Total Possible Score 3.00General ContentSubject Knowledge To.docx

Total Possible Score: 3.00
General Content/Subject Knowledge
Total: 1.50
Distinguished - Addresses all aspects of the prompt in
accordance with the parameters of the discussion and
demonstrates in-depth knowledge of the discussion topic.
Proficient - Addresses all aspects of the prompt in accordance
with the parameters of the discussion and demonstrates
knowledge of the discussion topic.
Basic - Addresses all aspects of the prompt in accordance with
the parameters of the discussion and demonstrates basic
knowledge of the discussion topic.
Below Expectations - Addresses all or most aspects of the
prompt in accordance with the parameters of the discussion and
demonstrates limited knowledge of the discussion topic.
Non-Performance - There is no initial discussion post, or the
post does not address the discussion prompt at all.
Critical Thinking
Total: 0.30
Distinguished - Comprehensively explores the ideas, thoughts,
and elements of the topic and provides relevant evidence and
information that demonstrates all of the following as applicable
to the discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth, breadth, use
of information resources, and logic.
Proficient - Explores the ideas, thoughts, and elements of the
topic and provides relevant evidence and information that
demonstrates most of the following as applicable to the
discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth, breadth, use of
information resources, and logic.
Basic - Explores the ideas, thoughts, and elements of the topic
and provides relevant evidence and information that
demonstrates some of the following as applicable to the
discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth, breadth, and use of

information, and logic.
Below Expectations - Attempts to explore the ideas, thoughts,
and elements of the topic and provide relevant evidence and
information, but demonstrates few of the following as
applicable to the discussion prompt: clarity, relevance, depth,
breadth, use of information resources, and logic.
Non-Performance - There is no attempt to explore the ideas,
thoughts, and elements of the topic and provide relevant
evidence and information in either the original post or
subsequent response posts within the discussion, or no post is
present.
Written Communication
Total: 0.15
Distinguished - Displays clear control of syntax and mechanics.
The organization of the work shows appropriate transitions and
flow between sentences and paragraphs. Written work contains
no errors and is very easy to understand.
Proficient - Displays control of syntax and mechanics. The
organization of the work shows transitions and/or flow between
sentences and paragraphs. Written work contains only a few
errors and is mostly easy to understand.
Basic - Displays basic control of syntax and mechanics. The
work is not organized with appropriate transitions and flow
between sentences and paragraphs. Written work contains
several errors, making it difficult to fully understand.
Below Expectations - Displays limited control of syntax or
mechanics. The work does not include any transitions and does
not flow easily between sentences and paragraphs. Written work
contains major errors.
Non-Performance - Fails to display control of syntax or
mechanics, within the original post and/or responses.
Organization is also not present.
Engagement/ Participation
Total: 1.05

Distinguished - Contributes to classroom conversations with at
least the minimum number of replies, all of which were
thoughtful, relevant, and contributed meaningfully to the
conversation. Fully engages in the conversation with
appropriate topic-based responses.
Proficient - Contributes to classroom conversations with the
minimum number of replies that are somewhat thoughtful,
relevant, and contributed meaningfully to the conversation.
Attempts to fully engage in the conversation with appropriate
topic-based responses.
Basic - Contributes to the classroom conversations with the
minimum number of replies. Attempts to fully engage in the
conversation, but the responses are not relevant or fully aligned
with the discussion topic.
Below Expectations - Attempts to contribute to the classroom
conversations with fewer than the minimum number of replies;
however, the replies are not thoughtful and relevant, or they do
not contribute meaningfully to the conversation.
Non-Performance - There is no contribution to the discussion.
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Running head: PTSD RESEARCH OUTLINE
1
PTSD RESEARCH OUTLINE
2
PTSD Research Outline
name
school

26 February 2017
PTSD Research Outline
1. Introduction
a) The topic of Post Trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD) is
important and appropriate for research because it clarifies the
means through which people can prepare to avoid becoming
stress victims after attaining a psychological shock.
b) The paper based on this topic will be guided by the thesis
statement that, “The Unique factors of PTSD.”
c) Terms that are important to explain in the review among
others include trauma, stress, shock and social psychology.
d) The explanations and provision of the review will be based
upon four major areas. These include:
i. Social Psychology
ii. Contemporary issues in psychology
iii. Crisis and emergency intervention
iv. Psychopathology
e) Each of the areas relates significantly to the theme of the
paper as follows.
i. Social Psychology will help in studying an individual’s
relationship with others, and means through which the
individuals can reduce stress.
ii. Contemporary issues in psychology explain about the many
issues of psychology that arise regularly
iii. Crisis and emergency intervention explain the means
through which emergency can be managed.

iv. Psychopathology help in understanding the behaviors of
individuals.
2. Literature Review
a) Many literal sources exist which provide information
concerning PTSDs. The majority of these sources are research
studies that have been carried out by other scholars. Examples
include:
i. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) study article, authored
by Michele Spoont.
ii. Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), authored by Jonathan Bisson and Martin Andrew.
iii. Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
authored by Dan J Stein, Jonathan C Ipser, Soraya Seedat, Carli
Sager and Taryn Amos.
b) Each of these studies have both similarities and differences.
Different research studies are focused and address different
research areas within the study. The difference in research
purpose and scope causes the difference in the research study
findings (Stein, Ipser, Seedat, Sager, & Amos, 2006).
c) Facts concerning a topic cannot change, and thus all facts
that the researchers identify about the PTSD condition consists
of the similarities of the study.
d) Conclusion; All literal sources explain that individuals in
different situations attain the PTSD disorder while others do
not. The aspect of people attaining the disorder is not only
caused by the factors of people attaining a physical or
psychological shock, although in many occasions this aspect is
the trigger of the disorder occurrence.

3. Discussion
a) The first main understanding from the literature of others is
the fact that PTSD disorder is never attained by an individual
without any form of trauma occurring in the life of that
individual.
b) People’s capability to resist trauma is the determiner of
whether an individual will attain the PTSD disorder after
attaining a physical or psychological shock or whether they will
not.
c) The determiner factors include both internal capabilities of
an individual or life experiences that the individual has passed
through.
d) The literature review of the many literal sources provided a
significant understanding of the disorder and how it is obtained.
e) I also attained the understanding of the many ways through
which I can help individuals suffering from the disorder recover
from the shock and stress brought by the disorder
4. Conclusion
a) Explanation of the significant difference between individuals
suffering from the disorder and those who manage to resists it.
b) Pointing out the many ways through which people can
manage to resist and recover from the disorder after thy have
attained it.
c) Reflecting on the thesis and explaining how the paper has
managed to provide an explanation on its establishment.

References
Andrew, M. & Bisson, J. (2013). Psychological treatment of
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Cochrane Depression,
Anxiety and Neurosis Group. Retrieved from
http://yw6vq3kb9d.search.serialssolutions.com.ezproxy2.apus.e
du/
Spoont, M. (2015). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) study
article: JAMA Patient Page. Retrieved from
http://jamanetwork.com.ezproxy.pc.maricopa.edu/journals/jama/
fullarticle/2422544
Stein, D., Ipser, J., Seedat, S., Sager, C. & Amos, T. (2006).
Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):
Cochrane Common Mental Disorders Group. Retrieved from
http://yw6vq3kb9d.search.serialssolutions.com.ezproxy2.apus.e
du/
Running head: PTSD ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
PTSD ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
2
PTSD Annotated Bibliography
NAME
school
4 March 2017
PTSD Annotated Bibliography
Post-Trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD) happens in some
instances after a traumatic event. Traumatic events are defined
as something that happens to you that is considered to be scary
or horrible. Traumatic events can include sexual
trauma/violence, serious accidents, combat, terrorist attacks,
and natural disasters such as fire, floods, and eathquakes. An

individual may feel during the event that they are in danger for
their lives. Sometimes the individual may feel out of control of
what is happening. However, going thru a traumatic event does
not always mean that you will have signs and symptoms of
PTSD.
i. Social Psychology
ii. Contemporary issues in psychology
iii. Crisis and emergency intervention
iv. Psychopathology
This paper provides articles and their explanations grouped
within these four main topics, which provides information
relating to the condition of PTSD.
Social Psychology Topic
Kaczmarek, M., & Zawadzki, B. (2012). Exposure to trauma,
emotional reactivity, and its interaction as predictors of the
intensity of PTSD symptoms in the aftermath of motor vehicle
accidents. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology,
50(3), 47. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405500303
This article provides information on post-traumatic stress
disorder obtained from individuals that have been involved in
car accidents. The individuals utilized for this article were
individuals that experienced there stress full situation during a
car accident. The authors of the article explain that majority of
the individuals attain the condition due to the situation that they
believe they were in during the occurrence of the accident. The
article involves an original study that involves experimentation
of how the individuals were exposed to trauma due to the
occurrence of the accident.
O'connor, M., Lasgaard, M., Spindler, H., & Elklit, A. (2007).

The impact of different diagnostic criteria on PTSD prevalence:
A comparison of PTSD prevalence using the DSM-IV and ICD-
10 PTSD-criteria on a population of 242 danish social work
students. Nordic Psychology, 59(4), 317-331. doi:10.1027/1901-
2276.59.4.317
This article explains that a large number of individuals show
signs of PTSD for many different reasons and situations. Unlike
many other diseases, an individual can obtain the PTSD
condition from accidents, an action that is committed to him or
her by another individual like rape, or even a bad decision that
he or she makes. The impact that these diseases and conditions
have on such individuals are significantly different. Trauma that
is brought about by rape, for example, is significantly different
with the trauma that is brought about by events like accidents.
The author examines the causes of trauma and in their article
explains the difference in effect that the individuals from
various sources of the condition obtain. This article is thus
significantly important and beneficial for this topic.
Horesh, D., Solomon, Z., & Ein-Dor, T. (2013). DELAYED-
ONSET PTSD AFTER COMBAT: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL
RESOURCES: Delayed-onset PTSD after combat. Journal of
Community Psychology, 41(5), 532-548.
doi:10.1002/jcop.21555
This source provides information concerning soldiers who
obtain the PTSD condition due to the effect of their
involvement in the war. It provides information obtained from
research activities that involved about 675 Israeli veterans that
obtained the PTSD condition and 369 individuals.
Ullman, S. E., & Peter‐Hagene, L. (2014). social reactions to
sexual assault disclosure, coping, perceived control, and ptsd
symptoms in sexual assault victims. Journal of Community
Psychology, 42(4), 495-508. doi:10.1002/jcop.21624
The source was provided with an aim of providing information
concerning victims of sexual assault. Among others, this event

is considered to be the most significant cause of the PTSD
condition and thus the authors to the article provided this article
to cover the condition and the means through which it affects
individuals. The authors utilized path analysis to provide
information concerning it and a large number of individuals
who have survived the victimization of sexual assault.
Gros, D. F., Flanagan, J. C., Korte, K. J., Mills, A. C., Brady,
K. T., & Back, S. E. (2016). Relations among social support,
PTSD symptoms, and substance use in veterans. Psychology of
Addictive Behaviors, 30(7), 764-770. doi:10.1037/adb0000205
The article provides information concerning the means through
which veterans deal with the problem of PSTD. They explain
that PTSD is among the most common conditions and problems
that veterans face. They then provide the most important and
appropriate way that these individuals can manage to handle the
problem and condition of PTSD before it occurs and the most
appropriate treatment strategies that they can utilize for
treatment.
Freedman, S. A., Gilad, M., Yael L E Ankri, Roziner, I., &
Shalev, A. Y. (2015). Social relationship satisfaction and PTSD:
Which is the chicken and which is the egg? European Journal of
Psychotraumatology, 6(1), Article 28864-Article 28864.
doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.28864
This article specifically provides information concerning the
effect that individuals with PTSD individuals experience due to
the condition. The authors involve in a research study through
which thy aim to determine the means through which
individuals with PTSD are impacted by this condition. The
individuals explain the impact of this condition and the means
through which they can manage to improve these conditions.
The individuals whose conditions are utilized by this study are
trauma survivors among other individuals who have experienced
traumatizing experiences. After the study, the authors explain
that SRS effect was significant for the majority of the

individuals with PTSD. Thys conclude that both the conditions
of SRS and PTSD have a significant relationship.
Contemporary Issues in Psychology
This topic provides information concerning the issues that are
currently occurring involving psychology. Since the topic under
study is PTSD, the following articles provide information of
occurring issues of PTSD.
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Hadjistavropolous, H. D. (2006).
Addressing shared vulnerability for comorbid PTSD and chronic
pain: A cognitive-behavioral perspective. Cognitive and
Behavioral Practice, 13(1), 8-16.
doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2005.03.001
This article provides information concerning an emerging issue,
which was recently discovered about PTSD. The authors carry
out a research that is aimed at determining an existing
relationship between the Comorbid PTSD and Chronic Pain. The
authors explain that it is common for the individuals who attain
the PTSD to also have other issues that emerge. Among others,
the issues include chronic pain. The authors provide information
and explanation concerning the reasons why the chronic pain
occurs for these individuals.
Risbrough, V. B., & Stein, M. B. (2012;2011;).
Neuropharmacology special issue on posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD): Current state of the art in clinical and
preclinical PTSD research [editorial]. Neuropharmacology,
62(2), 539-541. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.08.021
This article provides information concerning a recent research
study based on traumatic occurrences that cause PTSD and the
means through which the individuals who attain this disorder
can be treated effectively and completely. The information is
aimed at helping individuals avoid involvement in certain

activities, which may lead to their attaining of this condition.
The article provides significant information concerning research
findings of much better and simplified ways through which
individuals with this condition can be treated.
Vujanovic, A. A., Bonn-Miller, M. O., & Petry, N. M. (2016).
Co-occurring posttraumatic stress and substance use: Emerging
research on correlates, mechanisms, and treatments—
Introduction to the special issue. Psychology of Addictive
Behaviors, 30(7), 713-719. doi:10.1037/adb0000222
This article provides an explanation that recent research has
shown that certain condition like PSTD and substance abuse are
co-occurring. This research provides significant information
concerning the means through which treatment of these
conditions should be enhanced in order to ensure that
individuals who attain them manage to be completely cured of
the condition. The authors propose a long-term therapy to
address this issue completely and ensure that all individuals
manage to improve completely without having to obtain those
conditions again.
Gilbert, K. S., Kark, S. M., Gehrman, P. R., & Bogdanova, Y.
(2015). Sleep disturbances, TBI and PTSD: Implications for
treatment and recovery. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 195-
212. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.008
This article explains about the emerging issues of PTSD in
relation to other conditions that include the traumatic brain
injury (TBI) and sleeping problems, which affect military
individuals significantly. The authors to this article explain the
relationship that exists between these conditions and the extent
to which individuals who attain one condition also obtain the
other conditions. This information help individuals to
understand the importance of involving in early treatment after
obtaining one condition, in order to ensure that they improve.
Street, A. E., Vogt, D., & Dutra, L. (2009). A new generation of

women veterans: Stressors faced by women deployed to iraq and
afghanistan. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 685-694.
doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.007
The authors to this article explain that for a long time, majority
of the veteran that are the well-known regardless of the country
which they fight for are men. Recently however, Asian freedom
fighting organizations like the Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF)
and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) involve a large number
of women. The authors of the article explain that these
individuals have the need to be well treated and understood in a
much better way.
Cukor, J., Spitalnick, J., Difede, J., Rizzo, A., & Rothbaum, B.
O. (2009). Emerging treatments for PTSD. Clinical Psychology
Review, 29(8), 715-726. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.09.001
This article provides information concerning the recently
explained and proven methods through which individuals can be
treated PTSD effectively. This condition has been in existence
for a long time. The authors of the article explain that a large
number of individuals have been suffering from the condition
for a long time. Due to this reason, treatment of the condition
has been developed over time. The article thus provides
information concerning the most recent treatment procedures
that are different from the procedures that physicians were
utilizing earlier.
Crisis and Emergency Intervention
Crisis and emergency intervention simply refers to a process
through which individuals manage to implement strategies that
help in managing incidences. With regard to PTSD victims, the
majority of them involved in actions that cause them require
intervention and emergency strategies. This section provides
articles that explain about crisis and emergency intervention
strategies related to the PTSD management.
Coldiron, M. E., Llosa, A. E., Roederer, T., Casas, G., & Moro,
M. (2013). Brief mental health interventions in conflict and

emergency settings: An overview of four médecins sans
frontières - france programs. Conflict and Health, 7(1), 23-23.
doi:10.1186/1752-1505-7-23
This article provides information concerning interventions that
are based on all forms of mental health issues. Mental health
issues among others include issues that relate to the brains of an
individual. Among other conditions, include the condition of
PTSD, since stress is among the many mental aspects that
individuals face. This article therefore provides important
information on the strategies through which individuals
suffering from PTSD can utilize in cases of emergency.
Mills, L. D., Mills, T. J., Macht, M., Levitan, R., Wulf, A. D.,
& Afonso, N. S. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder in an
emergency department population one year after hurricane
katrina. Journal of Emergency Medicine, 43(1), 76-82.
doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2011.06.124
This article simply provide information concerning cases of
individuals that have faced the condition of PTSD. After
analyzing the various diverse cases of different individuals, the
authors then provide information concerning the most
appropriate way through which these individuals can improve
their conditions and manage to obtain better lives despite the
conditions through the utilization of certain interventions and
medical assistance.
Rothbaum, B. O., Kearns, M. C., Price, M., Malcoun, E., Davis,
M., Ressler, K. J., . . . Houry, D. (2012). Early intervention may
prevent the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: A
randomized pilot civilian study with modified prolonged
exposure. Biological Psychiatry, 72(11), 957-963.
doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.002
This source provides information concerning the strategy of
early intervention, which individuals can utilize to improve
their conditions. The authors begin by explaining that PTSD is a
condition that majority of the individuals attain without any

form of expectation and thus due to that reason, they do not
have time to prepare for the condition. The authors then explain
that despite this reason, people can manage to establish early
intervention mechanism through which they can protect
themselves from obtaining PTSD condition. This mechanism
should be established immediately individual experiences any
form of a condition that might cause trauma, even before he or
she attains any side effects of the event.
Price, M., Kearns, M. C., Houry, D., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2014).
Emergency department predictors of posttraumatic stress
reduction for trauma-exposed individuals with and without an
early intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 82(2), 336-341. doi:10.1037/a0035537
This article provides the information concerning the importance
of establishing strategies through which stress can be reduced
from an individual after he or she involves in any form of
experience that might cause trauma. The information provided
by the article is thus important and provides information
concerning the way people can protect themselves from
attaining PTSD after they involve in a traumatic activity.
Senneseth, M., Alsaker, K., & Natvig, G. K. (2012). Health-
related quality of life and post-traumatic stress disorder
symptoms in accident and emergency attenders suffering from
psychosocial crises: A longitudinal study: HRQoL and PTSD
symptoms in A & E attenders. Journal of Advanced Nursing,
68(2), 402-413. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05752.x
The authors to this source provide information concerning the
quality of life of the individuals and the means through which
those individuals manage to improve. Aspects of psychological
crises cause a large number of people to visit emergency units.
The article provide information concerning the quality of life of
these individuals with regard to health. This article is important
because it helps individuals attain an understanding of the kind
of life that individuals who have had PTSD face.

Broussard, B., McGriff, J. A., Demir Neubert, B. N., D’Orio,
B., & Compton, M. T. (2010). Characteristics of patients
referred to psychiatric emergency services by crisis intervention
team police officers. Community Mental Health Journal, 46(6),
579-584. doi:10.1007/s10597-010-9295-3
This source provides information about crisis intervention
training, which is important and appropriate for individuals that
involve in operations involving offering help to people that
need forms of emergency response assistance. This information
is appropriate because people who have PTSD also requires
similar response and intervention strategies to help their cases
and manage to avoid significant and permanent effects of the
condition.
Psychopathology
This topic involves research studies concerning diseases that
cause stress to people, and the many diversified ways through
which individuals attempt to deal with them. Many literal
articles have been authored with an aim of explaining this issue.
Some of these sources are as listed.
Pacella, M. L., Armelie, A., Boarts, J., Wagner, G., Jones, T.,
Feeny, N., & Delahanty, D. L. (2012;2011;). The impact of
prolonged exposure on PTSD symptoms and associated
psychopathology in people living with HIV: A randomized test
of concept. AIDS and Behavior, 16(5), 1327-1340.
doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0076-y
This article provides information concerning a method through
which individuals utilize to treat PTSD and the impact that this
treatment has on individuals who attain the disorder. This
information is appropriate and involves the experimentation of
how a certain individuals are impacted by the disorder and the
method of treatment. The authors explain the method of
treatment as prolonged Exposure. They utilize a large number of

test subjects, who are individuals that have been confirmed to
contain PTSD. The large number of the individuals help to
ensure that the information obtained is accurate.
Wingenfeld, K., Driessen, M., Adam, B., & Hill, A. (2007).
Overnight urinary cortisol release in women with borderline
personality disorder depends on comorbid PTSD and depressive
psychopathology. European Psychiatry, 22(5), 309-312.
doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2006.09.002
This article provides information about the body organs that
attain stress and other aspects that contribute towards an
individual attaining the mental conditions like stress and
depression. This information is important because through it, on
can simply understand the science of attaining the PTSD
condition. For people and other experts to formulate appropriate
and effective treatment strategies, they need a clear
understanding of the aspects and science involved in the
attainment of these disorders. This article provides this
information with high-level clarity.
Tahaney, K., Xi, P., Delgado, N., Grant, M., Kremen, W.,
Franz, C., & Lyons, M. (2013). The effect of trauma on risk of
PTSD is modified by parental psychopathology. Comprehensive
Psychiatry, 54(1), e11. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.07.049
This source begin by explaining to the readers that other
significant aspects apart from the immediate incidence that
triggers them cause the causes of PTSD among other forms of
mental disorders. A certain situation may, for example, occur,
an aspect that could cause majority of individuals to attain the
PTSD, but when some people attain this condition, others do
not. This is simply because of the significant difference that
exists between the individuals. The authors then explain that
parental psychopathology is among the factors that influence
the risk of an individual attaining the PTSD disorder.
Engelhard, I. M., Arntz, A. R., & Hout, v. d., M.A. (2007). Low

specificity of symptoms on the post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) symptom scale: A comparison of individuals with
PTSD, individuals with other anxiety disorders and individuals
without psychopathology. British Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 46(4), 449-456. doi:10.1348/014466507X206883
This source provides research of PTSD and other mental
disorders that individuals attain and the similarity of their
symptoms. The symptoms of a certain condition are the main
determiners of the treatment that an individual takes for the
condition. They determine clearly the condition that the
individual can simply be the. This article then provides clarity
to physicians on the specific symptoms that, with PTSD and the
difference between those symptoms and the symptoms of others
mental conditions.
Harpaz-Rotem, I., Tsai, J., Pietrzak, R. H., & Hoff, R. A.
(2014). The dimensional structure of posttraumatic stress
symptomatology in 323,903 U.S. veterans. Journal of
Psychiatric Research, 49, 31-36.
doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.10.020
This article provides information concerning the recent
understanding of the structure of posttraumatic stress disorder
symptomatology. The information that the article provides
based on this information is significantly beneficial and could
help individuals understand better the causes of PTSD and the
means through which they can improve the treatment of other
and with the condition. Such information would significantly
benefit a large number of people, who have suffered and are
victims to the providers of PTSD.
Elhai, J. D., Contractor, A. A., Palmieri, P. A., Forbes, D., &
Richardson, J. D. (2011). Exploring the relationship between
underlying dimensions of posttraumatic stress disorder and
depression in a national, trauma-exposed military sample.
Journal of Affective Disorders, 133(3), 477-480.
doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.04.035

This article provides comparison information of experimental
results with an aim of establishing the relationship that exists
provides symptoms and effect on an individual’s life between
the conditions of PTSD and depression. Most of the treatment
procedures are formulated similarly for both conditions due to
the similarity of the symptoms utilized to establish and provide
medication.
References
Kaczmarek, M., & Zawadzki, B. (2012). Exposure to trauma,
emotional reactivity, and its interaction as predictors of the
intensity of PTSD symptoms in the aftermath of motor vehicle
accidents. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology,
50(3), 47. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405500303
O'connor, M., Lasgaard, M., Spindler, H., & Elklit, A. (2007).
The impact of different diagnostic criteria on PTSD prevalence:
A comparison of PTSD prevalence using the DSM-IV and ICD-
10 PTSD-criteria on a population of 242 danish social work
students. Nordic Psychology, 59(4), 317-331. doi:10.1027/1901-
2276.59.4.317
Horesh, D., Solomon, Z., & Ein-Dor, T. (2013). DELAYED-
ONSET PTSD AFTER COMBAT: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL
RESOURCES: Delayed-onset PTSD after combat. Journal of
Community Psychology, 41(5), 532-548.
doi:10.1002/jcop.21555
Ullman, S. E., & Peter‐Hagene, L. (2014). social reactions to
sexual assault disclosure, coping, perceived control, and ptsd
symptoms in sexual assault victims. Journal of Community
Psychology, 42(4), 495-508. doi:10.1002/jcop.21624
Gros, D. F., Flanagan, J. C., Korte, K. J., Mills, A. C., Brady,
K. T., & Back, S. E. (2016). Relations among social support,

PTSD symptoms, and substance use in veterans. Psychology of
Addictive Behaviors, 30(7), 764-770. doi:10.1037/adb0000205
Freedman, S. A., Gilad, M., Yael L E Ankri, Roziner, I., &
Shalev, A. Y. (2015). Social relationship satisfaction and PTSD:
Which is the chicken and which is the egg? European Journal of
Psychotraumatology, 6(1), Article 28864-Article 28864.
doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.28864
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Hadjistavropolous, H. D. (2006).
Addressing shared vulnerability for comorbid PTSD and chronic
pain: A cognitive-behavioral perspective. Cognitive and
Behavioral Practice, 13(1), 8-16.
doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2005.03.001
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9 Word Walls
A classroom that fosters word learning looks the part. Words
are everywhere—labels, children’s writing, chart stories, and
other displays. Sometimes children’s attention is purposefully
drawn to all this print. Other times, the print is a literate
backdrop while children engage in other activities. It’s been
said that interest in words is caught, not taught. We agree, and
we think that the physical environment in the classroom can
encourage children to catch an interest in words.
Within these word-laden classrooms, several principles drive
word recognition instruction (Rasinski, Padak, and Fawcett
2010). Word recognition instruction is an inherent part of,
rather than separate from, meaningful reading and other reading
activities. Instruction takes on a playful, problem-solving feel,
so children think about words actively and develop a thorough
understanding of how words work. Children need lots of
opportunities to see words and word parts within the context of
meaningful activity, a notion that Sandy McCormick (1994)
calls multiple contexts/multiple exposures. The teacher’s role is
to help children see their options for word recognition and to
encourage word recognition practice in real reading situations
(National Reading Panel 2000).
Word walls can help to achieve these goals. Moreover, word
walls send significant messages to students and classroom
visitors: “Words and reading are important in this room,” “We
celebrate words here!” In this chapter, we describe word walls
and offer lots of examples of word wall activities.

9.1 What Is a Word Wall?
Think of a word wall as a working bulletin board that focuses
on words. That’s essentially what it is—and more. A word wall
can also be thought of as a billboard or advertisement to
students about words. To create a word wall, the teacher first
places a large sheet of chart paper or butcher paper on the wall.
Either alone or in discussion with students, the teacher decides
on the focus of the word wall. From that point on, anything
goes. Students may add several words to the word wall each
day, and the teacher may add words as well. Students may look
for and make connections between and among words. The
teacher may ask students to read the words on the word wall for
practice or may use the words as a source of quick guessing
games: “Find a word on the word wall that _______.” And of
course, the words are easily visible for other student uses, such
as checking on spelling.
Although the teacher and children may write directly on the
word wall, we advise making word cards that can be
manipulated. Words can be printed on large sticky notes or
cutup pieces of newsprint; masking tape or sprayon adhesive
can be used to affix the word cards, which should be large
enough for easy viewing.
All students should watch and listen when word wall words are
added. The teacher should say the word and comment briefly on
it. These comments may connect to the word’s meaning, its
relevance to the focus of the word wall, or even some aspect of
word study, such as “What vowel sound do you hear?” or “How
many syllables does this word have?” These quick conversations
provide just the sort of multiple exposures essential for
successful word learning.
Most word walls are temporary; after a few days or weeks, new
word walls replace old ones. You might want to keep the old
word walls available to children, however; one teacher noted
that her students enjoyed adding new words to old word walls as
the school year progressed: “These were actually living word
walls, and I, and the kids, used them and loved them and loved

watching them grow” (Blachowicz and Obrochta 2007, p. 148).
Word walls are meant to be used not just viewed.
9.2 Sources of Words
Word wall words can come from any area of the curriculum.
One caution, though: don’t include too many totally unfamiliar
words on a word wall. Learning new words in isolation is very
challenging for most children. New words or concepts should
first be encountered in the context of reading or discussion.
After students have gained some familiarity with new words,
they will be able to think about them apart from context. This is
the time for word wall activity.
Beyond this general guideline, teachers will find many uses for
word walls. In reading, for example, a word wall might focus on
synonyms, particular word families or roots, or vowel or
consonant sounds. Word walls are a good choice for vocabulary
development activities as well. Bi or trilingual word walls can
provide names for common objects (or other areas of study) in
English and other languages spoken by members of the class.
Including pictures of these objects will support all children’s
learning but is especially important for English language learner
(ELL) students (Helman and Burns 2008). In writing, word
walls may be used to collect powerful verbs, similes, or
metaphors. A math word wall might offer synonyms for addition
or examples of geometric figures (perhaps accompanied by
sketches). Figure 9.1 provides several websites that have lots of
additional word wall activities and ideas.
Word walls are adaptable. In essence, teachers may use them in
any way that supports students’ learning, either about words and
word parts or about new concepts. This versatility is one of
their instructional strengths. Students quickly become
accustomed to what word walls are and how they work, so
teachers have a useful routine for addressing lots of curricular
goals.
Figure 9.1 Online Resources for Word Walls
http://www.teachnet.com/lesson/langarts/wordwall062599.html

Information about goals, construction, and possible uses of
word walls
http://www.teachingfirst.net/wordwallact.htm
Word wall activities
http://abcteach.com/directory/teaching_extras/word_walls/
Some starter lists of possible word wall words
www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/word-walls-work
An article called “Word Walls That Work”
http://specialed.about.com/od/wordwalls/a/morewordwalls.htm
Lots of quick word wall activities
9.3 Using Word Walls
In this section, we offer ways to construct and use word walls.
By no means is this an exhaustive list. Our intent is to help you
think about possibilities.
Name Walls
Early in the school year, most kindergarten/early primary
teachers focus on children’s names. The children get to know
one another through an immediately meaningful reading
activity. Word walls of students’ names are a handy
instructional tool. Children can read the names each day, with
teacher assistance as needed. Names can be sorted into
categories such as boys or girls, present or absent, or school
lunch or brought lunch. Later in the year, the name wall can be
used to introduce alphabetical order or draw children’s attention
to letters within words. The latter could involve simply
counting letters within each person’s name, grouping names by
numbers of letters, or arranging the entire list from least to most
letters (or vice versa). Even quick guessing games, such as
“Who has more letters? [Student A or Student B]?” or “How
many of us have a B in our names?” provide quick, game-like
practice thinking about letters as parts of words. “Who has more
letters?” is also a way to teach the mathematical concepts more
and less.
Hall and Cunningham’s (1997) “ABC and You” activity is
easily adapted to word wall format. First, children’s names are
listed in alphabetical order; next, each child selects at least one

word that begins with the same letter as his or her name. These
are added to the alphabetical list:
A . . . Adorable Annie
E . . . Energetic Emily
M . . . Merry Matt
. . . Mysterious Mike
Children’s interest in these name walls sometimes leads to their
finding new words to go along with their names. If moveable
word cards are used, “Adorable Annie” can easily become
“Active, adorable Annie” and so forth. “Hey!” one child said to
Mike. “You could add munching to yours.”
Figure 9.2 Sam’s Name Wall
Student of the Week is another feature in many classrooms.
Why not create a word wall about the featured student? It might
contain words that are special to and descriptive of the student:
names of family members, pets, favorite foods, personal
characteristics. Or it might be a sort of name poem that includes
words other children think are related to the featured child.
Figure 9.2 shows an example of this kind of word wall. At the
end of the week, the featured student can take the word wall
home for further celebration.
Environmental Print Walls
Attention to environmental print is a staple in many early
literacy classrooms because of children’s interest and
familiarity in the words that surround them outside of school.
An environmental print word wall may be general—for example,
“Words We See.” Another option is to select some category of
environmental print—for instance, cereal or sneakers—and
challenge children to find as many examples as possible. They
may even want to bring in logos from empty boxes or look
through old newspapers and magazines for homework, to find
additions to the wall. Since the logos are often more salient than
the print for beginning readers, teachers should also print the
words separately, apart from the logos, to provide children with
a context-free look at the words.

The resulting wall can be used for practicing words and
developing other early literacy notions, such as letter
recognition. Depending on the focus of the wall, children’s
concepts of print can also be addressed. Think of fast-food
restaurants, for example, that have one-word names (or two-
word names), or a math activity in which children select their
favorite fast-food restaurants and create a class bar graph
entitled “where we like to eat.”
Word Webs
Word webs (Fox 1996) is a small-group instructional activity
that focuses students’ attention on particular word parts. To
engage students in word webbing, the teacher selects a
meaningful word part for focus, such as a prefix or Greek or
Latin root, and assembles dictionaries, paper, pencils, chart
paper, and markers. To begin, the teacher introduces the word
part—for example, port—and invites students to brainstorm
words that contain it. (See Chapter 8 for more on derivations.)
These are written on the chalkboard; after a few have been
suggested, the teacher asks students to speculate on the meaning
of the word part.
Next, small groups assemble. One person in each group circles
the word part in the center of a sheet of paper. Now group
members search their memories and the dictionary for other
words containing the word part. The goal is to find as many
words as possible. They list these, talk about word meanings,
and ultimately group related words in ways that make sense to
them. These word groups are added to the word web as clusters
or mini-webs (see Figure 9.3). Finally, groups share their webs
with the rest of the class.
After the whole-class discussion, small groups reconvene, make
changes in their initial word webs if they desire, and prepare a
final copy of their webs using chart paper and markers. These
final copies are combined on a word web wall, which is a large
sheet of chart paper labeled with the word part that children
studied. Another alternative, perhaps a bit more challenging, is
to ask different groups to create webs for different word parts,

such as prefixes. The resulting word wall, then, would be a
compilation of webs about different prefixes.
Figure 9.3 A Word Web
Word webbing is probably most appropriate for intermediate-
level students, but the same idea could be used in primary
classrooms to create word family walls. Here, students would
brainstorm about words that contain a given word family—for
example, ant—then proceed as described earlier. Reading a
book like Cathi Hepworth’s (1992) Antics! to children
beforehand may spark their imaginations.
Content Area Walls
A content area word wall can record words that students believe
to be important to some unit of study. As a new unit begins, the
teacher can ask students to brainstorm words associated with the
topic of the unit: “We’re going to study electricity. What words
do you think of when I say the word electricity?” This brief
activity serves two important purposes. First, since it gets
students thinking about the topic of the unit, it’s a quick and
effective prereading activity. A second benefit is the diagnostic
value of the resulting list, since teachers can learn about
students’ prior topical knowledge by examining the quantity and
variety of words.
Occasionally throughout the unit, the teacher can invite children
to add more words to the content area wall. Word walls can also
provide content area cohesion for teachers who use trade books
to augment conceptual learning. Here’s how Bonnie, an
intermediate-grade teacher, explains it:
Our textbooks are pretty boring and much too difficult for some
of my students, so I try to supplement with a few library books.
When we started studying electricity last fall, I read Nikola
Tesla: Spark of Genius [Dommermuth-Costa 1994] to the
children, one chapter each day. In addition to learning about
this fascinating man’s life, the students jotted down words
related to electricity as I read, then they talked in small groups
to decide which words to add to our electrifying word wall.

Sometimes these were interesting and lively discussions—I
remember quite a chat about gigantic streaks of light, which
ended up on the word wall, and nature’s secrets, which didn’t.
Finding important words to add to the wall is a comprehension
activity—students must understand the content and select words
that are important to the topic under study. The content area
wall provides a good record of what children have learned,
especially if new additions are written with different colors of
markers. A semantic web (like a word web) of all the words is
an effective culminating activity.
Sight Word Walls
Sight words are those students recognize instantly and
effortlessly. Common, high-frequency words (see Appendix B)
are good candidates for learning by sight. Sight words are best
learned by lots of contextual reading because students will
encounter these high-frequency words often. A sight word wall
can reinforce this learning. Five words can be added to the word
wall every week and practiced occasionally during spare
moments. In one year over 100 words can be added to a sight
word wall. Although this may not seem like much, the first 100
words in Fry’s Instant Word List (Fry 1980) represent 50
percent of all words elementary students encounter in their
reading!
Games can keep children’s practice with the words fresh. For
example, children can say the first five words in soft voices, the
next five in loud voices, and so on. Or one student might read
the first word, two the second, three the third—a sort of word
symphony! Children also enjoy reading in different voices (e.g.,
grumpy or happy) or as different characters (e.g., Donald Duck
or Superman).
Story Word Walls
Teaching has been described as the process of making visible
for learners that which is often invisible to them. When being
read to (or reading on their own) students are so involved in the
story that they often do not notice the interesting words that the
author has used. Yet it is the author’s choice of interesting

words that makes stories so engaging. When you read to your
students (or when they read independently) ask students to take
note of any interesting words that the author may have used. Put
these words on a story word wall. Talk about the meaning of the
words and why the author may have chosen those words over
alternatives that may be more common. You may also want to
have students add the chosen words to their personal word
banks (see Chapter 11) . Then, encourage students to use the
words in their oral and written language over the next several
days. As the teacher, you should take the lead in this and try to
use the words yourself. Be sure to point out to students when
you do use these words. When they begin to use literary words
in their own writing, their writing (and reading comprehension)
will certainly improve.
Word Walls for ELL Students
Word walls are an instructional bonanza for ELL students.
Meier (2004) outlines several principles and strategies for
promoting second language development. Among them are the
following:
· Use of visuals and graphics
· Careful introduction and teaching of key vocabulary
· Informal attention to patterns and regularities in English
spelling
· Use of concrete objects and handson literacy activities.
Word walls are useful for achieving all these purposes. Words
might be illustrated with pictures of the objects they represent.
These may even be presented conceptually, as seen in Figure
9.4. Moreover, if children’s first languages are included along
with the English words, the word wall can be used to draw
children’s attention to important phonetic contrasts between
their first language and English (Helman and Bear 2007), which
supports spelling development in English. A bilingual word wall
also shows ELLs that their teacher values their first language;
other students can learn some about the first language as well.
Figure 9.4 An Illustrated Word Wall

Writing Word Walls
Drawing children’s attention to effective aspects of others’
writing can help them see their own options as writers. Word
walls are useful here, too (Ziebicki and Grice 1997). For
example, the teacher might ask children to collect especially
descriptive words, good character descriptions, or powerful
sentences from their independent reading. As they find these
features, children can write them on strips of newsprint and
affix them to a writing word wall. These examples can be used
instructionally. Discussions can focus on drawing conclusions
based on the examples: What can we learn about effective
character descriptions? What makes a powerful sentence?
The notion that students can choose and add words to such walls
challenges and empowers them to be on the lookout for good
writing—whether words, phrases, or sentences. Students are
more likely to be fully engaged in an activity when we give
them choice and ownership.
Spelling Word Walls
Certain words—because, of, and they, to name three—seem to
cause universal problems for young spellers. At least part of a
child’s spelling ability depends on visual memory. In fact, we
teach children to inspect their writing to see if the words look
right. A spelling word wall consisting of a few of these
troublesome words may provide additional spelling support for
children. Words can be collected from children’s unaided
writing; good candidates would be common words that many
children misspell. The teacher can remind children to check the
wall if they are unsure of spelling; some teachers even require
word wall words to be spelled properly. In time, when most
children have mastered the first group of troublesome words, a
new spelling word wall can be created.
A spelling word wall can be a useful instructional prop for
lessons that focus on common rules, such as when to double a
consonant before adding a suffix. Children and the teacher can

collect words, decide about whether the consonant should be
doubled before adding the ending, and put both the base word
and its inflected forms in one of two columns on the spelling
word wall: Double or Do Not Double. In addition to providing
visual reinforcement of the rule, the decisions about where to
place the words involve problem solving aimed at the spelling
rule of interest.
Manipulating words on the spelling word wall can encourage
students to use what they have learned in their own writing. In a
review of four research studies about developing word
knowledge in K–2 classrooms, Williams (2009) concluded that
many children don’t naturally apply what they have learned
about words to their independent writing. She also found that
“students were more likely to use the word wall as a resource
for their writing when their teacher used it as a teaching tool
and also encouraged her students to use it strategically to
support their independent writing endeavors” (p. 577).
Quick Word Wall Games
The presence of word walls in the classroom offers lots of
incidental word learning and word play opportunities. Jasmine
and Schiesl (2009) used these activities in a study with first-
graders. They found that word wall games such as the following
promoted sight word acquisition:
· Be the Teacher: Children use all words to develop word
quizzes or spelling “tests” for peers to solve.
· Guess That Word: Children ask others to guess words they
have selected; they offer clues based on the words’ formations.
· Let’s Be Creative: Partners write a text using as many word
wall words as possible.
· Letters in Words: Teacher calls out a letter within a word wall
word; students find as many other words as possible that
contain the target letter.In Conclusion
One goal of word recognition instruction is to create a physical
environment that invites exploration and play with words. The
many possible word wall formats described in this chapter can

help to achieve this goal. No matter the variation selected, all
these activities meet the criteria we established at the beginning
of the chapter for effective instruction about words. Students
are free to explore and play with words; thinking and sharing
are featured. Developing a word wall is a meaningful way for
children to work with words, and using the word wall becomes a
joint venture that interests all children. As such, word walls are
an easy and effective addition to the classroom.

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