The Growing Problem Of Resistance To Antibiotics

The Growing Problem of Resistance to Antibiotics
The problem of antibiotic resistance has been a growing concern as years pass, and has become one
of the world's most pressing health concerns. Antibiotics are substances of medicinal purposes that
inhibit the growth of bacteria like tuberculosis and malaria. Antibiotics are used to prevent
infections of possibly fatal diseases. The resistance to an antibiotic occurs when a bacterium changes
in a way that makes an antibiotic ineffective against a targeted bacterium. There are many causes of
antibiotic resistance, some due to prescription methods and some due to evolution. The man who
invented penicillin predicted the future resistance to antibiotics, saying, "There is the danger that the
ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non–lethal quantities of
the drug make them resistant" (Fleming, 1945). As stated above, antibiotic resistance occurs when
an antibiotic becomes ineffective against a bacterium due to the evolution of a bacterium (Tufts
University, n.d.). If a bacterium is resistant to an antibiotic, the bacterium continues to grow and
reproduce even with the presence of an antibiotic. Recently, the number of bacterial resistance to
antibiotics has grown substantially. On average in the past few years, over twenty–three thousand
Americans die from infections caused by antibiotic resistant bacteria. The most common,
detrimental resistant bacteria include acinetobacter, anthrax, gonorrhea, methicillin–resistant
Staphylococcus aureus,
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Antimicrobial Resistance To Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance is a type resistance of bacterial infection to the drug prescribed by doctors to
individuals who are infected. Antibodies that are given to a person may not be enough to cure a
bacterial infection due to "superbugs" which is a pathogen resistant to many different types of
antibodies. Some of the reasons why this exists is due to common misuse of people in antibiotics.
For instance, not finishing up what the doctors prescribe after feeling better and saving for later for
future use is not a good practice. This actually leaves the hearty bacteria as opposed to killing only
the mild or medium ones. I strongly believe that people are responsible why the superbugs exist.
This is is a huge problem in the society because superbugs are resistance to antibiotic. is created and
will no longer be effective. One article that support that hypothesis is, Antimicrobial resistance:
global report on surveillance", which notes that resistance is occurring across many different
infectious ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The issue of anti–microbial resistance can be reduced just by coordinated endeavors of all
individuals from society for guaranteeing the effectiveness of antibiotics. If everyone is educated
and stop using prescription antibiotics for common cold, headache, or other viruses lessen people
who misuses such antibiotics. Also, hospitals should be cautious in prescribing antibiotics if
unnecessary. For instance, at Kaiser Hospital where I take my children, doctors advise that common
cold or flu viruses cannot be cured by antibiotics unless it is bacterial

Antibiotic Resistance Lab Report
Predicting the duration for development of antibiotic resistance against an antibiotic by an isolated
colony of bacteria, using computer simulated "natural" selection
Sidharth.R, KMC Manipal
Introduction
The development of antibiotic resistant strains are on the rise especially in developing countries and
are creating a crisis in the effective treatment of infections.1,5
Without horizontal gene transfer, antibiotic resistance develops in most bacteria by mutation in the
gene that codes for the enzyme that targets the antibiotic. (B–lactamases in case of B–lactams.)2
The incidence of new forms of isozymes of B–lactamase is rapidly increasing with the increased use
of antibiotics like carbapeneme. [blaNDM–1 gene]
The polypeptide sequence of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Chawla K, Gurung B, Mukhopadhyay C, Bairy I. Reporting Emerging Resistance of Streptococcus
pneumoniae from India. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases. 2010;2(1):10–14. doi:10.4103/0974–
777X.59245.
2. Bush K, Jacoby GA, Medeiros AA (June 1995). "A functional classification scheme for beta–
lactamases and its correlation with molecular structure". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39 (6):
1211–33. doi:10.1128/AAC.39.6.1211. PMC 162717.PMID 7574506.
3. Neu HC (June 1969). "Effect of beta–lactamase location in Escherichia coli on penicillin
synergy". Appl Microbiol 17 (6): 783–6. PMC 377810. PMID

Antibiotics Resistance
Antibiotics are powerful very frequently used potential drugs in fighting bacterial infections
worldwide, [1]. These agents saved millions of lives in the past fifty years in both hospital–based
and outpatient settings. Inadequate measures to control the spreading of infections, overprescribing
as well as inappropriate selection and dosing of antibiotics by healthcare providers, unfettered
access to antimicrobials by public, failure to adhere to clinically desired treatment regimens are
some of the driving force to spread of antibiotics resistance, [2]. In addition, lack of regulations to
promote the rational use of antibiotics in humans, infection prevention and control are some of the
other factors that lead to emergence of resistance to antibiotics, [3].
In under developing and low middle income countries (LMIC), inadequate regulations and high
levels of availability of antibiotics without prescription have led to higher incidence of inappropriate
use ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition, counterfeit or substandard medications including antibiotics have been identified in
many resource–limited regions, particularly in sub–Saharan Africa, [5,6]. Health systems in poor
countries often cannot offer the most optimal therapies required to appropriately deliver rational
antimicrobial medicines, [6]. Ringertz et al study highlighted that prophylactic and irrational
antibiotics use were exacerbating resistance in Ethiopian hospitals, [7]. There is a correlation
between antibiotic use and subsequent resistance [7].The inappropriate prescribing including lack of
education and training for health professional are wide common in low–resource countries, [8]. It
the influence of antibiotic usage behavior of individuals are influenced beyond their knowledge by
their cultural preferences, beliefs and by the health administration system,

Evolutionary Theory Of Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance has become a hot topic amongst scientists and healthcare professionals. It
would be rare to observe in a clinical setting and not see some type of antibiotic resistant infection
being treated. Scientists and medical doctors are scrambling trying to develop plans to discover new
drugs or at least dampen the rate at which these organisms are developing resistance. Evolutionary
biologists are claiming this type of resistance as proof of evolution, but is that a statement that is
really supported by the evidence? It depends on which type of evolution is being talked about first.
Macroevolution is the theory that one species can evolve into a totally different species.
Microevolution is the change of genotypes and phenotypes ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This theory developed by Joseph Francis states that microbes and viruses were created as a link to
macro–organisms to provide a substrate upon which all macro–organisms can survive and thrive in
ecosystems (Francis). The evidence of this can be seen in symbiotic relationships between microbes
and macro–organisms that provide the macro–organisms the ability to live and thrive. An example
of this would be the intestinal microbes in humans that provide digestive enzymes, vitamins, and
other nutrients that are vital to the health of the human (Francis). Another example would be
nitrogen fixing bacteria that promote plant growth. This would include Burkholderia phymatum and
Cupriavidus taiwanensis with Mimosa plants. (Geoffrey et al., 2006). Also, Francis mentions the
Rhizobium bacterium which also fixes nitrogen for plant use (Francis). Without these microbes, the
macro–organisms would not be able to function to their best capability and could possibly cause the
breakdown of all life

The Question Of Antibiotic Resistance
Introduction The question of antibiotic resistance is a growing phenomenon in contemporary society
and modern medicine; it pertains to pathogenic organisms and is one of the most eminent issues of
public health in the twenty–first century. Though resistant genes are ancient, its increasing
prevalence poses a threat. It demands a greater need for antibiotic therapies. New resistance
mechanisms may spread globally and limit our ability to treat disease and lead to a giant hole in the
pillars of modern medicine. The immense increase in antibiotic resistance can be attributed to many
factors. Along with spontaneous gene mutation, natural selection, and cell–to–cell gene transfer,
humans play a huge part in the worsening of the epidemic. The Union of Concerned Scientists
estimated in 2001 that more that seventy percent of the antibiotics used in the United States are
given to food animals without disease to increase growth and decrease probability of mortality;
medicine is used ensure and maximize profit. The misuse of antibiotics leads to an increase in
resistance in that it exposes bacteria to antibiotics when this exposure is not necessary. Additionally,
culturally–ingrained practices of using antibiotics sans prescription, sharing antibiotics with others,
and over–prescription and dispensing antibiotics either incorrectly or needlessly due to the
commercialization of medicine in combination with patients' exaggeration of disease symptoms all
contribute to the excessive use

The Importance Of Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to global health, food security and development
today. It occurs naturally, but the pace of its process speeds up when given to humans and animals
and it can affect anyone regardless of age and country of residence (Laxminarayan et al., 2013).
According to World Health Organization (WHO), there are 700,000 people die every year because
of antibiotic resistance (WHO,2016). Antibiotic resistance is on the rise to dangerous levels around
the world, and new resistance mechanisms are emerging and spreading globally and threaten our
ability to treat common infectious diseases. A study by the Public Health Foundation in England
between 2010 and 2013 found that prescription antibiotics increased by 6 percent and Escherichia
coli resistance was recorded by 12 percent for the same period. There is a growing list of infections
such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, septicaemia and gonorrhoea, which have become more difficult,
sometimes impossible, to treat because of the low efficacy of antibiotics (Levy and Marshall, 2004).
The world needs to change the way that antibiotics are prescribed and used. Even if new drugs are
introduced, antibiotic resistance will continue to pose a significant threat unless it converts the
behaviour of these drugs, a change that must also involve measures that limit the spread of infection
by vaccination, washing hands, safe sex and take care of food hygiene. The abuse and excessive use
of antibiotics

Antibiotic Resistance Essay
Antibiotic Resistance
Nicholas J. Ciotti
Nova Southeastern University
Biology 1510
Professor A. Hirons
March 28, 2011
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is when microorganisms, such as bacteria, are able to survive an exposure to
antibiotics and these bacteria are now resistant to the effects of these antibiotics. Antibiotic
resistance in bacteria has been an issue since antibiotics were discovered. The fact that bacteria can
become resistant to our medical treatments such as antibiotics is a natural evolutionary process, but
there are certain human contributions that definitely speed up the process. For example, one of the
main contributions that will be discussed is the problem of over prescription of the antibiotic drugs.
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human Contributors to Resistance What are the real reasons behind the problem of bacterial
resistance to antibiotics? There is not really any clear–cut answer to this question but there are some
known factors that do contribute to the problem. Some of these include the overuse of antibiotics in
livestock, international travel that can spread resistant bacteria, and the biggest single factor across
the globe appears to be the very problem of misuse that Fleming warned of in 1945. Over
prescription unnecessarily is still quite common today, and this is a primary contributor to the
generation of bacterial resistance (Stivers, 2007). One environment where bacteria are regularly
exposed to antibiotics is in large livestock operations, where producers very often treat their cows
and other animals with drugs to prevent epidemics in the unsanitary and overcrowded conditions,
which are common in the livestock industry. The simple reason for this is that in the short term it is
cheaper to drug up the animals with antibiotics than to keep a clean living environment for them.
Another big reason for these producers to drug up the animals is the fact that feeding antibiotics to
the livestock makes for larger animals. The problem occurs when bacteria in these animals survive
the bombardment of antibiotics, and some always do, the

Improper Antibiotic Use Antibiotics ( Antibiotics ) (...
Alaina Thomas
English Comp. 2
Professor Sheets
3/2/2016
Improper Antibiotic Use Antibiotics have been the answer to many bacterial infections for the past
70 years (Antibiotic/ Antimicrobial Resistance). Antibiotics are "medicines used to treat infections
or diseases caused by bacteria" ("What are Antibiotics?"). Antibiotics were prescribed to cure many
diseases. Doctors prescribed many antibiotics during World War II. World War II was the start of the
antibiotic era. Just when antibiotics were being greatly produced, bacteria started to evolve and
became resistant to these medicines. What is antibiotic resistance? According to the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, "Antibiotic resistance occurs when an antibiotic has lost its ability
to effectively control or kill bacterial growth" ("General Background"). Improper use of antibiotics
causes antibiotic resistance and has many effects associated with it. People may be drug abusers and
this can cause resistance in the body. Some people will only take antibiotics because they believe it
is the only way they will get better. When a person uses drugs to get rid of a sickness they may start
to overcompensate, but when they do, the drug may have less of an effect because the body has
become so used to the drugs medicine. That is because the bacteria has found a way to avoid the
effects of the antibiotic. The appropriate use of antibiotics, often called antibiotic stewardship, can
help preserve the effectiveness

Paper On Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance
Key facts
Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to global health, Food security and development.
Antibiotic resistance can affect anyone of any race, size and gender.
Antibiotic resistance takes place naturally, however misusing antibiotics can increase the process in
animals and humans.
Infections can become harder to treat due to antibiotics used to treat the infection or diseases have
become less effective.
Antibiotics are used to treat and prevent bacterial infection. Antibiotic resistance occurs when
bacteria no longer responds to the antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is a big threat and is rising to
dangerous levels in all parts of the world. This is creating a major problem because the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to the referencing of one of the main causes of a super bug. In this source there is a clear
explanation of the effect that antibiotic resistance causes and the increased risk that antibiotic
resistance adds to the development of more untreatable infectious diseases. This information will be
useful because the source gives clear information on antibiotic resistance and the effects that it can
lead to. This source is secondary research. This is reliable because it is a fact sheet from the World
Health Organization (WHO) website. "WHO" is a specialised agent of the United Nation that is
concerned with the international public health. The article was written in 2016 and therefore has up
to date information. It is also reliable because the author's purpose in this article was to inform
readers on what antibiotic resistance is and the risks that it brings to the world. This source will be
of great use regarding my focus question because it gives good facts that will add good points in my
essay. There are however a few limitations in this source. One being that the grammar and diction
used in the source is not very scientific. In the source the reader is informed on antibiotic resistance
and the risks that is brings however the source doesn't go in to great detail of what these risks are
and how severe the effect is which is another limitation in this

The Controversy Of Antibiotic Resistance
Without a doubt, the issue with antibiotic resistance has become one of the most urgent health
problems in the world. Recent studies have proven that antibiotics are becoming less effective in the
recent years. For instance, developing countries like China and Kuwait experienced rapid growth in
antibiotic resistance. In the years between 1994 and 2002 the reported cases of hospital and
community–acquired antimicrobial infections for China boosted from 22% to 41% and Kuwait also
experienced an average of 17% growth from 1999 to 2003 (Zhang 1). As the prevalence of
superbugs is becoming more common due to excessive or incorrect use of penicillin and quinolones,
people are more susceptible to contact this lethal microbe. The existence of antibiotic is meant to be
beneficial to the human population because the drug itself is very effective at curing illnesses and
enhancing food safety (Clemmitt 1). At the same time, people are generating a more serious issue by
overusing the drugs. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since penicillin and other antibiotics are ubiquitous in the market for people and companies to
purchase, the chances of misusing them increase as a result. The two major factors that contribute to
antibiotic resistance are through agricultural and medical use, respectively. Therefore, we should
consider different arguments and identify the main cause of the problem before implementing any
actions to resolve this challenging issue. In this inquiry and exploration paper, I am trying to explore
who is responsible for this health crisis and what can be done to alleviate the impacts this issue has
on our

Antibiotic Resistance To Antibiotics
Antibiotic Resistance The increasing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a growing problem that
affects individuals on a global status. Antibiotic resistance refers to the ability of bacteria to alter
their genetic material and mutate to avoid destruction by antibiotic medications rendering the drugs
ineffective in fighting infection and disease. This resistance has had tragic effects as numerous of the
resistant infections have resulted in death of the host. Because of the severity of this condition,
organizations and institutions across the globe have been working together to study and examine the
best strategies to combat these resistant bacteria or sometimes referred to as "superbugs". Many
innovations have been proposed and implemented in attempts to rid people of their infections. The
discussion of which approaches are the most effective and cost efficient has been taking place for
decades and is still occurring today along with further investigations of alternatives to antibiotics
altogether. Researchers are also attempting to understand what has caused the problem of antibiotic
resistance and how this problem has developed. Efforts to contest these bacteria are extremely
important and it is now up to the next generation of health care providers, researchers, and educators
to implement the best ways to keep people healthy. There is much speculation about what has
caused the increased resistance of bacteria to antibiotics and how this problem has developed.

The Importance Of Antibiotic Resistance
Introduction
Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to global health, food security and development
today, it occurs naturally, but the pace of its process speeds up its abuse when given to humans and
animals and it can harm anyone regardless of age and country of residence (Laxminarayan, et
al.2013). According to World Health Organization (WHO), there are 700,000 people death every
year because of antibiotic resistance (WHO,2016). A study by the Public Health Foundation in
England found between 2010 and 2013 that prescription antibiotics increased by 6 percent and
Escherichia coli resistance was recorded by 12 percent for the same period. Antibiotic resistance is
on the rise to dangerous levels around the world, and new ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
2014; Pincock et al. 2012; Wilson et al. 2011). According to Huttner et al (2010), the use of
antibiotics has reduced, with some decreased in indication of resistance as a result of awareness
campaign. In Europe, for example, France had the highest rates of antibiotic consumption, between
2000 and 2007 an awareness campaign with the slogan "Antibiotics are not automatic" resulted in an
average 27 percent decrease in rates of antibiotic prescriptions across all 22 regions of France. The
greatest decreased was in children aged 6 to 15 years (Sabuncu et al. 2009). Moreover, the
relationship between the government and ministry of health and agriculture, especially, is very
essential to the development and implementation of antibiotic resistance policies by build political
commitment and cooperation for combating antibiotic resistance. They need to devote time, money
and resources to limit the expansion of this problem.
Furthermore, in terms of agriculture, in many parts of the world, food animals consume more
antibiotics than humans do, and with even less oversight. For instance, in 2010, China was estimated
to consume the most antibiotics in livestock, followed by the United States, Brazil, Germany, and
India. The pattern is similar for projected antibiotic consumption in livestock in 2030, with Mexico
replacing Germany in the top ﬁve countries. Consumption in

Antibiotic Resistance : The Setting
Antibiotic Resistance: The Setting Antibiotic resistance can develop wherever antibiotics are:
medical facilities, animal products and communities. Breaks in infection control, inadequate water
sanitation and poor hygiene all contribute to the spread of resistant bacteria from person to person
(Collignon, et al., 2015). The majority of antibiotic usage worldwide is in animals raised as a food
source (Collignon, et al., 2015). 80% of antibiotic use in the United States is for growth promotion
and disease prevention of farm animals used for food sources (CDC, 2015). This usage of antibiotics
leads to the development of resistant bacteria, which spread to people via the food chain or water
(Collignon, et al., 2015).
Antibiotic Resistance: The Problem In a recent study that assesses the association between
antimicrobial resistance in E. coli isolates from food animals and blood stream isolates from humans
there were significant correlations between prevalence's of resistance to ampicillin,
aminoglycosides, third–generation cephalosporin's, and fluoroquinolones were observed for human
and poultry E. coli isolates (Vieira, Collignon, Aarestrup, McEwen, Hendriksen, Hald, & Wegener,
2011). Similar significant correlations were observed for ampicillin, aminoglycosides, and
fluoroquinolone resistance in pig and human isolates (Vieira, et al., 2011). In cattle isolates, only
ampicillin resistance was significantly correlated to human isolates (Vieira, et al., 2011).
Fortunately,

Antibiotics are an integral part of life today, without them the quality of life on Earth would be
much different. Antibiotics are any substance that inhibits microbes, such as bacteria, by slowing
down its growth or killing it. This is accomplished by targeting specific cellular processes or
mechanisms of the microbe and altering or inhibiting them. Antibiotics occur naturally and are
abundantly present in the environment. A large variety of microorganisms produce antibiotics, for
example fungi or bacteria. Penicillin, which is produced by a fungus, was the first antibiotic
discovered by scientists and eventually led to the development of the antibiotic industry, which in
turn led to the proliferation of antibiotic resistance (Sengupta, 2013). The excessive and frequent use
of antibiotics in medical treatment largely contributed to the development of antibiotic resistance
(Sengupta, 2013). But, bacteria that have never been exposed to antibiotics also exhibit antibiotic
resistance showing that it is an ancient and natural phenomenon (Bhullar et al, 2012). Antibiotic
resistance can result due to intrinsic qualities of the bacteria or it can be acquired through genetic
methods such as mutations or horizontal gene transfer through plasmids. Antibiotics kill susceptible
bacteria but are ineffective against resistant bacteria, this creates selective pressure, which allows the
resistant bacteria to grow and multiply. This leads to the development of highly resistant pathogenic

A Study On Antibiotic Resistance
Clinical Question The clinical question that guides the search for a quantitative article is: In
hospitalized adults, does implementation of prevention control measures decrease antibiotic
resistance? The precise clinical question that guides the search for a qualitative article is: In
healthcare personnel of hospitalized adults, what is the experience of preventing antibiotic resistant
organisms?
Problem
The main issue this paper addresses is whether prevention control measures are effective in
decreasing antibiotic resistance among adults, thus decreasing mortality. The importance of this
issue is that antibiotic resistant organisms are a public health concern, which leads to morbidity and
mortality in both hospitals and in communities. There have been nearly 2 million cases of infections
involving resistant bacteria in the United States, which has led to $20 billion in healthcare cost
(Uchil et al., 2014). Additionally, there have been reports and major threats involving Clostridium
difficile, Carbapenem–Resistant Enterobacteriacecae, and drug–resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae
(CDC, 2013). According to Uchil et al. (2014), performing strict hand hygiene has been identified as
one of the most critical elements in preventing infection in adults in the United States. Antibiotic
resistant organisms cannot be killed by antibiotics, which makes them a critical public health issue.
The pathophysiology of antibiotic resistant organisms includes resistant

Fluoroquinolone Resistance To Antibiotic Resistance
As previously discussed, antibiotics often work by targeting critical functions of the bacterial cell.
This means that antibiotics have specific targets, which is a boon because it means non–microbial
life will not be affected by the antibiotics. However, because of this specificity, bacteria can develop
ways of protecting themselves from antibiotics, leading to the rise of antibiotic resistance Like any
other organism, bacterium are subject to evolutionary pressure. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is
rarely the result of a single mutation leading to full resistance, but rather the result of a series of
mutations that incrementally increased antibiotic resistance. For example, in the case of
fluoroquinolone resistance, resistance started with a mutation in the efflux pump, granting
Streptococcus pneumoniae the ability to survive certain treatment regimens (13). This became an
issue when people started to misuse their antibiotics. In this particular example, because patients did
not follow their prescription regimens, they only killed the bacteria not resistant to fluoroquinolone.
This selective pressure drove bacteria to further develop fluoroquinolone resistance, meaning that
the initial infection remained untreated, and would now require a ... Show more content on
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The misuse of antibiotics means that bacteria that have minor resistances survive when patients do
not follow their prescription regimens, and then they are able to flourish and spread this resistance to
other bacteria (14). This is a result of miseducation among the public about when antibiotics should
be taken. In the United States, for instance, 9% of people who take antibiotics are either taking
antibiotics that they or someone they knew had leftover (15). This is a danger because taking
antibiotics when they are not needed removes the body's natural flora that helps prevent infection
and allows for antibiotic resistant bacteria to

The Development of Antibiotic Resistance
For many years people have wondered why the antibiotics that are used so commonly nowadays are
not as effective as they once were. Just like organisms evolve throughout time, resistance to certain
things can also evolve. This resistance however is not something that happens naturally but rather is
a man–made process which was caused via the misuse, overuse, and/or underuse of antibiotics
(Davies 2010). The author Davies explains that there is no better example of the Darwinian notions
of selection and survival than the spread of antibiotic resistance and how the bacteria have evolved
with traits that make them that way. The more people use antibiotics, especially when not necessary,
the higher the chance of bacteria in the body growing resistant to those antibiotics. Major problems
have arisen such as cells becoming resistant to antibiotics because its selection pressure is reduced
or eliminated. This means that one must counteract this by continually increasing the antibiotic
concentration in proportion to the increased resistance (Rosenthal and Elowitz 2012). To understand
how bacteria became resistant to antibiotics, one must first understand the origin of antibiotics and
its introduction into the body. Once these antibiotics were discovered and first started being used, it
was not long after that that they regrettably were accompanied by the appearance of some resistant
strains as well. The development of antibiotic resistance is persistent especially because

The Misuse of Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance
The Misuse of Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance
Samantha Onda
Penn State Worthington Scranton
Abstract
The growing issue of bacterial resistance to antibiotics is growing more rapidly than anticipated.
Numerous factors contribute to this growing issue and it creates a major concern for society today.
The main factor in this growing issue is the continuous misuse and overuse of antibiotics. For
example, people use them by prescribing antibiotics to themselves, even if they have acquired a
viral infection. Furthermore, livestock is pumped full of antibiotics to promote growth and prevent
infections. Moreover, bacteria have become smarter and evolved so that they are able to transmit the
resistance to other bacteria. This is an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Each antibiotic operates at a specific site within the bacterial cell", as stated by Khachatourians,
"thus, when resistant organisms arise, their resistance is specific to particular antibiotics". Bacteria
have evolved so that they can transfer different strains of resistance to their own species and
different species (Khachatourians, 1998). The organisms have genetic traits in the chromosomes and
extrachromosomal elements for resistance to occur (Khachatourians, 1998). Resistance can occur
from a mutation on the chromosomal genes, leading to antibiotic sensitivity. Khachatourians states
that, "such mutations occur at a rate of one per million to one per billion cells". He also explains
that, "the extrachromosomal elements (plasmids and transposons) are smaller pieces of circular
DNA, each equivalent in size to about 1% of a chromosome" (Khachatourians, 1998). When the
bacterial organism acquires the resistance against the antibiotic administered and send it to other
species of bacteria this is known as genetic exchange (Khachatourians, 1998).
"As far as mechanisms of resistance are concerned, some bacterial species are normally and
inherently insensitive to certain antibiotics, whereas others are sensitive" (Khachatourians, 1998).
There are three requirements in order for a bacterium to be considered sensitive. A target for reaction
has to occur. Secondly, before the antibiotic is administered,

The Importance Of The Antibiotic Resistance Crisis
The antibiotic resistance crisis: Is antibiotic dead? The world health organization, which is the firsts
global assessment of antimicrobial resistance have studied that antibiotic resistance will become a
major threat in the 21st century (1,2, 3, 4, 5). The antibiotic resistance crisis is when an infectious
disease has developed in human population to where humans will not be able to find an antibiotic to
treat these infectious diseases (2). The antibiotic resistance crisis is a major issue that will cause a
risk to human life–span as the years go on; the end to the antibiotic era (2, 3). There are many
problems that are associated with this issue such as, the increase of death in certain diseases we have
today, in addition to finding a solution that will help tackle this disaster. This crisis would have a
devastating cost on human society, the increase of AMR phenotypes among microbes, and finally
the large and global connection between human population and pathogens in any environment that
are access to all humanity (4,5). Understanding the antibiotic crisis is important because antibiotics
are used to help humans in their everyday lives and without it will cause the increase to many
diseases and bacteria that live around us and in us. The antibiotic resistance crisis will cause a lot of
issues with human development and the health of humanity, to where 80,000 people can die from a
single antimicrobial resistance outbreak (3). The reason why this crisis is a

http://emerald.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/societal_prob.shtml
(Web Page)
If large numbers of bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, it will be more difficult and more expensive
to treat human bacterial infections. When antibiotics fail to work, consequences include extra visits
to the doctor, hospitalization or extended hospital stays, a need for more expensive antibiotics to
replace the older ineffective ones, lost workdays and, sometimes, death.
Antibiotics are called "societal drugs," since antibiotic resistance can pass from bacterium to
bacterium (see About antibiotic resistance), and resistant bacterial infections can pass from person to
person. Thus, antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance can eventually affect an entire community.
When antibiotics are used in humans or animals, approximately 80 – 90% of the ingested antibiotics
are not broken down, but pass through the body intact and enter the environment as waste. Thus,
they retain their ability to affect bacteria and promote antibiotic resistance even after they enter the
soil or water as a waste product. (See APUA's fact sheet, "The Need to Improve Antibiotic Use in
Food Animals")
Antibiotic resistance is found all over the world and has become a very serious problem in the
treatment of disease. The 1995 US Office of Technology Assessment report attributed a cost of $1.3
billion (1992 dollars) per year for antibiotic–resistant infections due to six species of bacteria in US
hospitals. While the real

The Importance Of Antibiotic Resistance In Antibiotics
A serious public health problem is the rise in antibiotic resistance. Some bacteria that can cause
serious disease are becoming resistant to most commonly available antibiotics. Antibiotic
medications are used to kill bacteria, which can cause disease and illness. A major contribution to
human health is antibiotic medication. Many diseases that once killed people in the past can now be
treated effectively with antibiotics. However, it has come to the surface that some bacteria have
become resistant to commonly used antibiotics. Antibiotic resistant bacteria are bacteria that are not
controlled or killed by antibiotics. They can multiply and even survive in the presence of an
antibiotic. Most infection–causing bacteria can become resistant to at least some antibiotics.
Bacteria that are resistant to many antibiotics are known as multi–resistant organisms (MRO).
(Antibiotic Resistant bacteria, 2017) In the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s, S. aureus
developed resistance to penicillin. Methicillin, a form of penicillin, was introduced to counter the
increasing problem of penicillin–resistant S. aureus. At this time Methicillin was one of most
common types of antibiotics used to treat S. aureus infections; but in 1961, British scientists
identified the first strains of S. aureus bacteria that resisted methicillin. This was the so–called birth
of methicillin–resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). It was not until 1968 that the first reported
human case of MRSA in the

Antibiotic Resistance : Antibiotics And Antibiotics
Elsie Gutierrez
BIO 120 Lab Section 1315
14 October 2015
Title
Introduction
When an individual gets sick from a bacterial infection, antibiotics have undoubtedly changed the
lives of many people by saving them from death (Davies, 2010). Since the discovery of antibiotics,
scientists have been finding ways to improve the effectiveness of antibiotics. For the past decades,
there's been an alarming increase of antibiotic resistance globally (Witte, 2006). Antibiotics should
ideally get rid of infectious diseases but instead the bacteria are finding ways to fight back. A
bacterium that has persistently become more resistant to antibiotics is Staphylococcus aureus and is
more deadly compared to other disease causing bacteria (Naber, 2009). S. aureus is often found in
hospitals and infects patients most frequently partly due to the bacterium being found on one out of
every two people (Bud, 2007 p. 118). This bring up the concern of bacterial resistance and the
potency of antibiotics in the future. How will scientists, physicians, or patients fight off bacterial
infections if the bacteria are becoming resilient against the medicine that should kill them? Even
though bacteria are more resistant, antibiotics can still be effective towards the pathogenic bacteria.
Penicillin has been noted as the one of the most significant finding in medical history (Bud, 2007 p.
1). Since it's serendipitous discovery, penicillin is used to combat illnesses in patients in a quick and
efficient

Antibiotics: The Controversy Of Antibiotic Resistance
Introduction Antibiotics are amongst the most important medical discoveries and their introduction
represents a remarkable success story (Hedin, 2011). The term antibiotics literally means against life
(Walsh, 2000). Thus antibiotics can be used against any microbe such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
protozoa. However, some people use the term to only apply to bacteria, but in this paper, the more
appropriate term will be used.
Widespread use of antibiotics has been very controversial in the media as well in the general
population. Due to these controversies, it is very misunderstood to how antibiotics work leading to
many patients in the hospital setting wanting to take them when it is not necessary or refusing to
take when it is necessary for their survival. Some of this controversy is due to antibiotic resistance,
which has spread an alarming rate in the 21st century (Walsh, 2000). Antibiotic resistance is the
result of very strong bacteria or microbes that are resistant to the antibiotic prescribed and those
microbes accumulate overtime by their survival, reproduction and transfer, leading to increased
levels of antibiotic resistance.
I have chosen this topic due to the controversies of using antibiotics due to antibiotic resistance. ...
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There is a huge need for antibacterial drugs as infectious diseases are the second leading cause of
death worldwide and the third leading cause of death in developed countries (Projan, 2003). Over
the past 60–70 years, most antibiotics have been discovered by screening of soil samples for natural
products that kill bacteria, including known pathogens, first on culture plates and then in animal
infections (Walsh, 2000). There are three proven targets for the main antibacterial drugs, bacterial
cell all biosynthesis, bacterial protein synthesis, and bacterial DNA replication and

Antibiotic Resistance In Primary Care
How will rising antibiotic resistance impact primary healthcare?
It was in the middle 1800s when the medicine started gaining a shape, scientists are nowadays still
struggling to smooth. Once the Germ Theory was accepted the importance of microorganisms was
revealed. It is since then that science tries to understand and combat the little enemies living inside
us. Bacteria are the smallest microorganisms being known by their astonishing dividing capacity.
They divide by binary fussion meaning that one cell grows and splits into two cells. The process is
exponential and provides rapidly increasing populations. Bacteria, as well as fungi and viruses all
form a big category, spread infinitely , known under the name germs and are the microorganisms ...
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Who is responsible for the massive number of people loosing the fight with antibiotic resistance
every day? Who will come up with the change we are all expecting to see? Well, unfortunately it is
too late to prevent the occurrence of something as unfortunate and undesirable as the situation we
are put it. By the end you finish reading this sentence the number of deaths caused by the
antimicrobial bacteria would have already increased by tens, if not hundreds. Pharmaceutical
companies seem to be our only way out of this vicious circle. Unless new substances are discovered,
which can both cure diseases and fight the antimicrobial bacteria back, medicine will start to face
serious impediments. There will be an huge increase in the costs health care systems have to pay for
treatments and tests. On top of that, primary health care will need to hire more health care providers
including carers, nurses and doctors. Beside the costs of hiring extra staff, high amounts of money
will need to be allocated for trainings and development. The sad thing is that even with extra staff
the patients will have less chances of getting better and survavil rates will decrease. Some, actually
most, of the health care systems will struggle to provide the increased amounts of money, in which
case, the available sum of money will have to be divided to manage to meet all the

Types Of Resistance : Mechanisms Of Antibiotic Resistance
Mechanisms of Resistance
Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance
The principle of antibiotic resistance revolve around how antibiotics work. Antibiotics target certain
structures on bacteria such as their cell wall, proteins, and nucleic acids that results in the disruption
and/or inhibition of their growth. These disturbances can sometimes lead to bacterial death. In order
to survive, bacteria have developed countermeasures to fight against the harmful drugs. This was
carried out by targeting the antibiotics themselves. The way antibiotics function is based on their
chemical structure. Because many antibiotics have similar structures, they are also grouped in that
way. Each class (or family) have similarities in their structure and in turn, have similarities in their
target of action. Consequently, these similarities make it easy for the bacteria to construct resistance
to different and multiple classes of antibiotics. Mechanisms that will be discussed all involve
bacteria's ability to prevent antibiotics from reaching its target by means of target alteration, drug
detoxification, impermeability and efflux.
Target Alteration
Target alteration refers to modifications made on the antibiotic molecule. The modification can be
due to point mutations in the genes encoding the target site, enzymes that change binding sites by
acetylation, phosphorylation, adenylation, or replacement/bypass of the original target (1). A good
example of resistance due to point mutation is fluoroquinolone resistance. This drug acts on DNA
gyrase and topoisomerase IV, both of which are vital for bacterial DNA replication. The mutation
lies within the genes that encode for both DNA gyrase and topoisomerase. With its target modified,
fluoroquinolone can no longer inhibit bacterial DNA replication.
Modification can be done chemically by adding certain compounds together or by outright
destroying them. Bacteria employ these actions by producing enzymes that chemically modify
antibiotics by acetylation, phosphorylation, and adenylation (1). This mechanism is seen in both
gram negative and gram positive organisms as with the case of aminoglycoside resistance. This class
of antibiotic is frequently used to treat infections caused by

Introduction
This article is about the determination of Antibiotic resistance that relies on the fitness effects of
resistance elements in the absence of antibiotics. Angst and Hall tentatively developed rifampicin–
resistant and delicate Escherichia coli in drug–free environment, before measuring the impacts of
new resistance components on fitness in antibiotic free conditions. Streptomycin resistance changes
had little fitness impacts in rifampicin–resistant genotypes that had adjusts to antibiotic free
environment , contrasted with the same genotypes without acclimatization. They watched a
comparative impact when resistance was encoded by a plasmid. Antibiotic sensitive microorganisms
that acclimated to the same conditions indicated ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Resistant microorganisms obtain extra helpful changes throughout advancement without antibiotic s
that don't modify resistance straightforwardly however may change the fitness impacts of new
resistance transformations (Angst and Hall, 2013). It is critical that researchers study this theme on
the grounds that fitness impacts of resistance transformations frequently fluctuate relying upon the
vicinity of other resistance changes on the same genome. Furthermore, it is likewise essential to
study this issue so as to minimize the development of microbes into antibiotic resistant superbugs
that could conceivably make a worldwide health crisis.
Methods
The researchers' theory is that antibiotic resistance goes through extra valuable transformations
throughout development without antibiotic s that don't adjust resistance specifically however may
change the fitness impacts of new resistance changes. They saw that later work prescribes: fitness
impacts of resistance transformations regularly differ relying upon the vicinity of other resistance
changes on the same genome, yet they also realized that, resistance evolution will frequently be
joined by the obsession of fixation of additional mutations that don't argue resistance however
expand fitnes. One experiment that they did to test their hypothesis was to tentatively advance

Antibiotic Resistance And Its Effects On The World
Edward Kaneshiro
College Writing
11/25/14
Bacteria have been plaguing mankind throughout all of recorded history, from the medieval bubonic
plague to the leprosy epidemic, but our greatest bacterial nightmare is knocking on the door of the
21st century. Antibiotic resistance. Our improper and ubiquitous use of antibiotics has caused
bacteria to develop resistance against our synthetic poison, enabling bacteria to survive, thrive, and
reek havoc amongst humans and animals alike. The improper use of antibiotics foreshadows a future
of super bacteria that will be incurable by any medicine that has been developed, or will ever be
develop. It will be a future full of fear and death. The improper usage of antibiotics must be
identified and addressed before it is too late. To understand the dangers of antibiotic resistance, one
must first understand how bacteria gain resistance to antibiotics in the first place. Bacteria, like all
other organisms on the planet Earth, are governed by natural selection. Natural selection is the
process in which suitable traits, or the traits that give an organism the best chance for survival and
reproduction, are selected for by the environment in which said organism resides. For example, if it
a population of mice lived in a desert with light colored sand, the mice with dark fur would be easily
spotted by predators and eaten, while the mice with lighter fur would be able to better evade
predators due to

Antibiotic Resistance And Its Effects
Recently, a woman in Nevada died at the hands of a "superbug" that was resistant to every antibiotic
available in the U.S., a sobering incident to the medical community. The patient was infected with
Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria that had become resistant to cabapenems (a class of antibiotics that
are typically used as a last resort when other antibiotics have failed), therefore becoming a
"Carbapenem–Resistant Enterobacteriaceae" (CRE). The bacteria was discovered to be resistant to
no less than 26 different antibiotics. Such a story could potentially become true for other patients as
more multidrug resistant strains develop and spread, rendering the current antibiotics in use today
useless. Antibiotics play a huge and important role in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the end, the hospital will probably never see the complete eradication of the superbug from it
(Vastag, 2012). Antibiotic resistance is also tacking on an additional "$20 billion in excess direct
health care costs" and contributing $35 billion to costs from lost productivity (CDC, 2013), evidence
that it is taking an increasing toll on successfully treating patients and getting them back on their
feet without undue delay.
According to the CDC, "the use of antibiotics is the single most important factor leading to
antibiotic resistance" and "up to 50 percent of all the antibiotics prescribed for people are not needed
or are not prescribed appropriately" (CDC, 2013), highlighting the fact that antibiotic resistance is a
result of how much, and how we use antibiotics. For example, patients fail to complete the course of
their treatment (especially because they feel better), skip doses, or do not take the antibiotics
according to the instructions. Multidrug–resistant tuberculosis is an excellent example of resistance
by bacteria resulting from mismanagement of treatment. The World Health Organization says that
people with tuberculosis that undergo treatment are usually subject to a "strictly followed, 6–month
drug regimen that is provided to patients with support and supervision." However, patients
sometimes use the drugs incorrectly, get ineffective formulations of the drugs, or stop treatment at
an inappropriate time, allowing "multidrug resistance to... [continue to]

Antibiotic Resistance Lab
Antibacterial Resistance Lab The independent variable for the Antibiotic Resistance Lab was the
strain of E. Coli, the strain that we tested is called E. Coli K–12. The dependent variable was the
amount of E. Coli that was resistant to triclosan, i.e. the size of the zone of inhibition. This lab was
experimental because we were physically dealing with the variables. We created the environment for
the E.Coli to either adapt to or not. We had two controls for each lab section which were facilitated
by the Teaching Assistants. The controls consisted of using the same strain of E.Coli rubbing it on
an Petri dish same as all of the actual tests but instead of using a triclosan saturated round of paper,
the control used water. After every incubation

The Problem of Antibiotic Resistance
ANTIBIOTIC
Antibiotics are a term refers to substances produced by microorganisms that can harm and inhibit or
destroy other microorganisms, specifically bacteria (15). Antibiotics can be produced naturally or
unnaturally via pharmaceutical industries using large–scale processes of fermentation. The
antibiotics discovery has been of great significance due to in many clinical settings the antibiotics
generally are the best way to destroy bacteria which cause infections in humans and animals. In
1910, The Salvarsan use in the treatment of syphilis was the first application of antibiotics (15). In
1930, the antibiotics application was continued with sulphonamides. In addition, the first use of
penicillin was in 1941 in the bacterial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
coli), Vibrio cholerae, Klebsiella species, Shigella species, Salmonella species and Campylobacter
species (6). In these enteric pathogens, antimicrobial resistance is of importance in developed
countries where diarrhoeal diseases are causing of illness and death, but are also of particular
interest in developing nations, because they are reservoirs for the resistance transmission. 2 ‫المرجع‬
Several previous studies found that there is relationship between the antibiotic resistance in the
environment and the effluents from urbanization areas (6), agricultural and industrial land use
patterns (34) wastewater treatment plants (11), industrial pollution (23) flood water runoff (35).,
heavy metal pollution (23), flood water runoff (35). 2 ‫(المرجع‬
SOURCES OF ANTIBIOTICS RESISTANCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Agriculture
A long time ago to now, Antibiotics have been used to control and treat plants diseases associated
with bacterial infections. The antibiotics particularly gentamicin, tetracycline, streptomycin and
oxolinic acid were applied in many ways such as spraying and crop dusting (25). This generates
pressure for the selection of antibiotics resistant bacteria in the environment and contributes in direct
inputs of antibiotics into the environment. The resistance can be transferred disease–causing bacteria
through the transfer of horizontal gene, indicating that treated crops may have indirect effects on
public health ‫المرجع‬.
Manure

Antibiotic Resistance Lab
Background Information
Every single day, billions of different microorganisms enter through the doors of hospitals around
the globe. A large majority of these infectious agents are treated through the use of antibiotics. But,
what happens to the microorganisms that become resistant to the destructive effects of antibiotics?
These organisms live on and continue to resist antibiotic treatment. We call these antibiotic–resistant
organisms superbugs. Hospitals have become a breeding ground for superbugs. If they are not
controlled, these superbugs can pose a significant threat to a hospital's patients. Since they are
impervious to standard antibiotic treatments, options are scarce and these superbugs prey on the
already ill patients in the hospital. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One room will be the control, no treatment will be used on this room, while the other two rooms will
be treated with UV lamps and (UV–C)–reflective wall paint; a wall coating that reflects ultraviolet
light to greatly increase the effectiveness of the UV lamp. It is expected that the bacteria in the
untreated room will see an exponential growth in population over time because there are no human–
controlled factors in place to limit the population size. It is expected that the bacteria in the
ultraviolet light treated room will see an extinction of the population over time because the DNA of
the microorganisms will be significantly damaged by the ultraviolet radiation. The damage to the
genetic information of the bacteria will significantly decrease their ability to successfully reproduce,
which in turn should cause rapid decay in populations. The population size of the bacteria in the
experiment will be measured by the dry mass of cells after centrifugation. Within the UV–treated
room, multiple disinfection techniques will be used. A room with a single stationary UV light, and a
room with multiple stationary UV lights. It is expected that the room with multiple, stationary UV
lights will require less time to significantly decrease the population of the bacteria than the room
with a single, stationary UV light because its light covers more surface

The Resistance Of Bacteria And Antibiotics
The resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is becoming a grave and global medical problem. This is
because whenever antibiotics are taken the development of resistance is a given consequence;
bacteria adapt to changing environmental conditions through the continuous process of evolution.
The main issue with antibiotics is not whether but when antibiotic resistance will occur.
This resistance is caused by the lack of new antibiotics available and continuing over–prescription
of antibiotics. Any bacteria that acquire resistance alleles, by either random mutation or genetic
exchange with other bacteria, have the capability to resist multiple antibiotics. Therefore, the
process of bacteria gaining multiple resistance attributes over time gives bacteria the ability to
become resistant to many different families of antibiotics.
Nosocomial infections are, in particular, an progressively prevalent problem. This is because
weakened immune systems of hospital patients make them particularly vulnerable to infection. E.
coli is frequent cause of infection, especially in the urinary tract. This means patients catheters could
easily be at risk to a resistant–strand of E.coli. In the US alone, the overall cost for medical
intervention of nosocomial urinary tract infections is staggering, with approximately $424 million to
$451 million spent annually in the United States to manage these infections (source).
Alarmingly, 17.3% infections requiring hospitalisation have been attributed to

Antibiotic resistance occurs when antibiotics are no longer effective in controlling bacterial growth.
The phenomenon of antibiotic resistance can be explained by the processes of selective pressure in
which the strongest strains of bacteria survive antibiotic therapy, resulting in "superbugs" that are
resistant to almost every type of antibiotic available for use (Davies & Davies, 2010). Because of
this, certain bacterial infections are evolving that have no effective treatments. This resistance
creates a threat to the common medicinal practices of today and can be seen as a global problem;
perhaps one of the world's most serious problems. The issue of antibiotic resistance is emerging
rapidly as a result of a myriad of uniformed practices and misuse of antibiotics.
The abuse of antibiotics is a threat to global health as we approach a post–antibiotic era. As of now,
antibiotics are massively used for human prescriptive reasons, as well as for food growth in
livestock. As such, without effective antibiotics, health is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
To start with, antibiotic–resistant infections have been noted to double mortality and the costs of
infection when compared to drug–susceptible strains of bacteria (Holmberg, Solomon & Blake,
1987). Not only are antibiotic–resistant strains of bacteria more dangerous to humans, but they also
place more pressure on the healthcare system than non–resistant strains. Additionally, antibiotics
used for growth in food animals can result in selective pressure, thus increasing resistant strains of
bacteria. Witte (2000) explained that using antibiotics in food animals can enter the human digestive
tract when we eat meat products and even certain antibiotics that are intended for animal use, and
not human use, are becoming ineffective for certain strains of bacteria. Ultimately, this implies that
antibiotics used for animal growth are also leading to resistance in certain

Antibiotics And Antibiotic Resistance
When a bacteria is exposed to antibiotics, they are not always guaranteed to die. This is called
antibiotic resistance. Sometimes antibiotics can only stop the bacteria from multiplying (make it
stagnate), and other times it causes the bacteria to multiply even more. These three results depend on
antibiotic concentration, bacterial mutation, and bacterial genetic exchange. One big factor in the
resistance bacteria show towards antibiotics is antibiotic concentration. Usually, if large amounts of
an antibiotic are attacking a bacteria it will stop the multiplication process and even kill it off, but if
there is small amounts of antibiotic it will allow the bacteria to continue to spread. You can find
many bacteria in a jelly–like biofilm which provides a shield to them. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The bacteria can form the ability to completely remove the antibiotic from its cell.
3. The wall of the bacteria can create a barrier to keep the antibiotic from getting in.
4. The bacteria become accustomed to a new way of handling energy.
Scientists have to keep up with the bacteria's mutations, and it may require them making a new
antibiotic for each one.
The third and final factor in bacterial resistance to antibiotics is bacterial genetic exchange. It is very
common for bacteria to share genetic info between cells even if the bacteria are not the same
species. When this happens, genes and DNA get mixed into different species allowing more
mutations against the antibiotics.
The only way for scientists to know if the bacteria is going to resist their antibiotic is for them to
perform tests. Even if the antibiotic proves to work in their experiment, scientists can never tell
when the bacteria is going to mutate and possibly gain new defenses that can deactivate their
antibiotic. Antibiotic concentration, bacterial mutation, and bacterial genetic exchange are all
responsible for bacterial resistance against antibiotics, and make it very difficult to create antibiotics
against the

Antibiotic Resistance Lab Report
The purpose of the investigation is to determine what amount of antibiotic is best against bacterial
resistance. The independent variable in the investigation is the amount of the antibiotic. The
dependent variable is the bacterial resistance. The control group is the petri dish that receives the
lowest amount of the antibiotic solution and the constants are the bacteria and the amount of bacteria
used in the investigation. There is an estimate of nearly 600,000 people who die each year around
the world because they contracted an infection that was no longer able to be treated because the
bacteria became immune to the drugs that were supposed to suppress the infection.
Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria are able to resist the effects of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
When the first antibiotics were manufactured in 1928, they were attack mechanisms that bacteria
could use to attack competitors. Bacterial resistance formed as a way of defending against these
strong chemicals. The same happens when humans administer synthesized antibacterial chemicals –
the bacteria evolve resistance to the antibiotics ("Antimicrobial Resistance: What's the Issue and
Why is it so Important," 2016). Bacteria can develop the ability to counteract the antibiotic before it
does harm. Others can pump the antibiotic out, while others can change the antibiotic attack site. In
addition, antibiotics can inhibit the growth of susceptible bacteria. Sometimes bacteria survive
because they can escape the effect of the antibiotic. One bacterium can now multiply and change the
bacteria that were killed off. The exposure to the antibiotic now provides selective pressure. This
makes the bacteria that are alive more likely to be resistant. Also, the bacteria that were susceptible
at some point to an antibiotic can achieve resistance through mutation of their genetic material
("Antibiotic Resistance: Questions & Answers", 2017). The DNA that has the code for resistance
can be easily grouped in a transferable package. This causes bacteria to become resistant to many
antimicrobial agents due to a transfer of a piece of DNA ("Antibiotic Resistance: Questions &
Answers", 2017). Antibiotics can stop working against bacteria in multiple ways. The bacteria can
change the structure of the target (or even replacing it within another molecule altogether) so that
the antibiotic can no longer recognize it or bind to it ("How do bacteria become resistant to
antibiotics", 2018). This can work because antibiotics usually work by focusing on

Antibiotic Resistance ( Abr ) Essay
Antibiotic Resistance (ABR) is a worldwide threat that is affecting humans, animals, and the
environment in the United States and around the world. ABR occurs when antibiotics have lost their
power to kill bad bacteria. Therefore, the bacteria become resistant to therapeutic antibiotics
resulting in uncured illnesses. Barlam and Gupta, authors of the article "Antibiotic Resistance
Spreads Internationally Across Borders," state that "ABR develops when bacteria are exposed to
antibiotics either during treatments in humans or animals through environmental sources
contaminated with antibiotic residues" (12). People and animals will always be connected one way
or another through the environment. The spread of ABR happens through direct contact with an
infected person or animal, through contact or consumption of meat or produce contaminated with
ABR bacteria, or simply through the environment (12). The spreading issue of ABR has been a
serious concern for an extensive amount of time that has influenced the environment in a negative
way. Balasegaram et al., authors of "The Global Innovation Model for Antibiotics Needs
Reinvention," state that infections are becoming more difficult to treat due to the lack of research,
various human activities, and development of new antibiotics that can aid bacterial resistance (22).
It's time for society to have a better understanding of the risks ABR has before it's too late. ABR is
becoming a severely growing problem with the food, soil, and

Antibiotic Resistance : Where We Are
Antibiotic Resistance: Where we are and what we need to do
Oluwatosin Fofah
Antibiotics are inarguably one of the greatest advances in medical science of the past century.
Although the first natural antibiotic Penicillin was not discovered until 1928 by Scottish biologist
Alexander Flemming, evidence exists that certain plant and mold growths were used to treat
infections in ancient Egypt, ancient India, and classical Greece (Forrest, 1982). In our modern world
with the advent of synthetic chemistry synthetic antibiotics like Erithromycin and its derivative
Azithromycin have been developed. Antibiotics have many uses including the treatment of bacterial
and protozoan infection, in surgical operations and prophylactically to prevent the development of
an infection. Through these applications, antibiotics have saved countless lives across the world and
radically altered the field of medicine. Though a wonderful and potentially lifesaving tool, antibiotic
use is not without its disadvantages. Mankind has perhaps been too lax in regulation and too liberal
in application of antibiotics and growing antibiotic resistance is the price we must now pay. A recent
study showed that perhaps 70% of bacterial infections acquired during hospital visits in the United
States are resistant to at least one class of antibiotic (Leeb, 2004). Bacteria are not helpless and their
genetic capabilities have allowed them to take advantage of society's overuse of antibiotics, allowing
them to develop

"Antibiotic Resistance"
I. Abstract
When penicillin was first administered in 1943, it proved to be extraordinary at wiping out nasty
cases of syphilis, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and meningitis infection. With the threat of these deadly
infections in 'check,' pharmaceutical industries then cut back on their research to discover even more
effective antibiotics. This new–found medical confidence inspired patients to merrily run to the
clinic to get penicillin prescriptions for everything from nausea and diarrhea to running nose and
sneezing, and doctors to happily prescribe the 'miracle drug.'
However, microorganisms are now evolving and developing unprecedented resistance to penicillin
and other once potent drugs, like ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A number of theoretical solutions to the problem will also be presented. The conclusion of the
discussion will focus on which solutions should be used and what we, as bystanders, can do to help
prolong the lifespan of the current antibiotics.
II. Introduction and Background
How do antibiotics work?
The primary function of antibiotics is to help kill pathogens that threaten the health of the
individual. They do this by getting inside of the disease–causing organism and disrupting its vital
processes. There are several ways to disrupt the processes, two major mechanisms will be discussed:
One way is to interfere with cell wall synthesis. Beta–lactams are the class of antibiotics that
perform this function. Among the Beta–lactams are penicillin and cephalosporin ("How do
antibiotics work?" 1997). Another antibiotic mechanism is to interrupt protein synthesis.
Tetracyclines and erythromyocin function in this way ("How do antibiotics work?" 1997). They
belong to a class of antibiotics named aminoglycerides.
Under normal conditions in bacteria, there is an equilibrium between the building (transpeptidation)
and tearing down (autolysis) of cell walls. The building of cell walls in bacteria is catalyzed by the
enzyme transpeptidase. During antibiotic attack on cell wall synthesis, Beta–lactams bind to this
enzyme preventing its full function and causing a weak cell wall to be constructed.

The Growing Problem Of Resistance To Antibiotics

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