotage, intentional carelessness, dragging their feet, and work slowdowns with the development of the institution of slavery, a distinct African American experience accumulated and traditions of both resistance and accommodation developed side by side African American culture: created as a response to slavery - found in folklore, music, religion, family and kinship
  • 13. structures understanding the creation of slavery - power differentials - inequality - institutional discrimination — legal and political institutions created to give power over slaves terminology: American Indians, Indians, Native Americans, First Peoples, Indigenous peoples, AmerIndians (all refer to same group) American Indians (Native Americans) - at least 500 different cultures in Americas prior to arrival of Europeans — a lot of variation in subsistence technologies, cultures, languages, sizes, home territory, histories — therefore there is no one entity of ‘Native Americans’ - 1763: England said the tribes were “sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land” — each tribe was to be treated as a nation-state — would be compensated for any lands taken - as Europeans arrived in east and moved west, lands were taken from Native Americans — also, food sources, culture taken away - many tribes, nations, cultures have been lost — even many groups that still exist have lost languages, aspects of culture — other groups are much, much smaller than before arrival of Europeans — — some death due to warfare; a lot more due to diseases (some deliberately imposed) and destruction of food sources as land was taken Native Americans and the Noel Hypothesis:
  • 14. - initially not great differences in weaponry, resource bases between Europeans and Native Americans — over time EuroAmericans gained greater power in all areas and were able to defeat Native Americans sovereignty – to what degree are a people self-governing - can a people enter into a treaty with another people? — if so, how binding is that agreement? - in 1763 Britain ruled that the different tribes should be considered “sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land” — therefore lands could not be simply taken away; decisions would be made with treaties signed — any lands taken would be compensated for - after Revolutionary War, the new government did not acknowledge sovereignty of the Native American groups gender relations - as there were different cultures, tribes had differing family systems, including a great deal of variety in gender relations — some tribes were patriarchal — though many tribes practiced gendered division of labor; some tribes allowed women a lot of power - upon contact with EuroAmericans the gender relations of many tribes changed; some becoming more patriarchal, some less patriarchal — overall: change in gender roles Native Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: - Native Americans are a colonized minority group — have had and continue to have high levels of prejudice, racism and discrimination
  • 15. - similar to African Americans, Native Americans have been controlled through a paternalistic system (the reservation system) — coercive acculturation 10/17/17 Mexican Americans Spain had been exploring / exploiting Mexico before England had her colonies - Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded in 1598 (almost 10 years before Jamestown was founded) - as EuroAmericans sought land as they moved west, they made contact with Mexico Texas - in 1820s, many Anglo Americans were moving into east Texas to grow cotton - by 1835 outnumbered Tejanos (Texans of Mexican descent) 6 to 1. - when US annexed Texas in 1840s, a war erupted between US and Mexico — settled with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and much of what is now known as the south-west US was ceded to the US - 1852: Gadsden Purchase – more southwest territory acquired colonization - with these lands ceded to the US, the inhabitants (had been citizens of Mexico) were now a conquered, colonized minority - though the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo said that any person’s of Mexican descent living in these ceded lands could keep their land (language as well), many legal, illegal and quasi legal techniques were used to get these lands territory ceded to US in Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo could be thought of as being in 4 areas that roughly correspond to the US states of Texas, California, New Mexico and Arizona - these areas differed, resulting in different relationships with
  • 16. the US - overall all these areas were sparsely settled - economy largely based on farming, herding - Catholic Church was a foundation of culture, family life and was dominated by the elite class of wealthy landowners Gold Rush – 1849 - people (mostly middle class, single men) came to California to mine gold - soon more Anglos than Californios (native Mexicans living in California) - Anglos had greater power, taking over California land and political power - in the beginning California was on track to be a multi-ethnic, multilingual state — as Anglos gained greater power, this did not happen - using violence, biased laws, discrimination, and other means of exploitation Californios were repressed New Mexico - here original Mexicans were able to retain some political, economic power — the group here was larger and had resources in mobilizing for political activity the contact for Mexican Americans - since these areas varied, so did the contact situation vary - end result: both colonization and immigration statuses for persons of Mexican descent (then and now) — Mexican Americas became a minority group Mexican Americans and the Noel Hypothesis: - the prejudices towards African Americans was transferred to Mexicans (mostly the poorer Mexicans who were stereotyped as lazy and shiftless) - Mexicans consisted of Spanish, Native American and some
  • 17. African - highly Roman Catholic in a time when Catholicism was not accepted by US majority both land and labor were desired by US Anglos Anglo-Americans used their superior numbers and military power to acquire control of the political and economic structures and expropriate the resources of the Mexican American community—both land and labor. Mexican Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: - culture and language were suppressed even as their property rights were abrogated and their status lowered also subjected to coercive acculturation however, Mexican Americans were in close proximity to their homeland and maintained close ties with villages and families this constant movement across the border with Mexico kept the Spanish language and much of the Mexican heritage alive in the Southwest (sojourners) - for Mexican American women, the consequences of contact were variable even though the ultimate result was a loss of status within the context of the conquest and colonization of the group as a whole the kinds of jobs available to the men (mining, seasonal farm work, railroad construction) often required them to be away from home for extended periods of time, and women, by default, began to take over the economic and other tasks traditionally performed by males however, poverty and economic insecurity placed the family structures under considerable strain
  • 18. like black female slaves, Mexican American women became a very vulnerable part of the social system comparing minority groups each of these three groups, became involuntary players in the growth and development of European and, later, American economic and political power all three were overpowered and relegated to an inferior, subordinate status against their will, and were coercively acculturated in the context of paternalistic relations in an agrarian economy meaningful integration was not a real possibility, and in Gordon’s (1964) terms, we might characterize these situations as “acculturation without integration” or structural pluralism. Mexico, Canada and the United States Like the Spanish in Mexico, the French in Canada tended to link to and absorb indigenous social structure - however, French-Canadians, similar to Mexican Americans, full assimilation has been (continues to be) difficult 5 chapter 4 – industrialization and dominant-minority relations; from slavery to segregation and the coming of the postindustrial society story at beginning: author Richard Wright discusses lives of blacks in kitchenettes of the urban north to what had been in rural south (early 1900s) - kitchenette – very small housing; bathrooms shared by many families; each family usually had a small, utilitarian kitchen
  • 19. - housing is substandard, over-priced - poor living conditions - easy for landlords to exploit renters – charging outrageous rents for buildings that often should’ve been demolished subsistence technology – how a society provides basic needs of members - when subsistence technology changes, the relationship between minority / majority is effected Table 4.1 Three Subsistence Technologies and the United States Technology Key Trends and Characteristics Dates Agrarian labor-intensive agriculture; control of land and labor are central 1607 – early 1800s Industrial capital-intensive manufacturing; machines replace animal and human labor early 1800s to mid 1900s Postindustrial shift away from manufacturing to a service economy; the ‘information society’ mid 1900s to present industrialization and the shift from paternalistic to rigid competitive group relations - industrialization began in England in mid 1700s, then to Europe and US - use of machines & other energy sources leads to increase in production, increase in economy, available goods, services — from agrarian / paternalistic to industrial / competitive US as an agrarian society - relationships between groups is paternalistic, with dominant groups paternalistic to minority groups (example: slavery, Native American reservations where
  • 20. minority groups are – supposedly – looked after for their own ‘best interests’ (reality is that the best interests of the majority is promoted)) under industrialization – 2 forms: rigid competitive and fluid competitive relations as compared to paternalistic, the rigid competitive allows for a bit more freedom - some freedom in choosing housing - some freedom in choosing employment - somewhat more education for children - however, all of this threatens the dominant group (especially the lower income dominant group) who then want to minimize minority group members from effectively competing the impact of industrialization on the racial stratification of African Americans: from slavery to segregation reconstruction - federal government enforced new laws (civil rights to newly freed slaves) - was positive for newly freed slaves, but short lived - from about 1865 - 1880s - 15th amendment - African American males (women do not have the right to vote at this time) can vote — at first very successful - which upset elite southern Whites — initially newly freed slaves were able to vote (including some Blacks being voted into office), set up schools for Africa American children, start businesses, own land / homes after reconstruction - reversal into more exploitation, inequality 1. slavery - lack of literacy, uneducated, lack of power 2. tradition of racism continued and is passed on from generation to generation
  • 21. - backed up racist treatment of African Americans - assumption: Blacks are racial inferior - a ‘heritage of prejudice and racism’ throughout the South (and some groups / individuals in the North as well) de jure segregation (also called ‘Jim Crow’ system) - ‘by law’ - legal institutions back up segregation - segregation: minority status groups (and individuals) forced to be separate from dominant groups (even the non-elite classes of dominant group) - segregation in housing, education, jobs, etc. - inferior treatment of Blacks demanded (not just backed up) by legal system de facto segregation – by tradition (ostensibly because it is what people want) sharecropping - (impacted both poor whites and blacks) more problematic for blacks than whites (blacks less likely to read / know someone who did read; then taken advantage of by plantation owners — such as what was actually in the contract (and what newly freed slaves were told was in the contract) - tenant farming - type of ‘leasing’ land - poor whites and blacks given seed, food, materials, clothing, etc. in exchange for a ‘share’ of the profit at end of harvest - anything that they were given in beginning is considered part of their >debt= to the plantation owner - frequently what the ‘debt’ was could / would change at discretion of plantation owner (to plantation owners benefit) the great migration - one difference for southern Blacks after end of slavery - no longer - legally - tied to one plantation (for the most part – ‘sharecropping’ could create problems) - therefore had freedom to relocate (and would compete with other minority status
  • 22. groups for low-paying jobs) - many went north to urban areas and factory jobs life in the north - yes, some positives (able to vote, get education for kids, get away from racial ‘etiquette’ - more job opportunities) - however, the ongoing prejudice and discrimination still created problems dual labor market - primary labor market — stable employment, decent wages — jobs in large bureaucracies - more secure, etc. - secondary labor market — unstable employment, poor wages — competitive market - low-paying, low-skilled jobs - not secure; lack benefits — split labor market - within the secondary labor market split labor market - based on Marxism which sees 2 and only 2 classes (socio- economic statuses) — capitalists - own the means of production — labor - sell their labor for subsistence wages - there are at least 2 divisions within the secondary labor market (this is the split) - all sell labor for subsistence wages - at least one group resembles the capitalist regarding perceived racial grouping and or ethnicity - at least one group does not resemble the capitalist regarding perceived racial grouping and or ethnicity - creates an advantage for capitalists - keep the split labor markets in competition with each other - therefore capitalists win because their overhead is lower, since they can spend less $ on paying labor (split labor markets are each willing to take the job for less $ since something is better than nothing) - it is often to the capitalists advantage to further stir things up
  • 23. by bringing attention to racial / ethnic differences Matewan – movie that depicts split labor market https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matewan competition with white ethnic groups - before we discussed the large influx of European immigrants into the US in mid to later 1800s - at the time when blacks are beginning to migrate north, European immigrants beginning to have upward social mobility - as ethnic whites leave low income housing, communities, blacks more in — however, white ethnics still dealing with prejudice, discrimination from elite whites — jobs, adequate housing still a struggle for many — and elite whites - wanting to reduce their overhead / increase profits - use incoming blacks as strikebreakers, scabs when ethnic whites tried to form unions — increased inter-racial problems at low end of economic hierarchy incoming blacks did, however, help out the social situation of ethnic whites - in that now the elite whites are putting the focus of their prejudice, discrimination - less on the ethnic white origins of black protest W.E.B. Du Bois - had at least one Ph.D. - advocated that blacks should strive for as much mainstream education as possible - wanted better public schools for blacks as well as whites - joined with white liberals - eventually founding NAACP — National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 2/14/18 Booker T. Washington
  • 24. - agreed with Du Bois that education was important - but disagreed in that he felt it was best for blacks (at this time) to stay in their niche, their communities and do as well as possible there Marcus Garvey - born in Jamaica - came to US - was a printer - rather than blacks working into mainstream society, he advocated separatism — even advocated for a movement of freed slaves and descendants moving back to Africa - began movement towards Black Nationalism, Black Pride shift from rigid to fluid competitive relationships - the rigid competitive systems (such as Jim Crow) associated with earlier phases of industrialization have given way to fluid competitive systems of group relations - in fluid competitive relations, there are no formal or legal barriers to competition. Compared with previous systems, the fluid competitive system is closer (not there yet) to the American ideal of an open, fair system of stratification in which effort and competence are rewarded and race, ethnicity, gender, religion, and other “birthmarks” are not as important dimensions of minority-group status acculturation and integration structural pluralism / inequality - not assimilation - blacks created and lived in a separate sub-culture / sub-society (neighborhoods, schools, churches, businesses) - Rosewood - at this time beginnings of middle class blacks - over time many middle class blacks moved out of inner cities, frequently leaving the other blacks in a more problematic situation industrialization, the shift to a postindustrial society, and
  • 25. dominant-minority group relations: general trends - paternalistic system no longer useful - urbanization provided more (not a bunch more) potential for education, etc. - populations of African Americans - in sub-communities were able to organize occupational specialization - increase in jobs - need production, transport, sales of goods, services - jobs became more specialized as complex tasks were broken down into smaller steps that frequently did not require as much skill, knowledge - industrial, urban society no longer controlled by paternalism - a complex industrial structure has emerged - growth of white-collar jobs and the service sector — movement from industrial to information / service jobs — — deindustrialization - part of postindustrial society — most job growth in service sector; most service sector jobs are no- skill / low skill requirements — but there is variation, some do require more education, etc. and have larger salaries bureaucracy and rationality - large workforces and specialization (and sub-specialties) required that a middle management system come forth - bureaucracies developed to organize the large industrial structures, including middle management - bureaucracies - supposedly based on rationality — people get jobs, promotions based on performance, abilities — reality: bureaucracies are not as rational as they seem extractive (primary) jobs - produce raw materials manufacturing (secondary) jobs - transform raw materials into finished products service (tertiary) jobs - nothing is produced - services are provided
  • 26. the growing importance of education credentialism - benefits elite because they can ‘afford’ getting more credentials afford: 1. cost of the education (tuition, fees, books, transportation) 2. cost of a family member not being in the labor force — increase in student debt without the means to pay it off competition with white ethnic groups - before we discussed the large influx of European immigrants into the US in mid to later 1800s - at the time when blacks are beginning to migrate north, European immigrants beginning to have upward social mobility - as ethnic whites leave low income housing, communities, blacks more in — however, white ethnics still dealing with prejudice, discrimination from elite whites — jobs, adequate housing still a struggle for many — and elite whites - wanting to reduce their overhead / increase profits - use incoming blacks as strikebreakers, scabs when ethnic whites tried to form unions — increased inter-racial problems at low end of economic hierarchy incoming blacks did, however, help out the social situation of ethnic whites - in that now the elite whites are putting the focus of their prejudice, discrimination - less on the ethnic white 2/16/18 mwf globalization - world is getting ‘smaller’ - we are tied to other nations, other cultures through: trade, information sharing (etc. computers), transportation (taking a plane to Japan or ???) - we can look at the relationship between the US and other countries as similar to dominant groups within US to minority
  • 27. status groups - U.S. has become an economic, political, and military world power - our worldwide ties have created new minority groups through population movement and have changed the status of others. - dominant-minority relations in the U.S. have been increasingly played out on an international state as the world has essentially "shrunk" in size and become more interconnected by international organizations gender inequality in a globalizing, postindustrial world - deindustrialization and globalization are transforming gender relations along with dominant-minority relations - in many traditional and sexist societies, women are moving away from their traditional “wife/mother” roles, taking on new responsibilities, and facing new challenges - the changing role of women is also shaped by other characteristics of a modern society: smaller families, high divorce rates, and rising numbers of single mothers who must work to support their children as well as themselves - in part, the trends worldwide parallel those in the United States - according to a recent United Nations report, indicators such as rising education levels for women and lower rates of early marriage and childbirth show that women around the world are moving out of their traditional status Mw 2/14/18 they are entering the labor force in unprecedented numbers virtually everywhere, and women now comprise at least a third of the paid global workforce hate groups https://www.splcenter.org how does the SPLC define hate group? https://www.splcenter.org/20171004/frequently-asked-
  • 28. questions-about-hate-groups#hate group definition of a hate group by Southern Poverty Law Center “an organization that – based on its official statements or principles, the statements of its leaders, or its activities – has beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people, typically for their immutable characteristics.” how does the FBI define hate crime? https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/civil-rights/hate-crimes “A hate crime is a traditional offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias. For the purposes of collecting statistics, the FBI has defined a hate crime as a “criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity.” Hate itself is not a crime—and the FBI is mindful of protecting freedom of speech and other civil liberties.” “The organizations on our hate group list vilify others because of their race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation or gender identity – prejudices that strike at the heart of our democratic values and fracture society along its most fragile fault lines.” chapter 8 notes – Asian Americans: model minorities? chapter begins with a story of a sociologist, riding in a taxi - he was born in the US of Japanese heritage (grandfather came to US in 1880s) - taxi drive asks him how long he was in the US (the answer is since birth) - brings up the perception of ‘other’ around Asian Americans focus of this chapter: Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans (oldest Asian groups in the US; often considered to
  • 29. be ‘model minorities’) - model minorities stereotype: successful, affluent, highly educated, not suffer from minority group status (remember this is a stereotype) - intersectionality importance – a new immigrant to the US with little education, little knowledge of English, little money will have a different experience than someone educated in the US (possibly through college), raised in a middle class status household why an increase in immigration from the Philippines and India into the US? - both colonized — India by Britain — Philippines 1st by Spain, then the US current demographics - Asian Americans are about 5.6% of the total population (2012) – see table 8.1 above — contrasted with African Americans (13%) and Hispanic Americans (16%) - overall, rapid growth in numbers of Asian Americans in US recently — one reason: immigration changes in 1965 — one of the largest growing groups – Asian Indians — rapid growth is expected to continue - 10 largest Asian groups in fig 8.1 below - high percentage of foreign born in Asian American population — 88% of Asian Americans are either 1st generation (foreign born) or 2nd generation (their children) — — see figure 8.2 below - similar to Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans are - likely to identify with country of origin 1st
  • 30. origins and cultures great diversity in languages, cultures, religions - Asian cultures are much older than the founding of the US - these cultures are quite different from each other, but there are some similarities similarities: - group membership is more important than the individual — some of above from Confucianism which emphasizes a person is one part of the larger social system, one part of the status hierarchy — — therefore loyalty to group, conformity to societal expections and respect for superiors are important - it is important to be sensitive to the opinions and judgements of others; avoid public embarrassment, giving offence — guilt / shame dichotomy — — Asian cultures: emphasis on not bringing shame to the family / group from others (if someone goes against societal expectations, they are bringing shame onto their family / group) — — — emphasis on proper behavior, conformity to convention and how others judge one, avoid embarressment (to self or to others), avoid personal confrontations — — — overall desire to seek harmony — — Western culture emphasizes individuals develop personal consciences and we need to avoid guilt (if someone goes against societal expectations, they are guilty of ... — Westerners guided by personal sense of guilt) - generally (but not always) traditionally patriarchal — in China foot binding was practiced for many generations the above tendencies are more likely for individuals new to the US, but not as likely for individuals / families in the US for many generations there is greater diversity within the Asian American population
  • 31. than the Hispanic American population Contact Situations and the Development of the Chinese American and Japanese American Communities Chinese Americans - immigration push and pull from China - began in early 1800s — push (from China) – social unrest in China due to colonization of China by different European nations plus a rapid increase in population — pull (to the US) – economic opportunities such as Gold Rush ‘Yellow Peril’ – example of social construction of a racial group - term began in newspapers; meant to depict Chinese immigrants in a negative, demeaning way - without any regard for differences in culture, it was applied to Japanese immigrants Noel Hypothesis at contact and the following conditions exist result 2 or more groups come together - ethnocentrism - competition - power differential among the groups stratification racism application of Noel Hypothesis to Chinese immigration - yes, power differential from the beginning - ethnocentrism existed from the beginning - in the beginning little to no competition for jobs (robust economy and there were many jobs Americans did not want)
  • 32. — in fact, the Chinese immigrants were often praised for being industrious, tireless — when the economy declined and jobs became more scarce, competion and then stratification / racism — — Gold Rush of 1849 no longer providing jobs for Chinese immigrants; completion of the railroads, which had employed many Chinese immigrants (as well as other groups such as Irish immigrants) — — also more Anglo-Americans are arriving from east coast, increasing need for jobs Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 - by law, Chinese immigrants were not allowed to become citizens (therefore very little to nothing in political and other sources of power) - virtually banned all immigration from China - though many Chinese men that immigrated from China had not initially wanted to stay, some were staying — since it was mostly men that came over, once the Chinese Exclusion Act passed, bringing women over was not possible — plus antimiscegenation laws prevented Chinese men from marrying white women - this ban continued until WW II, when the US made a distinction between Chinese and Japanese — at this point, China is our ally, so now acceptance — however, at this point, Japan is our enemy (even US Japanese Americans put into ‘relocation’ centers) — at start of WW II, Chinese immigration into US increased somewhat, increased even more with legal changes in immigration in 1965 split labor market - the Chinese immigrants could be used by business owners to thwart organized labor, so native-born workers saw them as a threat and pushed for the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act
  • 33. ‘delayed’ 2nd generation - number of Chinese in US declined after Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (see fig 8.3 above) - most of those that remained were men; ratio of women to men was 1:25 - due to antimiscegenation laws forbading Chinese men from marrying white women, very slow growth for a 2nd generation (those born in the US) - took until 1920s for 1/3 of Chinese Americans to be native born — since the 2nd generation is often a link between the 1st generation and majority society, the delay of a 2nd generation increased isolation of Chinese immigrants the ethnic enclave - discrimination forced Chinese immigrants from smaller cities, rural areas - most came to larger cities, in particular San Francisco (but, also LA) - in the cities ethnic enclaves developed — continued isolation — ability to maintain culture — though ‘China towns’ had existed from the beginning, these ethnic enclaves became more important — many of the men who stayed were skilled artisans, experienced business owners, etc – so recreated a semblance of Chinese society — allowed for continuation of culture (language, traditions, religion, values, dress) — China town enclaves became self-contained - there were efforts by Chinese immigrants to contest racist legislation, other descrimination, but lack of power (not even being citizens) prevented any real progress — at this point, China is itself colonized, so not able to speak for Chinese in the US
  • 34. survival and development - exclusion and discrimination continues into 20th century - some economic opportunity in 2 business types: restaurants and laundries — restaurants – at this point, very few came from majority community; served Chinese, mostly single men — laundries – was used by majority society and was somewhat economically successful; however as more homes got washers (and then dryers), their use dwindled - the second generation grew up in these enclaves the 2nd generation - more contact with majority society - abandoned some traditional customs; not as loyal to the clan system that had been so important to the 1st generation - importance of WW II – many job opportunities outside of the enclave opened up — those who served in WW II could take advantage of the GI Bill and get advanced education (which improves employment opportunities) — some of this group are the background for the concept of model minority (a minority that has done well dispite prejudice, discrimination) — in reality, the Chinese American population has many at ends of a continuum (some doing well; others around poverty level) — occupational structure can be considered bipolar Japanese Americans - when Chinese Exclusion Act implemented in 1882, immigration from Japan began (there was now a vacuum for low skilled, low pay labor) the anti-Japanese campaign - Japanese immigration also began on the west coast, with similar employment
  • 35. - prejudices, discrimination against Chinese immigrants were applied to Japanese immigrants (ex: ‘Yellow Peril’) - 1907 – agreement between US and Japan – the Gentlemen’s Agreement — drastically cut immigration of men into US, but did allow women — same antimiscegenation laws forbade Japanese immigrants from marrying white women — male Japanese immigrants brought Japanese wives to US (either women they had been married to prior to their leaving or women they married ‘in proxy’); this continued until 1920s’ restrictive immigration policies — as seen in fig 8.3 above, a Japanese 2nd generation was able to begin soon after the arrival of male immigration (unlike Chinese 2nd generation) - many of the Japanese immigrants that came to US were skilled farmers; many found economic stability in some type of farming — many majority people were concerned with result of the Alien Land Act (CA legislature, 1913); non-citizens (anyone from Asia) could not own land — not successful; Japanese 1st generation (not citizens; Issei) got around this by putting the land in the names of their children (2nd generation, and, therefore citizens) ethnic enclave - similar to Chinese immigrants, Japanese immigrants create their own subsociety — most in rural, agriculture; some in cities — did business mostly within the Japanese American community - though 2nd generation Japanese Americans (Nisei) were successful in educational attainment, it did not mean they got jobs commenserate with their education relocation camps - December 7, 1941 Imperial Japan attacks Pearl Harbor (in
  • 36. Hawaii); almost 2,500 die - before Pearl Harbor, already a lot of anti-Japanese sentiment in US; FBI had been collecting information on Japanese American ‘leaders’ who were frequently sent to relocation camps earlier than other family members and without family knowing what had happened — the camps they were sent to were more restrictive - President Franklin D. Roosevelt and congress declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941 - the prejudice and discrimination already aimed at Japanese Americans increased; a lot of concern about their loyalty to the US since the US was now at war with Japan - February 1942 Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 — internship lasted through most of the war – a total of 3.5 years - result: West coast Japanese Americans were ‘relocated’ to various camps in western US relocation camp conditions – most were 2nd generation, therefore US citizens - behind barbed wire - armed guards - traditional Japanese American family life is challenged — women gain some status — the 2nd generation (Nisei) have more power, freedom as opposed to traditional Japanese American families - most families had a matter of weeks, many just a few days notice - could only bring what they could carry – therefore left many family heirlooms, etc behind - sold off property, etc at extremely low prices; some places just abandoned in the hope that they would be home soon military service - at first Japanese American citizens were not allowed to enter military due to loyalty concerns
  • 37. - when allowed into armed forces, put into segregated units, where they did very well - not allowed to enter armed forces until they answered questions indicating their loyalty — some objected to some of these questions, and made statements along the lines of “I would like to serve if my father, brother, uncle, etc is no longer in separate relocation camp chapter 2 – assimilation and pluralism: from immigrants to white ethnics current US diversity can be observed by noting there are around 300 different languages spoken in the US - on one hand sharing a common language (not that everyone should know only this language) helps with communication - however, a language is important for passing on a culture (in fact, about ½ of the 300 languages belong to different Native American groups) - acceptance / non-acceptance of different languages is just one aspect of dealing with diversity — 2 concepts are important: assimilation and pluralism assimilation – a process that takes place over time where distinct / separate groups merge together - a common culture is shared - during assimilation, differences between groups is decreased pluralism – different groups within one society remain separate, distinct from each other - any social or cultural differences continue over time though these processes can be considered either end of a continuum, they are not mutually exclusive - a society can have a variation of degrees of assimilation / pluralism
  • 38. - even within specific minority groups some may prefer assimilation / some may prefer pluralism 1820s – 1920s many immigrants came from Europe into US - 1820s – 1880s – old immigration - 1880s – 1920s – new immigration - 1960s – present – last wave of immigrants assimilation – overall: a process where distinct, separate groups merge over time - melting pot (a type of assimilation): refers to a type of assimilation where the different groups have a somewhat equal contribution to the new culture — theoretically, it is a positive, egalitarian perspective — however, this was not what happened - Anglo-conformity (Americanization) was the reality — incoming groups are pressured into giving up prior culture, language, religion, etc and conform to American / Anglo culture — done so that the British / American ways (including the English language) would be dominant traditional perspective on assimilation - Robert Park - Milton Gordon - human capital theory Robert Park – race relations cycle (1920s, 30s) - after contact (immigration / colonization) there is competition and conflict between groups - the process becomes assimilation — assimilation is inevitable when — the society is democratic — the society is industrial - as US society became more industrialized, modern, urban racial and ethnic groups would no longer be as important
  • 39. question: Is the US both democratic and industrial (definitions below) - democracy: political system based on fairness, impartial justice; all groups are treated equally under the law - industrial: rationality is important — people are hired, promoted, fired based on merits, abilities, talents not race, ethnicity criticism of Park - no time frame is given; considering that Native Americans were here first, African Americans began arriving in the 1600s and the southwest was ceded to Mexico to the US in the mid 1800s — how long should it take? — if no time frame, when can ‘inevitable’ be expected?; therefore can’t test — lack of detail about how assimilation occurs Milton Gordon – described a total of 7 processes of assimilation; 3 are discussed in this text - culture: way of life: language, beliefs, norms, values, customs, technology, etc - social structure: networks of social relationships that organize society; connect individuals to each other; connect individuals to larger society; including groups, organizations, communities, etc — primary sector: intimate, personal interpersonal relationships (families, friendship groups) — secondary sector: more public groups, organizations — — tend to be task oriented, impersonal — — very large; can include businesses, factories, schools, colleges, public institutions 1. acculturation / cultural assimilation - a process; one group (minority / immigrant) learns the culture of another, usually dominant group - for immigrants to US: language, food, how to eat, values,
  • 40. gender roles, etc - considered a prerequisite for integration 2. integration / structural assimilation: process where a minority group enters social structure of dominant society - begins in secondary sector, then primary sector - individuals first form more public relationships; then more personal (primary) relationships 3. intermarriage / marital assimilation - substantial integration into primary sector where many minority group members marry dominant group members acculturation without integration: acculturation, by itself does not ensure eventual integration - dominant group can exclude minority from secondary, primary sectors, limit opportunities - ‘Americanization without equality’ - applies to many minority status groups, especially racial / ethnic minorities table 2.1 Gordon’s Stages of Assimilation stage process 1. acculturation the group learns the culture of the dominant group, including language and values 2. integration (structural assimilation) a. secondary level b. primary level members of the group enter the public institutions and organizations of dominant society members of the group enter the cliques, clubs and friendship groups of the dominant society
  • 41. 3. intermarriage (marital assimilation) members of the group marry with members of the dominant society on a large scale more recent thoughts on Gordon - Gordon proposed that assimilation sub processes would occur one after another (linear progression) - however, some of these sub processes are independent from others - assimilation is not always linear; some groups reduce assimilation, become more traditional human capital theory: not an assimilation theory, can help answer why some immigrant groups acculturate, integrate faster than others - status attainment, success based on that person’s human capital: education (considered an investment), personal values, skills - direct result an individuals efforts, personal values, skills, education - suggests that individuals that acculturate, integrate sooner, easier have personal resources, cultural characteristics of group members — immigrants coming into the US with some cultural characteristics (ex: speaking English) have an easier time — implication: those groups that don’t acculturate as fast are somehow lacking (maybe education, also values, group characteristics) — — this fits in with the traditional American ideals discussed earlier – hard work, ‘right’ choices, motivation, good character allows for upward social mobility criticism of human capital - doesn’t account for all factors that affect social mobility - doesn’t recognize that the US is not open, equally fair to all
  • 42. pluralism - article by Horace Kallen, 1915 - rejected Anglo-conformist model, proposed that groups could have integration, equality without extensive acculturation - US culture could be a mixture of interdependent cultures / peoples - groups have separate identities, cultures, organizational structures - initially was not accepted / the tradition views above were preferred; pluralism did not fit into the expectations of that time - interest in pluralism has increased since about the 1960s — increased diversity in US (fig 1.1 below) — — though some see this increased diversity as a problem; propose reduced immigration, English Only, no bilingual education — throughout the world many nation-states have (or are considering) breaking into smaller groups — — ex: former USSR types of pluralism - cultural pluralism: groups have not acculturated or integrated; each has distinct identity — Native Americans are sometimes cultural pluralistic – living on reservations, keeping original language, culture, values — Amish also have distinct culture - structural pluralism: minimal cultural differences, but occupy different locations in social structure — a group is acculturated, but not integrated; group has adopted US culture, not does not have full / equal access to US institutions (education, employment, neighborhoods, clubs, churches (ex: separate churches according to race in US today)) - integration without acculturation (reverses Gordon’s stages); groups that have had some economic success without acculturation (keep language, culture, values) — enclave minority group: has own neighborhood, interconnected businesses that help with economic survival
  • 43. — — businesses serve their own community, sometimes outsiders (ex: Chinatowns) — middleman minority group: groups that have interconnected businesses throughout the larger community – helps with economic survival — both enclave minority group and middleman minority group are successful partly due to cooperation and mutual aid within the group (might be weakened if there were greater acculturation) — both can be considered as type of assimilation or as type of pluralism (which are not opposites) other group relationships - separatism: when the minority group wants to severe all ties with the dominant group (political, cultural) — beyond pluralism — some Native American groups favor this; also considered in Scotland, Hawaii, French Canada - revolution: when the minority group wants to create a new social order either along with some dominant group members or a complete reversal of the social order - forced migration – Trail of Tears - expulsion – Chinese Exclusion act of 1882; Native Americans put on reservations - extermination / genocide – Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (targeted not just Jews; also Poles, Roma, homosexuals, those with disabilities) - continued subjugation keeping minority group in a powerless, exploited position (ex: slavery) from immigrants to white ethnics – 1820s – 1920s industrialization and immigration subsistence technologies – how a society provides for the basic needs of its members (food, clothing, shelter)
  • 44. - only 3 now hunting, gathering (foraging) subsistence technology - only human energy - means of providing needed items (shelter, food, clothing) is through what nature does / does not provide — since nature is fickle, some years can be good, other years not good — little likelihood of developing surplus — since surplus drives inequalities (some benefit from the surplus, but other don’t benefit – their situation remains the same) — cooperation is encouraged agricultural - energy: human and animal (plows, carts, etc.) - is labor intensive, low productivity, all family members needed to participate to provide what was needed - with improved methods of growing, producing food, surplus begins — also – if fewer people are needed to produce the food, some people can begin to specialize in things such as pottery making, making clothing, etc. - people get their food, shelter, etc. needs met by either producing what they need themselves or using what they produce to barter for other things - what is important: land ownership and ability to get cheap, easily controlled labor - surplus is created, then increased stratification industrialization (industrial revolution): first in Great Britain around 1760, then moved to US and continental Europe - transition from agricultural subsistence technology to industrial subsistence technology - individuals and families are not just producing what they can and bartering
  • 45. - increasing use of wage economy – people in paid employment, earn money, use this money to purchase needed items (food, shelter, etc.) — families make ‘money’ and use this to buy necessities — people are making things, not for their own use or to barter; they make items that will be sold to others — early on especially, these wages are not living wages (thus, both parents and sometimes children need to be in paid employment). - energy – continuing with human / animal energy; increase in other energy sources such as water, steam, coal, gas, oil — eventually becomes electricity - many who came to US were frequently pushed out of homelands due to various aspects of industrialization in homelands (many went to cities in Europe hoping to get ‘good’ factory jobs; not enough factory jobs in Europe since it was not industrializing at same rate of US, so don‘t need as many workers); end up coming to US to work in factories - came to US where they fit into our industrialized work force (most come into US low or non-skilled; factories need low skilled workers, many jobs are such that even non-skilled can find employment with a little practice — productivity of society increases, even more surplus - new industrial technologies were ‘capital intensive’ — need to invest heavily in machines, equipment, processes of production (land no longer as important) — human labor (even in rural areas) no longer as important — — technology increases agricultural yields without an increase in human labor (tractors, etc.) — — rather than small, family farms, farms get bigger and bigger (possible with tractors, etc) US rise to a global power results from combination of European immigration and industrialization
  • 46. 3 subgroups of immigrants 1. Protestants from north, west Europe 2. mostly Catholic from Ireland, southern Italy, southern/eastern Europe 3. Jews, mostly from eastern Europe 1. Northern / Western Protestant Europeans - this group resembled US dominant group in racial and ethnic characteristics (including religion; though many Protestants did not consider Roman Catholics to be truly Christian, other Protestant groups were more or less accepted - less racial, ethnocentric rejection for these groups - sending nations were similar in development to US, so immigrants more likely to have education, skills, money which helped them settle into US - many went to Midwest, frontier areas - generally did not form ethnic enclaves (as with Italians) so not concentrated; not considered a threat (socially or economically), more easily accepted Norway - also settled in upper Midwest states - were farmers in homeland, were able to buy farmland - realized that they needed help to cultivate the land; recruited a labor force through family, friends in Norway - chains of communication / immigration resulted – more
  • 47. coming into US from Norway over period of time Germany - today about 15% of Americans have German roots; this is more than any other single immigrant group - has had a large impact on US economy, politics, culture - German immigrants of early 1800s were likely to farm - later in 1800s German immigrants, not as likely to become farmers (not as much land available) - came with working skills, were artisans, so were able to settle in urban areas and do well 2. immigrant laborers from Southern / Eastern Europe, Ireland; mostly Catholic - not as accepted as prior group — not Protestant (at a time when Catholics were not considered Christian by many Protestants) — not educated, many illiterate in own language — — Ireland: long colonization by Britain greatly reduced educational attainment — had few skills – were largely poor farmers - Irish immigrants came during the Old Immigration period — others came after 1880s Potato Famine - the potato blight was not limited to Ireland - Irish saying: God sent the blight, but the English landlord sent the famine - to stay on family lands Irish had to pay rent to English landlords — in the form of food stuffs — while the potato crops are failing, a lot of food went to England (milk products, pork products, grain) peasant origins - not educated, without skills, mostly illiterate
  • 48. - were culturally different; group / family more important than individual — did not fit into US culture of individualism, industrializing, capitalist values - Irish / southern Italians were considered different races - Irish immigration was largely single people – young males and females (teens in many cases) - some early Italian immigrants were brought over as contract laborers regional and occupational patterns - settled in urban areas - without education or skills, employment in largely manual labor (factories, mines, mills, construction, railroads, including Italian immigrants digging the first NYC subway tunnels) assimilation patterns - upward social mobility unlikely for 1st, 2nd generations; some by 3rd generation - upward social mobility positively impacted by partly by educating younger generations 3. Jews, mostly from Europe; part of New Immigration (after 1880s) - European laws had deprived many Jews of owning land, farming — therefore had settled in cities, knew trades; did not have a huge adjustment to city life — most men had a trade (tailors, skilled laborers), so were able to find decent employment in the cities — those without trades did manual labor - though the 1st 2 groups came as families, they also came as single adults (leaving area of origin as economic refugees) — Jews left area of origin as religious refugees, most arrived as family units — — due to the severe persecution in Europe, these religious
  • 49. refugees were more likely to feel as though there was no going back to ‘old country’ - somewhat easier adjustment to US urban life (came as families, not likely to return, have trades for employment) - ethnic enclaves: lived in densely populated areas, created networks of businesses, very cohesive group, were able to offer financial help to others - essentially – this group was able to reach some degree of economic equality before widespread acculturation - prior to raising families Jewish women were in the work force (largely garment industry) — after having children they continued employment, but as piece work; often the whole family (including children) were involved Americanized generations - children of immigrants (2nd generation) learned more English, were exposed to American culture, values in public schools - in many families, it was expected children (2nd and 3rd generations) go into professions; with excellent and free or inexpensive education through college - as education and entering professions became profitable to Jewish immigrants, mainstream society resented this and began limiting (through quotas) number of Jewish students assimilation patterns - today Jewish Americans are above average in education, income and occupational prestige chains of immigration - true for all groups - some members come to US, begin establishment, write home - family, neighbors, friends would follow - these chains created cohesiveness that allowed for sharing of resources among new and old immigrants (ex: information is exchanged, general help getting settled, money, job offers,
  • 50. family news) - immigrant groups differed in how long an enclave remained important table 2.3 median household income, percent of families living in poverty, and educational attainment for selected ethnic groups (US Census, 2008) median household income percentage of families living in poverty percentage who completed high school or more percentage who received an undergraduate degree or more All Persons $30,056 10% 75.2% 20.3% Russian $45.778 3.6 90.8 49 Italian $ 36,060 4.9 77.3 21 Polish $34,763 4.3 78.5 23.1 Ukrainian $34,474 4
  • 52. campaign against immigration: prejudice, racism and discrimination – encountered by all groups; degree and how long varied anti-Catholicism - up until this time, US was Protestant (yes, many variations, but had similarities) - Catholics were considered to be very different; some even felt they were not Christian — celibate clergy, cloistered nuns, Latin masses — even rumors that the Pope would relocate to US and take over the US government — — these rumors were repeated in mid 1900s when John F. Kennedy was running for president - due to how Catholicism spread throughout the world (added onto existing faith practices), substantial differences among Irish, Italian, Polish Catholics so they usually set up independent parishes anti- Semitism (intense prejudice, racism, discrimination specifically targeting Jews) - pogroms (disturbance; from very mild to the Nazi’s ‘final solution’) began in Europe - for some Christians Jews were the killers of Christ (regardless of historical fact) - stereotypes of Jews: crafty business owners / materialistic money lenders — Jews went into businesses in the cities due to not welcome in farming areas — usury (charging interest for loans) was forbidden to Catholics in premodern Europe, so Jews took on this role,
  • 53. leading to stereotype of being greedy and materialistic - initially (when numbers were small), not a lot of anti- Semitism in US - as more Jews left Europe, increase in prejudice, discrimination; especially as 2nd and 3rd generations were successful - peak of anti-Semitism in US – before WW II — a boat load of European Jews came to the US, but were turned away; almost 300 of that group died in Europe successful exclusion - based on quota system, the National Origins Act of 1924 drastically reduced immigration to US - using the census of 1890, limited immigration to 2% of people on that census - most generous quotas to those from Northern / Western Europe - many feel that this was responsible for many Jews not getting into the US and then dying in Europe patterns of assimilation the importance of generations - as is true to today, 1st generations don’t immediately assimilate; assimilation not until 3rd generation (or later) in general, the sequence for 3 generations 1st generation – begins process of assimilation; becomes slightly acculturated / integrated - settle in ethnic neighborhoods - limited attempt at acculturation / integration - focus is on family, group - men somewhat more likely to integration (need to learn language in workplace, etc) 2nd generation – quite acculturated, highly integrated into
  • 54. secondary sectors of society (social marginality) - learn parents’ language at home; socialized into ‘old country’ ways / values which frequently stress family, not individuality - therefore are in conflict with the values they learn in public school (be independent, competitive) - hoping for upward social mobility, likely to move out of ethnic neighborhoods - more acculturated than parents - have learned to speak English fluently - more occupation choices than 1st generation - are upwardly mobile, but many are limited due to prejudice / discrimination - are ‘Americanized’ and raise their children that way - generally want to disassociate from ‘old country / ways’ 3rd generation – finishes acculturation process; has high levels of integration at secondary and primary levels - grandchildren of the 1st immigrants - are very much American, but have ties to grandparents, ethnic neighborhood; likely to speak English only (maybe a few words or phrases in ‘old’ language) above is presented in linear fashion, but this was not always the reality ethnic succession - prejudice / discrimination towards earlier ethnic groups is lessened as another group (considered to be a larger threat) comes in - this also means a push into higher social mobility, leaving their ethnic neighborhood for the next group - fits in with Gordon’s concept of integration at secondary level - can be understood by looking at 3 pathways of integration (politics, labor unions, religion)
  • 55. politics - Irish arrived when the corrupt political machines of the 1800s were forming - they were not responsible for them, but did take advantage of them - corrupt politicians such as Boss Tweed (of Tammany Hall, NYC) used their position to ‘buy’ votes, favors from the Irish — if the Irish cast votes in their favor, the politician would give them municipal jobs, licenses (such as to run a butcher shop) - created economic opportunities and linked them to larger society labor unions - though most other immigrant groups participated in the labor movement, the Irish played a larger role - since many Irish were leaders in the labor movement, they were able to gain status, power - the average Irish worker (and other workers) benefited with job security, better wages - labor unions consisted of various immigrant groups - labor union leaders were intermediaries between working class white ethnics and larger society - women were also very active in the labor movement (a 4 month strike by mostly Jewish and Italian young women helped workers with wages, fewer work hours per week (had been 56 – 59 hours per week) - a deadly fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company (around 140 women, girls died either from the fire itself or from jumping to the street from several stories up) was responsible for improved working conditions, safety — Triangle shirtwaist fire religion - unlike immigrants from Northern / Western Europe, the Irish were Catholic - this was the start of the Roman Catholic church in the US; the
  • 56. Irish dominated this institution for a long time - despite the unity of the Roman Catholic church, countries varied in customs and festivals - when other Catholic groups came (Italian and Poles) they ended up created their own parishes with their customs, festivals other pathways - crime — though we associate organized crime with the Italian Mafia, other immigrant groups were able to achieve upward social mobility through crime — Prohibition provided a very fertile ground for the then illegal manufacturing and distributing of alcohol — — in particular the Irish and Germans took advantage of this; their cultures were enmeshed with wine and beer - sports — sports offer a pathway to success without needing education, English fluency structural mobility - as industrialization grew, low skilled manual labor jobs were reduced; to be competitive in the new jobs, education is important - in the 1930s, a public school education became more available - after WW II (1950s) the G.I. Bill offered G.I.s a college education - overall, each generation acquired more education, achieved higher social mobility - see table 2.3 variations in assimilation (degree of similarity, religion, social class) degree of similarity - different immigrant groups varied in degree of prejudice,
  • 57. discrimination encountered - those groups that the majority considered to be more similar in culture, perceived race were more accepted - emergence of preference hierarchy favoring people from Northern / Western Europe over Irish and those from Southern / Eastern Europe; Protestants favored over Catholics and Jews religion - the different immigrant groups not only kept to their own groups, they were also separate according to religion - Protestant, Catholic, Jews tended to live in different neighborhoods, had different workplace niches, separate friendship networks, and chose marriage partners from different pools - for many groups, religion continued to be a difference social class ethclass: intersection of the religious, ethnic and social class boundaries - people tend to associate with others, marry within their ethclass gender - not as much historical research of female immigrants - in general, men were more likely to immigrate first, then send for wives, families when housing, employment, general stability - immigrants from Ireland in 1800s were about 50/50 single male and female young adults, teens — most Irish females were employed in domestic work — being associated with (maybe living with) a family offered ‘respectability’ - most immigrant women were in paid labor prior to marriage; but not after marriage — in more patriarchal societies, the role of women outside the
  • 58. home was more restricted — since many immigrant men did not earn enough, their wives often participated in paid labor – either outside of the home or inside the home — — if outside the home, women from more patriarchal families were likely to have jobs that were female dominated - the immigration of Jews was different from other groups in that entire families came together — more likely to work in the garment industry - in most groups, women were the ‘keepers of culture’; husbands spent more time in the majority world, but women were closer to home — not as important to learn a new language — continued with old ways of dressing, preparing food, celebrating holidays sojourners (birds of passage) come to new area to make money; intention is always to go home, maybe buy some land - not as necessary to learn language, customs — therefore not as accepted by majority group - many Italian laborers were sojourners - since Jews were fleeing extreme religious persecution and would not be going back they came as entire families — since they were here to stay, they were very committed to becoming American (language, citizenship, customs) the descendants of immigrants today geographic distribution – as depicted in figure 2.5, various groups are distributed throughout the states s - single largest category is German American (white area on map; from Pennsylvania to Pacific)
  • 59. - Irish more concentrated in Massachusetts, where most first arrived - Italians more likely to arrive in New York City; more Italian Americans around NYC - higher concentrations for Native Americans, African Americans and Mexican Americans is partly due to institutional discrimination integration and equality - these immigrant groups are mostly assimilated (see table 2.3) - of the groups on this table; they are all at or above ‘all persons’ for income and education the evolution of white ethnicity – white ethnics have not just assimilated in continuous, linear fashion - 1. principle of third generation interest — though the second generation wants distance from ‘old country’ and ways, the third generation (or subsequent) wants to know more — over time, the US has become more tolerant of differences, more accepting of different ethnicities - 2. in 1960s, as African Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native Americans are seeking civil rights, they are also re- establishing cultures — therefore greater interest by white ethnics in prior culture as well (ethnic revival) symbolic ethnicity - individuals have as part of their self-identity an ethnic background, which has minor importance - this ethnic background is likely to be important during certain holidays (St. Patrick’s Day, Columbus Day), but otherwise not that important - this interest in ethnicity tends to be superficial, voluntary and changeable (since many Americans are mixtures of many different ethnic groups, some of us might put greater emphasis
  • 60. on one ethnic background at one time, but another ethnic background at another time will contemporary immigrants follow the traditional path to assimilation? - some say yes - others suggest a segmented (fragmented) assimilation — some groups assimilating earlier than others; some groups desiring more separation chapter 5 – African Americans – from segregation to modern institutional discrimination and modern racism chapter begins with a story of a black man describes his experience of being ‘other’ - his experience of ‘otherness’ was that, as an adult, black male, society often considers him someone who will do harm to others - regardless of reality otherness: otherness: marginalized in society The End of De Jure Segregation - de jure segregation – segregation of blacks / whites according to law — also referred to as Jim Crow; emerged after end of reconstruction after end of Civil War — meant to keep freed slaves as exploitable work force; limit power - after end of slavery, plantation owners were able to remain in production through sharecropping — however, as agriculture technology became more mechanized, this high degree of hands on labor wasn’t as important; freed slaves and families have greater probability of leaving the south — also, with industrialization, many blacks move to urban north where the more restrictive Jim Crow laws were not practiced
  • 61. — slowly, blacks gain some political power in north; are also able to organize some — — little by little, de jure segregation is reduced wartime developments - 1941 – US is not yet at war; however, getting ready for possibility of war - racial discrimination was common in employment; jobs were often segregated with Sleeping Car Porters being a job for blacks — poor pay, worked long hours, had to pay for own uniforms, food, lodging - A. Philip Randolf, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters threatened to march on Washington - Executive Order 8802 signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt which banned discrimination in defense related industries (railroads were considered important to defense) - this is significant 1. a group of African Americans had their grievances heard and got what they wanted 2. government made a commitment to fair employment rights for blacks the Civil Rights Movement – series of attempts to end legalized segregation, help with huge inequalities faced by blacks - included: protests, demonstrations, lawsuits, courtroom battles Brown vs Board of Education (Topeka) 1954 (originally filed for Linda Brown) - began as 5 separate court cases, were consolidated by Supreme Court - Oliver Brown’s name was put first on list (felt having a man first, increased their chances) - essentially reversed the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision that said ‘separate but equal’ - the culmination of decades planning by NAACP (National
  • 62. Association for the Advancement of Colored People) — objective: attack Jim Crow by identifying situations where the civil rights of African Americans had been violated; bring suit against that agency — goal: Supreme Court declares segregation unconstitutional in that case and all similar cases Linda Brown - though, in principle schools were desegregated, the ideology behind Jim Crow / segregation continued; Brown V Board of Education was continually fought, especially in the south - Prince Edward County (central Virginia) got around B v B of E by closing its public schools — all white children went to private schools for 5 years; no education for black children nonviolent direct action protest - 1st protest: bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, December 5, 1955, to December 20, 1956 - March 2, 1955 – Fifteen year old Claudette Colvin refused to give up her seat on the bus and her case was initially going to be used by the NAACP — however, after the incident she became pregnant by a married man and the NAACP hesitated to use her case since she would be put down due to the mores of the time — her pregnancy would also have been used against her in trial due to the social mores of the time — was also in Montgomery, Alabama - December 1, 1955 Rosa Parks also refused to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama - NAACP used Rosa Parks’ case to bring to the Supreme Court nonviolent direct action: confronted de jure segregation on the streets, not in court or legislatures - example the Montgomery bus boycott - based on Christianity, Henry David Thoreau and Gandhi
  • 63. - objective is to confront the forces of evil(institutions) , rather than the individuals doing the evil; desire to win friendship, support of enemies - Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote a lot about nonviolent direct action (which can be (and has been) used in many other applications) — at the time of the bus boycott, King was a new pastor in Montgomery; he lead this effort - used many techniques depending on the situation: sit-ins, protest marches, demonstrations, prayer meetings, voter registration drives — response to these nonviolent direct actions was violence by police as well as groups like the KKK landmark legislation – 2 laws passed in 1964 and 1965 by Congress – both initiated by Lyndon B. Johnson 1. Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination on grounds of: race, color, religion, national origin or gender - applied to publically owned places such as swimming pools, parks, businesses and other facilities open to the public (and any programs receiving federal aid) 2. Voting Rights Act of 1965 - the same standards are to be used to register all citizens to vote (federal, state and local elections) — banned literacy tests, whites only primaries, etc — especially helped Southern blacks to vote the success and limitations of the Civil Rights Movement 1. changing subsistence technology - the rigid competitive system of Jim Crow is not enforceable when population industrializes and moves to urban areas 2. an era of prosperity - the 1950s into the 1960s was a prosperous time for the US - this prosperity reduced the intensity of intergroup competition
  • 64. (especially in the north; not so much in the south) - when times are prosperous, reduced resistance to change - overall, minority groups are not as likely to be considered a threat 3. increasing resources in the black community - the prosperity also increased the economic and political resources of blacks - interconnected African American controlled organizations and institutions emerged (example: churches, colleges) 4. assimilation goals - the goals of the Civil Rights Movement were seen to be appropriate and reflective of US values (liberty, equality, freedom, fair treatment) by many (mostly northern whites / not so much by the south) 5. coalitions - alliances with other, more powerful groups increased resources of black community - example: white liberals, Jews, college students 6. mass media (especially TV) - when mass media showed footage of blacks being attacked for demonstrating their rights — this was frequently the first time northern whites really saw / understood what was going on though de jure segregation was ended, discrimination in jobs, distribution of wealth, political power, etc continued Developments Outside the South de facto segregation - inequality, segregation that appears to be voluntary by both blacks and whites, but isn’t - this de facto (by tradition) segregation results from
  • 65. government and quasi government agencies (real estate boards, school boards, zoning boards) - in the north racial discrimination wasn’t as overt but existed (labor unions, employers, white ethnic groups, etc) - African Americans have dealt with greater poverty, higher unemployment, lower quality housing, inadequate schools - blacks expressed concerns with above through urban unrest and the black power movement urban unrest - riots began in 1965 in Watts, Los Angeles and spread throughout US cities - though racial riots were not new, but the new riots were more likely to be blacks rather than whites as aggressors — in particular white owned businesses in black neighborhoods were targeted — another concern – police brutality the black power movement - loose coalition of organizations, spokesperson – many proposed viewpoints that to some degree differed with the civil rights movement - some groups preferred not assimilation into white society, but increased black control over schools, police, welfare programs, other public services - emphasized black pride, African heritage, Black Nationalism - some felt that assimilation would require blacks to become part of the system of oppression - these concerns were brought out by Marcus Garvey in the 1920s the Nation of Islam - made distinction between racial separation and racial segregation — racial separation – a group becomes stronger with autonomy and self-control
  • 66. — racial segregation – system of inequality – black community is powerless and controlled by majority - desire to develop own resources and be able to deal with majority group from a position of power - best known spokesperson – Malcolm X Protest, Power, and Pluralism the black power movement in perspective - by late 60s, US weakens in its commitment to racial change, racial equality — didn’t just go away, but went underground — at this point black power is part of US black culture, awareness gender and black protest - though often relegated to clerical type positions, African American women provided an important cornerstone for the movement Black-White Relations Since the 1960s: Issues and Trends - numerous advances in black / white relations and inequality, but a long way to go also - many thought that the US entered a ‘post-racial’ era with the election of Barack Obama - however, we saw increases in hate groups and hate crimes towards blacks after his election wins and inaugurations - over the last year and a half prejudice and discrimination towards blacks and other groups (Jews, Muslims, Hispanics, some Asians) have had a huge increase continuing separation - in 1968 a presidential commission looked at urban unrest; then warned that US was ‘moving towards 2 societies, one black, one white, separate and unequal’ - as stated above, though there was a brief period when many
  • 67. (not all) felt racism towards blacks was no longer, we now know this is not true – and hadn’t been true during that time period - over time, there have been more riots; example the 1991 beating by the police of Rodney King — riots emerged after the trial that acquitted the police officers of almost all charges - in 2009 in Oakland, CA, Oscar Grant (23 year old black man) was shot in the back by police officers at a subway station — the officer shooting him claimed Oscar was reaching for a weapon, but Oscar had no weapon the criminal justice system and African Americans - in the US considerable mistrust between law enforcement and the black community a biased criminal justice system? - a long history of abuse, harassment, mistreatment of black citizens by police - police often perceived as an ‘occupying force’ - perception of bias increased after Trayvon Martin was killed by George Zimmerman - recent (2007) research: blatant and overt discrimination has been reduced, but biases remain (but this same study done in 2017 may have different results) - today these biases are more subtle, not always seen, especially by majority society - black children, juveniles and adults more likely to be watched, followed, arrested than white juveniles / adults the war on drugs - not just a ‘war on drugs’ – the war has been aimed primarily at the form of a drug (cocaine) that is cheaper and therefore used more in the black community - though both powder cocaine (used by more upper class whites) and crack cocaine (used more by lower class blacks) are illegal, their abuse is differentially treated
  • 68. — punishments for crack cocaine have been much more severe than powder cocaine - in figure 5.1 we see higher arrest rates for drug abuse violations for black juveniles than for white juveniles - a similar finding in research done on use of marijuana — though use rates are the same for black / white youth, black youth are 3.5 times more likely to be arrested — according to Brent Staples, this is due to black being more likely to be watched, stopped, frisked and profiled racial profiling - police use race as an indicator in trying to determine whether a person is suspicious or dangerous - recent study on preschoolers and grammar school children also found that black children were more likely to be perceived as more ‘dangerous’ - these tactics increase the resentment, distrust and fear of law enforcement by the black community the new Jim Crow? - some see the above as a continuation of Jim Crow in that once arrested, blacks are more likely to be brought to trial, convicted (especially of felonies) - the stigma of a felony conviction drastically reduces gainful, legitimate employment; ineligible for many government programs including student loans — result: individuals are marginalized, excluded, treated as second class citizens increasing class inequality the black middle class - evidence of black middle class families from prior to Civil War — mostly due to occupations / businesses that serve African
  • 69. American community - though everyone was hit hard by the recession (2007), it was especially problematic for black families - figure 5.2 shows the disparity in wealth (accrued over time) for blacks / whites urban poverty - the manual labor / factory / manufacturing jobs have left US cities, where many blacks are concentrated - as our society has moved into a post industrial subsistence technology, service jobs are prominent — however the more stable, better paying service jobs require more education, but the inner cities have very inadequate schools - blacks more likely to live in highly impoverished neighborhoods and do not have equal access to societal resources, such as education that allows for upward social mobility modern institutional discrimination closed networks and racial exclusion - a study in 2003 looked at students graduating from a trade school - the black and white students were very similar in education, training, etc; however, whites almost always got jobs afterwards and these jobs were better paying and more secure - interviews revealed that training / personality were not the reason for the differences — what mattered was not ‘what you know’ but ‘who you know’ — white students had access to better networks in the job market the differential impact of hard times - overall, African Americans are more vulnerable to both medical and economic problems
  • 70. - hits this population earlier, hits harder, creates more stress, last longer - example: unemployment rates in figure 5.3 - another example: home ownership (which is an important part of wealth creation) - 2008 survey — compared to white families black and other minority families are 3 times more likely to have been victims of the subprime home loans — then, due to these loans are 2 times more likely to lose a home to foreclosure — in many instances the black community was specifically targeted for these loans the family institution and the culture of poverty 2 ways of explaining black, inner city poverty 1. ‘culture of poverty’ 2. structural culture of poverty - the black family is structurally weak (primary proponent was Patrick Moynihan, 1965) — more female headed households — higher rates of divorce, separation, desertion, illegitimacy — the above supposedly represents a ‘crumbling’ family structure, thus leading to more and more poverty - in figure 5.4 we see black / white differences have increased - therefore the ‘logical’ conclusion would be to ‘fix’ the ‘flaws’ in black families, the community structural - the matriarchal family structure, etc are NOT causing the
  • 71. problems, but are the result of these problems - the real problem is related to many structures of society — continuing prejudice and racism reduces educational, housing opportunities; decreases employment possibilities — in particular African American men not as able to support a family due to: high rates of unemployment, incarceration (higher than majority population, but not due to any innate character differences), violence (including death) - black families are more likely to be in poverty since men are not as able to support families and black women are at the bottom of income hierarchy - some of these male / female employment differences result from de-industrialization — good blue collar jobs are gone; what’s left are the female concentrated, low income service jobs - overall, the problem of poverty in the inner city, black community is a reflection of the racism (and sexism) in our society figure 5.5: income by race / gender mixed race and new racial identities - in the US ‘race’ is usually thought of as a black / white issue - more ‘mixed’ children are being born - society (and how individuals see themselves) is not as starkly black / white as before possible identities for ‘mixed race’ individuals (from a small sample, not generalizable in percentages – but useful as a tool of understanding) 1. border identity — those with ‘border identity’ do not see selves as either black or white - validated border identity — see selves as biracial and society ‘validates’ this (family, friends, community)