SEM Techniques for Structural and Chemical Analysis
1. Scanning Electron Microscopy
Instrument
Imaging
Chemical Analysis (EDX)
Structural and Chemical Analysis of Materials
J.P. Eberhart
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England, 1991.
Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis
J. Goldstein, D. Newbury, D. Joy, C. Lyman, P. Echlin, E. Lifshin, L. Sawyer, J. Michael
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, 2003.
2. 1. A column which generates a beam of
electrons.
2. A specimen chamber where the electron
beam interacts with the sample.
3. Detectors to monitor the different signals
that result from the electron beam/sample
interaction.
4. A viewing system that builds an image
from the detector signal.
3
2
1
4
5. Image not formed by focusing of lenses X-ray maps can be displayed.
Resolution not limited by lens aberrations
(in the usual sense of image forming lenses is limited by the objective lens aberrations
which determines the minimum probe size).
Imaging involves digital processing
online image enhancement and offline image processing.
SEM
Resolution limited by probe size and beam spreading on interaction with
specimen.
Hence, resolution depends on the signal being used for the formation of the
image.
6. A fine electron probe is scanned over the specimen.
Various detectors (Secondary Electron (SE), Back Scattered Electron (BSE), X-
Ray, Auger Electron (AE) etc.) pick up the signals.
The amplified output of a detector controls the intensity
of the electron beam of a CRT (synchronized scanning)
of the pixel of display
Scanning Electron Beam
Various Detectors
(SE, BSE, EDX,AE)
Display on CRT
Parameter Values
Resolution ~ 40 Å (SE); ~ (100-500) Å (BSE)
Magnification 10 – 105
Depth of field High (~ m)
Size of specimen 1 – 5 cm (usual range)
Note that the resolution
depends on the type of
signal being used
Importance of SEM
7. Elastically Inelastically
Scattered Electrons Direct Scattered Electrons
Beam
Auger Electrons
Backscattered
Electrons (BSE)
Secondary
Electrons (SE)
Characteristic
X-rays
Incident
High-kV Beam
Bremsstrahlung X- rays
Visible Light
Absorbed Electrons SPECIMEN Electron-Hole Pairs
In a SEM these signals are absent
Many signals are generated by the interaction of the electron beam with the specimen. Each of
these signals is sensitive to a different aspect of the specimen and give a variety of information
about the specimen.
8. Signals
Interaction volume volume which the electrons interact with
Sampling volume volume from which a particular signal (e.g. X-rays) originates
• The X-rays generated by the electrons are the “Primary X-rays”
• The primary X-rays can further lead to electronic transitions which give rise to the “Secondary X-rays” (Fluorescent
X-rays)
An important point to note is the fact that the different signals are generated ‘essentially*’from
different regions in the specimen. This determines: as to what the signal is sensitive to the
intensity of the signal.
* Monte Carlo simulations are used to find the trajectory of electrons in the specimen and determine the probability of various processes
Not to scale
11. 3
4
Generation of x-rays accompanying the transition
Further the x-ray could knock out an
electron from an outer level → this
electron is called the Auger electron
12. Semiconductors
Conduction band
Valence band
Band gap
e
e
hole
Electron beam ind
Charge colle
uced current ( EBIC)
ction microscopy
OR
Electron-hole pairs and cathodoluminescence
h
ias
B
C y
athodoluminescence (CL) Spectroscop
Photoluminescence
Photon induced light emission
Cathodoluminescence
Electron induced light emission
Incident electron excites an electron from the valence band
to the conduction band → creating an electron hole pair
13. Produced by inelastic interactions of high energy electrons with valence electrons of
atoms in the specimen which cause the ejection of the electrons from the atoms.
After undergoing additional scattering events while traveling through the specimen, some
of these ejected electrons emerge from the surface of the specimen.
Arbitrarily, such emergent electrons with energies less than 50 eV are called secondary
electrons; 90% of secondary electrons have energies less than 10 eV; most, from 2 to 5
eV.
Being low in energy they can be bent by the bias from the detector and hence even those
secondary electrons which are not in the ‘line of sight’ of the detector can be captured.
Secondary Electrons (SE)
14. http://www.emal.engin.umich.edu/courses/semlectures/se1.html
SE are generated by 3 different mechanisms:
SE(I) are produced by interactions of electrons from the incident beam with specimen
atoms
SE(II) are produced by interactions of high energy BSE with specimen atoms
SE(III) are produced by high energy BSE which strike pole pieces and other solid objects
near the specimen.
Some Z contrast!
Secondary Electrons
15. Produced by elastic interactions of beam electrons with nuclei of atoms in the specimen
Energy loss less than 1 eV
Scattering angles range up to 180°, but average about 5°
Many incident electrons undergo a series of such elastic event that cause them to be
scattered back out of the specimen
The fraction of beam electrons backscattered in this way varies strongly with the atomic
number Z of the scattering atoms, but does not change much with changes in E0.
http://www.emal.engin.umich.edu/courses/semlectures/se1.html
Back Scattered Electrons (BSE)
Dependence on atomic number BSE images show atomic number contrast
(features of high average Z appear brighter than those of low average Z)
nBSE
nIE
16. Magnification
The magnification in an SEM is of ‘Geometrical origin’
(this is unlike a TEM or a optical microscope)
Probe scans a small region of the sample, which is projected to a large area
(giving rise to the magnification).
Area scanned on
specimen
Area projected
onto display
17. Probe size (probe size is dependent on many factors)
Signal being used for imaging
This is because the actual interaction volume/cross section is different from the
probe diameter. Additionally, each signal is sensitive to a different aspect of the
specimen.
What determines the resolution in an SEM?
In terms of parameters:
Accelerating voltage
Beam current
Beam diameter
Convergence angle of beam
20. Operating Parameter Values
Gun voltage ~20 keV
Working distance ~26 mm
Probe size W filament ~30 Å
LaB6
Field Emission
Vacuum W filament 10−5 Torr
LaB6 10−8 Torr
Field Emission 10−10 Torr
Probe current Probe diameter Resolution
This leads to decrease in image intensity we have to use a brighter source
(W filament < LaB6 < Field Emission gun)
21. Units Tungsten LaB6 FEG (cold) FEG
(thermal)
FEG
(Schottky)
Work
Function
eV 4.5 2.4 4.5 - -
Operating
Temperature
K 2700 1700 300 - 1750
Current
Density
A/m2 5*104 106 1010 - -
Crossover
Size
μ m 50 10 <0.005 <0.005 0.015-0.030
Brightness A/cm2 sr 105 5 × 106 108 108 108
Energy Speed eV 3 1.5 0.3 1 0.3-1.0
Stability %/hr <1 <1 5 5 ~1
Vacuum PA 10-2 10-4 10-8 10-8 10-8
Lifetime hr 100 500 >1000 >1000 >1000
Comparison of Electron Sources at 20kV
22. Probe size
Probe Current
Working Distance
Specimen Tilt
Aperture Size
Increasing Resolution
Edge effect
Contamination
Charging
Working Distance
strength of condenser lens
Leads to Beam convergence angle sphericalaberration
23. Any signal picked up by a detector can be converted to an electrical signal
and be used of imaging
Contrast processing +ve to –ve contrast, gamma control etc.
Contrast quantification contour mapping, colour mapping
Image integration signal integration over a number of scans ( SNR)
Usual image analysis phase fractions etc.
Image Processing
24. Backscattered Electron Images
Emission of Backscattered electrons
= f(composition, surface topography, crystallinity, magnetism of the specimen)
Composition Z number
Topography and composition information is separated using detector
Crystallinity channeling contrast (& EBSD)
(the BSE intensity changes drastically on or around Bragg’s condition)
Poorer spatial resolution
Electron Backscattered Diffraction(EBSD)
29. Accelerating
Voltage
High Resolution Unclear surface structures
More edge effect
More charge-up
More damage
Clear surface structures
Less damage
Less charge-up
Less edge effect
Low resolution
30. Low atomic number High atomic number
Low
accelerating
voltage
High
accelerating
voltage
31. 30 kV
5 kV
2500
Specimen: Toner
Accelerating voltage
Increased contribution of BSE
Low surface contrast
Charging
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
32. 25 kV
5 kV
7200
Specimen: Sintered powder
Accelerating voltage
Better surface contrast
Not sharp at high magnifications
WD or probe diameter
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
33. 25 kV
5 kV
36000
Specimen: Evaporated Au particles
Accelerating voltage
Better image sharpness
Improved resolution
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
34. 25 kV
5 kV
2500
Specimen: Paint coat
Accelerating voltage
Low surface contrast
More BSE
contributions from within
the specimen
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
35. Specimen tilt
0
5kV, 1100
Specimen: IC chip
TILT
Improve quality of SE images
complete survey of topography
Stereo images images at 2 angles
45
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
36. Probe current
Smooth image Deteriorated resolution
More damage
High-resolution obtainable Grainy image
37. 1 nA
10 kV, 5400
Specimen: Ceramic
Probe current
image sharpness
surface smoothness
10 pA
0.1 nA
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
38. Working Distance
Greater depth of field
Low depth of field
Low resolution
High resolution
The working distance is the distance between the final condenser lens and the specimen
working distance
spherical aberration
(spot size
resolution improves)
working distance
Depth of field
(wide cone of electrons)
39. Aperture size
(objective lens)
Large current
Grainy image
Low resolution
Smaller depth of field
High resolution
Greater depth of field
e.g. Better for EDX
40. Edge Effect
25 kV
5 kV
Tilt: 50, 720
Accelerating voltage
Greater the edge effect
(edges become brighter)
SE emission from protrusions and circumferences appear bright
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
Specimen: IC chip
41. Charging
Due to low conductivity of sample
Coating with a conducting material to avoid charging
To charging Voltage, probe current, tilt specimen
10 kV
4 kV
Accelerating voltage
Charging
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL
Specimen: Foreleg of vinegar fly
42. Contamination
Due to residual gas in the vicinity of the electron probe
Leads to reduced contrast and loss in image sharpness
Usually caused by scanning a small region for long time
Specimen: ITO
5 kV 18000
Contamination
Ref: SEM Manual,JEOL