Running head STATISTICS .docx

Running head: STATISTICS
1
STATISTICS
2
Case 4: Drawing Inferences about Population Means and
Proportions
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Hypotheses Testing Procedure
The testing procedure is used to find out if the hypothesis
statement should be rejected or accepted. The first step is to
state the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. After
stating, the second step involves selecting the test statistics and
the required level of significance. Then the decision rules are
stated to the null should be accepted or rejected. This involves
determining the critical value or the level of significance. The
critical value is used to divide the accepted from the non-
accepted region. After stating the decision rules, the fourth

.step involves computing the test and making the decision after
comparing the calculated test statistics with the critical value. If
the calculated value is within the non-acceptable region (s), the
H0 should be rejected. Finally, the decision is made based on
the computed test statistic.
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
The null hypothesis assumes that cholesterol treatment does not
have any effect on the participant. On the other hand, the
alternative hypothesis tests whether cholesterol treatment has
any effect on the cholesterol level on the participant. The null
hypothesis (H0): Treatment does not reduce the cholesterol
level in human body. The null hypothesis assumes that there is
no relationship between the increase/decrease in the cholesterol
level. The alternative hypothesis (H1) can be formulated as
follows: Treatment reduces cholesterol level in human body. In
this case, the alternative hypothesis tests whether treatment can
minimize the cholesterol level according to the collected data
(Cook, Netuveli, & Sheikh, 2004).
Test Statistics
I will apply the chi-square test to evaluate the effectiveness of
the cholesterol test on the participants. The chi test formula can
be presented as, where k= predetermined degree of freedom, g=
observed value, and E= the expected number of individuals.”
The formula shows the relationship between the treatment and
no treatment for cholesterol. Also, the test provides a single
value to represent the two different variables (the treatment and
the expected). The chi test values can be calculated as shown
below:
Cholesterol Decreased
No Cholesterol Decrease
Total
Treatment
= 33.40
= 18
56

No treatment
= 34.60
= 28
58
Total participants
68
46
144
Chi test=+++=3.2
Calculating the P-Value
According to Norman and Streiner (2014), “P-value is used to
determine the probability that the null hypothesis is falsely
rejected.” Both z-scores and p-values are associated with the
normal distribution. The P-value can be used to determine the
“likely” or “unlikely” of the impact of treatment on the level of
cholesterol (assuming the null hypothesis is true). On the other
hand, when the p-value is small, the null hypothesis is rejected.
On the other hand, According to Norman, and Streiner (2014),
‘P-value is greater than the required significance level, the H0
is not rejected” Finally, the degrees of freedom are determined
using the following formula: (Rows - 1) x (columns - 1) = 1.
Therefore, the p-value = 0.075
There is no Enough Evidence
According to Norman, & Streiner (2014), “A small p-value
indicates a large variation which means that there is a large
difference between the observed and the expected data.” This
means that the observed vary from the expected if the treatment
does not improve the condition. On the other hand, a small p-
value of 0.0750 means that there is there is enough evidence to
conclude that the treatment is effective. The results mean that
cholesterol treatment is effective which provide a basis to reject
the null hypothesis (Norman, & Streiner, 2014).

References
Cook A., Netuveli, G., & Sheikh, A. (2004). Basic skills in
statistics: A guide for healthcare professionals. London, GBR:
Class Publishing. eISBN: 9781859591291.
Norman, G. R., & Streiner, D. L. (2014).Biostatistics: The Bare
Essentials [4th ed., e-Book]. Shelton, Connecticut: PMPH-USA,
Ltd. eISBN-13: 978-1-60795-279-4
A model of global citizenship: Antecedents
and outcomes
Stephen Reysen1 and Iva Katzarska-Miller2
1
Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University–Commerce,
Commerce, TX, USA
2
Department of Psychology, Transylvania University, Lexington,
KY, USA
A s the world becomes increasingly interconnected, exposure to
global cultures affords individualsopportunities to develop
global identities. In two studies, we examine the antecedents
and outcomes of
identifying with a superordinate identity—global citizen. Global
citizenship is defined as awareness, caring, and

embracing cultural diversity while promoting social justice and
sustainability, coupled with a sense of
responsibility to act. Prior theory and research suggest that
being aware of one’s connection with others in the
world (global awareness) and embedded in settings that value
global citizenship (normative environment) lead to
greater identification with global citizens. Furthermore, theory
and research suggest that when global citizen
identity is salient, greater identification is related to adherence
to the group’s content (i.e., prosocial values and
behaviors). Results of the present set of studies showed that
global awareness (knowledge and interconnectedness
with others) and one’s normative environment (friends and
family support global citizenship) predicted
identification with global citizens, and global citizenship
predicted prosocial values of intergroup empathy,
valuing diversity, social justice, environmental sustainability,
intergroup helping, and a felt responsibility to act
for the betterment of the world. The relationship between
antecedents (normative environment and global
awareness) and outcomes (prosocial values) was mediated by
identification with global citizens. We discuss the
relationship between the present results and other research
findings in psychology, the implications of global
citizenship for other academic domains, and future avenues of
research. Global citizenship highlights the unique
effect of taking a global perspective on a multitude of topics
relevant to the psychology of everyday actions,
environments, and identity.
Keywords: Global citizenship; Social identity; Normative
environment; Global awareness; Prosocial values.

A lors que le monde devient de plus en plus interconnecté,
l’exposition à des cultures globales offre auxindividus
l’opportunité de développer des identités globales. Dans deux
études, nous avons examiné les
antécédents et les conséquences de s’identifier à une identité
dominante – le citoyen global. La citoyenneté globale
est définie comme la conscience, la bienveillance et l’adhérence
à la diversité culturelle, tout en promouvant la
justice sociale et la durabilité, joint à un sens des
responsabilités à agir. La théorie et la recherche antérieures
suggèrent que le fait d’être conscient d’être connecté aux autres
personnes dans le monde (conscience globale) et
d’être enchâssé dans des milieux qui valorisent la citoyenneté
globale (environnement normatif) amène une plus
grande identification aux citoyens globaux. De plus, la théorie
et la recherche suggèrent que lorsque l’identité de
citoyen global est saillante, une plus grande identification est
reliée à une adhérence au contenu du groupe (c.-à-d.
les valeurs et les comportements prosociaux). Les résultats des
présentes études ont montré que la conscience
globale (connaissance et interconnexion avec les autres) et
l’environnement normatif d’une personne (les amis et
les membres de la famille qui soutiennent la citoyenneté
globale) prédisaient l’identification aux citoyens globaux.
De plus, la citoyenneté globale prédisait les valeurs prosociales
de l’empathie intergroupe, de la mise en valeur de
la diversité, de la justice sociale, de la durabilité
environnementale, de l’entraide intergroupe et du sens des
responsabilités à agir pour l’amélioration du monde.
L’identification aux citoyens globaux jouait un rôle
médiateur sur la relation entre les antécédents (environnement

normatif et conscience globale) et les conséquences
(valeurs prosociales). Nous discutons de la relation entre les
présents résultats et les résultats des autres recherches
en psychologie, des implications de la citoyenneté globale pour
les autres domaines académiques et des avenues
de recherche futures. La citoyenneté globale met en lumière
l’effet unique de la prise de perspective globale sur
Correspondence should be addressed to Stephen Reysen,
Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University–Commerce,
Commerce, TX 75429, USA. (E-mail: [email protected]).
International Journal of Psychology, 2013
Vol. 48, No. 5, 858–870,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.701749
© 2013 International Union of Psychological Science
une multitude de sujets liés à la psychologie, sur les plans des
actions quotidiennes, de l’environnement et de
l’identité.
A medida que el mundo se vuelve cada vez más interconectado,
la exposición a las culturas globales les ofrecea los individuos
oportunidades para desarrollar identidades globales. En dos
estudios examinamos los
antecedentes y consecuencias de la identificación con una
identidad supraordinal —el ciudadano global. La
ciudadanı́a global se define como la conciencia, el cuidado y la
aceptación de la diversidad cultural a la vez que se
promueve la justicia social y la sustentabilidad, emparejada con

un sentido de responsabilidad de acción. La
teorı́a e investigaciones previas sugieren que el ser consciente
de la conexión que uno tiene con otras personas del
mundo (conciencia global) y estar inserto en entornos en que se
valora la ciudadanı́a global (entorno normativo)
conduce a una mayor identificación con los ciudadanos
globales. Además, la teorı́a e investigación sugieren que
cuando la identidad del ciudadano global es destacada, la mayor
identificación se relaciona con la adhesión al
contenido del grupo (por ej., los valores y comportamientos
prosociales). Los resultados de la presente serie de
estudios mostraron que la conciencia global (el conocimiento y
la interconexión con los demás) y el propio
entorno normativo (los amigos y familia que apoyan la
ciudadanı́a global) predijeron la identificación con los
ciudadanos globales, y la ciudadanı́a global predijo los valores
prosociales de empatı́a intergrupal, valoración de
la diversidad, justicia social, sustentabilidad ambiental, ayuda
intergrupal y una sentida responsabilidad de
actuar para la mejora del mundo. La relación entre los
antecedentes (entorno normativo y conciencia global) y
los resultados (valores prosociales) estuvo mediada por la
identificación con los ciudadanos globales. Se discuten
la relación entre estos resultados y otros resultados de
investigaciones psicológicas, las implicaciones de la
ciudadanı́a global para otros ámbitos académicos y los futuros
lineamientos de investigación. La ciudadanı́a
global destaca el efecto único de adoptar una perspectiva global
frente a una multitud de temas pertinentes a la
psicologı́a de las acciones cotidianas, los entornos y la
identidad.

Spurred by globalization, the concept of global
citizenship identity has become a focus of theoriz-
ing across various disciplines (Davies, 2006;
Dower, 2002a). In psychology, with a few excep-
tions (e.g., immigration, self-construal), little
research has empirically explored the vast effects
of globalization on identity and psychological
functioning. Calls for greater attention to the
effects of cultural (Adams & Markus, 2004) and
global (Arnett, 2002) influences on everyday life
have been relatively ignored. In the present paper
we cross disciplinary boundaries to draw on
theoretical discussions of global citizenship, and
utilize a social identity perspective (Tajfel &
Turner, 1979; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, &
Wetherell, 1987) to add conceptual and structural
clarity to the antecedents and outcomes of taking a
globalized perspective of the world.
Clarifying the concept of global citizenship is
difficult due to the use of seemingly synonymous
terms to describe a superordinate global identity,
and the influence of theorists’ disciplinary per-
spectives in defining the construct. A multitude of
labels are used to describe inclusive forms of
citizenship, such as universal, world, postnational,
and transnational citizenship. While some theorists
use the terms interchangeably, others make clear
distinctions. For example, Golmohamad (2008)
equates global citizenship with international and
world citizenship, while Haugestad (2004) suggests
that a global citizen is concerned about social
justice, a ‘‘world citizen’’ is concerned about trade
and mobility, and an ‘‘earth citizen’’ is concerned
about the environment.

The confusion regarding global citizenship is
exacerbated as theorists draw from diverse dis-
ciplines and perspectives (e.g., political, theologi-
cal, developmental, educational) to define the
construct. For example, theorists in philosophy
may highlight morality and ethics, education
theorists may highlight global awareness, while
others may eschew the concept altogether as
idealist and untenable because there is no concrete
legal recognition of global group membership (for
a review of competing conceptions of global
identity see Delanty, 2000; Dower, 2002a). In an
effort to integrate the various disciplinary framings
and highlight the commonalities in prior discus-
sions of global citizenship, Reysen, Pierce,
Spencer, and Katzarska-Miller (2012b) reviewed
global education literature and interviews with
self-described global citizens, and indeed found
consistent themes regarding the antecedents
(global awareness, normative environment) and
values posited to be outcomes of global citizenship
(intergroup empathy, valuing diversity, social
justice, environmental sustainability, intergroup
helping, and a felt responsibility to act for the
betterment of the world).
For the purpose of the present research, we
define global citizenship, as well as the related
constructs identified by Reysen and colleagues
(2012b), by drawing from prior interdisciplinary
theoretical discussions. Global awareness is defined
MODEL OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP 859

as knowledge of the world and one’s interconnect-
edness with others (Dower, 2002a; Oxfam, 1997).
Normative environment is defined as people and
settings (e.g., friends, family, school) that are
infused with global citizen related cultural patterns
and values (Pike, 2008). Intergroup empathy is
defined as a felt connection and concern for people
outside one’s ingroup (Golmohamad, 2008;
Oxfam, 1997). Valuing diversity is defined as an
interest in and appreciation for the diverse cultures
of the world (Dower 2002b; Golmohamad, 2008).
Social justice is defined as attitudes concerning
human rights and equitable and fair treatment of
all humans (Dower, 2002a, 2002b; Heater, 2000).
Environmental sustainability is defined as the belief
that humans and nature are connected, combined
with a felt obligation to protect of the natural
environment (Heater, 2000). Intergroup helping is
defined as aid to others outside one’s group, and is
enacted through behaviors such as donating to
charity, volunteering locally, and working with
transnational organizations to help others globally
(Dower, 2002a). Responsibility to act is defined as
an acceptance of a moral duty or obligation to act
for the betterment of the world (Dower, 2002a,
2002b). In line with themes found in prior
theorizing, we adopt the definition of global
citizenship as awareness, caring, and embracing
cultural diversity while promoting social justice
and sustainability, coupled with a sense of
responsibility to act (Snider, Reysen, &
Katzarska-Miller, in press).
SOCIAL IDENTITY PERSPECTIVE

To empirically examine the antecedents and out-
comes of global citizenship, we utilize a social
identity perspective (Hogg & Smith, 2007; Tajfel &
Turner, 1979; Turner et al., 1987). Individuals feel
different levels of identification (i.e., felt connec-
tion) with social groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Each group has a prototype or set of interrelated
attributes (i.e., group content), that are specific to
that group (Hogg & Smith, 2007). When a
particular group membership is salient, the more
strongly one identifies with the group the more
depersonalization and self-stereotyping occur in
line with the group’s content such as norms,
beliefs, values, attitudes, behaviors (Turner et al.,
1987), and personality (Jenkins, Reysen, &
Katzarska-Miller, 2012). In effect, when an iden-
tity is salient, one’s degree of identification with
the group predicts adherence to the group’s
normative content (Hogg & Smith, 2007; Turner
et al., 1987).
EVIDENCE OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
CONTENT
Following a social identity perspective, we argue
that membership in the group ‘‘global citizen’’ is
psychological in nature. As suggested by
Golmohamad (2008), global citizenship is a mind-
set or attitude one takes. In effect, individuals
perceive themselves to be global citizens and can
feel a psychological connection with global citizens
as a group. Consequently, greater identification
with global citizens should predict endorsement of
the group content (i.e., norms, values, behaviors)
that differs from the content of other groups (e.g.,
American). To test this notion, Reysen and

colleagues (2012b) asked participants to rate
endorsement of prosocial values (e.g., intergroup
helping), and identification with global citizens,
cosmopolitans, world citizens, international citi-
zens, and humans. Global citizenship identifica-
tion predicted endorsement of intergroup
empathy, valuing diversity, environmental sustain-
ability, intergroup helping, and felt responsibility
to act, beyond identification with the other super-
ordinate categories.
Additional studies showed that global citizen-
ship identification predicted participants’ degree of
endorsement of prosocial values and related
behaviors (e.g., community service, recycling,
attending cultural events) beyond identification
with subgroup identities (e.g., nation, state,
occupation). Across the studies, global citizenship
content (i.e., prosocial values) was shown to differ
from the content of other social identities. In
effect, there is converging evidence that the content
of global citizenship is related to the prosocial
values (e.g., social justice, environmentalism)
posited in the literature, and global citizenship
identification predicts these prosocial values
beyond identification with other superordinate
and subgroup identities.
EVIDENCE OF ANTECEDENTS TO
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
As the world has become increasingly connected,
exposure to global cultures affords individuals
opportunities to develop global identities (Norris,
2000). To examine the influence of cultural context
on global citizenship identity, Katzarska-Miller,

Reysen, Kamble, and Vithoji (in press) assessed
participants’ perception of their normative envir-
onment (i.e., friends and family express an
injunctive norm that one ought to be a global
citizen), global citizenship identification, and
860 REYSEN AND KATZARSKA-MILLER
endorsement of prosocial values in samples from
Bulgaria, India, and the United States.
Participants sampled in the US rated their
normative environment and global citizenship
identification lower than participants sampled in
the other two countries. Mediation analyses
showed that the relationship between cultural
comparisons (US vs. Bulgaria, US vs. India) and
global citizenship identification was mediated by
participants’ perception that others in their nor-
mative environment valued global citizenship (i.e.,
participants’ environment contained an injunctive
norm that prescribes being a global citizen).
Further analyses showed that global citizenship
identification mediated the relationship between
cultural comparison and social justice, intergroup
empathy and helping, and concern for the envir-
onment. In other words, one’s normative environ-
ment is a strong predictor of global citizenship
identification, and global citizenship identification
mediates the relationship between cultural setting
and prosocial values.
Global awareness represents knowledge of
global issues and one’s interconnectedness with
others. Gibson, Reysen, and Katzarska-Miller

(2011) randomly assigned participants to write
about meaningful relationships (interdependent
self-construal prime) or not (control) prior to
rating their degree of global citizenship identifica-
tion and prosocial values. Participants primed with
interdependence to others showed greater global
citizenship identification and prosocial values
compared to participants in the control condition.
The relationship between priming interdependence
(vs. no prime) and global citizenship identification
was mediated by students’ perception of their
normative environment. Furthermore, global citi-
zenship identification mediated the relationship
between the interdependence prime (vs. no prime)
and endorsement of prosocial values. In effect,
raising participants’ awareness of interconnected-
ness with others led to greater endorsement of
prosocial values through a greater connection with
global citizens.
Conversely, raising the saliency of global com-
petition (related to an independent self-construal)
can reduce identification with global citizens.
Snider and colleagues (in press) randomly assigned
college students to read and respond about
globalization leading to the job market becoming
more culturally diverse, more competitive, or did
not read a vignette. Participants in the competition
condition rated global citizenship identification,
academic motivation, valuing diversity, intergroup
helping, and willingness to protest unethical
corporations lower than participants in the
culturally diverse framing condition.
Furthermore, participants exposed to the competi-
tion vignette were more willing to reject outgroups

than those in the diversity framed condition.
Students’ degree of global citizenship identification
mediated the relationship between globalization
message framing and academic motivation, valu-
ing diversity, intergroup helping, and willingness
to protest unethical corporations.
To summarize, past research has shown that
one’s normative environment (friends, family) and
global awareness (knowledge and interconnected-
ness with others) predict global citizenship identi-
fication. Global citizenship identification is
consistently found to mediate the relationship
between normative environment and global aware-
ness, and degree of endorsement of the group’s
content (i.e., prosocial values). Therefore, there is
considerable evidence to suggest a model of global
citizenship in which normative environment and
global awareness predict global citizenship, and
global citizenship predicts endorsement of proso-
cial values.
OVERVIEW OF CURRENT RESEARCH
In the present paper we test a model of the
antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship
identity. Following past theorizing (Davies, 2006;
Dower, 2002a, 2002b; Oxfam, 1997; Pike, 2008;
Schattle, 2008) and research (Gibson et al., 2011;
Katzarska-Miller et al., in press; Reysen et al.,
2012b; Snider et al., in press) we hypothesize a
structural model of global citizenship with one’s
normative environment (i.e., close others endorse
being a global citizen) and global awareness
(knowledge and interconnectedness with others)
predicting identification with global citizens, and

global citizenship identification predicting endor-
sement of prosocial values that represent the
group’s content (i.e., intergroup empathy, valuing
diversity, social justice, environmental sustainabil-
ity, intergroup helping, and felt responsibility to
act). In Study 1 we test the proposed structural
model, and in Study 2 we replicate the model with
a second sample of participants.
STUDY 1
The purpose of Study 1 is to test the predicted
model of global citizenship. Past theory and
research suggest that one’s normative environment
and global awareness predict greater global
citizenship identification, and identification with
global citizens predicts prosocial value outcomes.
In effect, global citizenship is expected to mediate
the relationship between antecedents (normative
environment and global awareness) and outcomes
(prosocial values).
Method
Participants and procedure
Undergraduate college participants (N ¼ 726,
57.6% women) completed the survey for either
course credit toward a psychology class or extra
credit in a nonpsychology class. Their mean age
was 28.90 years (SD ¼ 9.98). Participants rated

items assessing normative environment, global
awareness, global citizenship identification, inter-
group empathy, valuing diversity, social justice,
environmental sustainability, intergroup helping,
felt responsibility to act, and demographic infor-
mation. All items used a seven-point Likert-type
scale, from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly
agree.
Materials
Normative environment. Two items (‘‘Most
people who are important to me think that being
a global citizen is desirable,’’ ‘‘If I called myself a
global citizen most people who are important to
me would approve’’) were combined to assess the
perception that others in one’s environment believe
that people ought to identify as global citizens
(injunctive norm) (a ¼ .82).
Global awareness. Four items (‘‘I understand
how the various cultures of this world interact
socially,’’ ‘‘I am aware that my actions in my local
environment may affect people in other countries,’’
‘‘I try to stay informed of current issues that
impact international relations,’’ ‘‘I believe that I
am connected to people in other countries, and my
actions can affect them’’) were combined to form a
global awareness index (a ¼ .80).
Global citizenship identification. Two items
(‘‘I would describe myself as a global citizen,’’
‘‘I strongly identify with global citizens’’) were
adapted from prior research (see Reysen, Pierce,
Katzarska-Miller, & Nesbit, 2012a) to assess
global citizenship identification (a ¼ .89).

Intergroup empathy. Two items (‘‘I am able to
empathize with people from other countries,’’ ‘‘It
is easy for me to put myself in someone else’s shoes
regardless of what country they are from’’) were
used to assess intergroup empathy (a ¼ .76).
Valuing diversity. Two items (‘‘I would like to
join groups that emphasize getting to know people
from different countries,’’ ‘‘I am interested in
learning about the many cultures that have existed
in this world’’) were combined to assess valuing
diversity (a ¼ .91).
Social justice. Two items (‘‘Those countries that
are well off should help people in countries who
are less fortunate,’’ ‘‘Basic services such as health
care, clean water, food, and legal assistance should
be available to everyone, regardless of what
country they live in’’) were combined to assess
belief in social justice (a ¼ .74).
Environmental sustainability. Two items
(‘‘People have a responsibility to conserve natural
resources to foster a sustainable environment,’’
‘‘Natural resources should be used primarily to
provide for basic needs rather than material
wealth’’) were combined to assess belief in
environmental sustainability (a ¼ .76).
Intergroup helping. Two items (‘‘If I had the
opportunity, I would help others who are in need
regardless of their nationality,’’ ‘‘If I could, I
would dedicate my life to helping others no matter
what country they are from’’) were adapted from
past research (Katzarska-Miller et al., in press) to

assess intergroup helping (a ¼ .76).
Responsibility to act. Two items (‘‘Being
actively involved in global issues is my responsi-
bility,’’ ‘‘It is my responsibility to understand and
respect cultural differences across the globe to the
best of my abilities’’) were combined to assess felt
responsibility to act (a ¼ .78).
Results
All of the assessed variables were moderately to
strongly positively correlated with one another (see
Table 1 for means, standard deviations, and zero-
order correlations between the assessed variables).
We conducted a series of structural equation
models using AMOS 19 to examine the predicted
model’s fit, subsequent modification, and the
mediating role of global citizenship identification.
Due to the related nature of the prosocial values,
we allowed the disturbance terms for the variables
to covary. We evaluated model fit using the
normed fit index (NFI) and the comparative fit
index (CFI), for which values greater than .90 are
acceptable. Following Browne and Cudeck (1993),
we set the root mean square error of approxima-
tion (RMSEA) value of .08 as an acceptable level.
Items loaded well on each of the factors,
including normative environment (.83, .84), global
awareness (.49 to .91), global citizen identification

(.86, .91), intergroup empathy (.85, .74), valuing
diversity (.96, .86), social justice (.78, .76), environ-
mental sustainability (.80, .76), intergroup helping
(.78, .80), and responsibility to act (.78, .82). The
predicted model adequately fit the data, w2(146) ¼
820.24, p 5 .001; RMSEA ¼ .080, CI(075; .085),
NFI ¼ .907, CFI ¼ .922. However, examination of
the modification indices suggested allowing two
of the global awareness item errors to covary.
Following this allowance, the model difference was
significant (Dw2(1) ¼ 211.70, p 5 .001), and the fit
indices showed the model appropriately fit the data,
w2(145) ¼ 608.54, p 5 .001; RMSEA ¼ .066,
CI(.061; .072), NFI ¼ .931, CFI ¼ .946.1
As shown in Figure 1, normative environment
and global awareness were positively related (r ¼ .51,
p 5 .001). Normative environment (b ¼ .78,
p 5 .001, CI¼ .701 to .858) and global awareness
(b ¼ .20, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .104 to .287) predicted
global citizenship identification (significance
computed with bias-corrected bootstrapping with
5000 iterations, 95% confidence intervals). Global
citizenship identification predicted intergroup
empathy (b ¼ .53, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .445 to .606),
valuing diversity (b ¼ .61, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .542 to
.667), social justice (b ¼ .53, p ¼ .001, CI ¼ .439 to
.608), environmental sustainability (b ¼ .50,
p 5 .001, CI ¼ .418 to .581), intergroup helping
(b ¼ .51, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .419 to .594), and felt
responsibility to act (b ¼ .70, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .633
to 769). Using bias-corrected bootstrapping (5000
iterations), the indirect effect of normative environ-
ment and global awareness on the prosocial values
(e.g., social justice) was reliably carried by global

citizenship identification (see Table 2 for standar-
dized betas of indirect effects and 95% bias-
corrected confidence intervals; all indirect effects
were significant at p 5 .001, two-tailed).
Discussion
The purpose of Study 1 was to examine our
predicted model of global citizenship identifica-
tion. Following a small modification, the model
TABLE 1
Study 1: Correlations and means (standard deviations)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mean (SD)
1. Normative environment 1.0 4.58
(1.44)
2. Global awareness .44 1.0 4.76
(1.24)
3. Global citizenship
identification
.75 .53 1.0 4.57
(1.54)
4. Intergroup empathy .34 .54 .42 1.0 4.98
(1.40)

5. Valuing diversity .47 .59 .51 .49 1.0 4.84
(1.57)
6. Social justice .39 .33 .41 .40 .44 1.0 5.62
(1.36)
7. Environmental
sustainability
.38 .36 .38 .40 .42 .63 1.0 5.63
(1.29)
8. Intergroup helping .37 .50 .39 .55 .54 .53 .47 1.0 5.54
(1.34)
9. Responsibility to act .49 .59 .56 .58 .65 .51 .54 .63 1.0 5.09
(1.44)
All correlations significant at p 5 .01. Seven-point Likert-type
scale, from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree.
1
Contact the first author for detailed model information,
including item loadings and disturbance term intercorrelations.
In
Studies 1 and 2 we also examined the reversed causal model,
with the outcomes (prosocial values) predicting antecedents
(global awareness, normative environment) through global
citizenship identification. The reversed model showed relatively

appropriate fit to the data in Study 1, w2(147) ¼ 821.16, p 5
.001; RMSEA ¼ .080, CI(.074; .085), NFI ¼ .907, CFI ¼ .922,
and
Study 2, w2(147) ¼ 1299.96, p 5 .001; RMSEA ¼ .081, CI(.077;
.085), NFI ¼ .903, CFI ¼ .913. However, in Study 1, the final
predicted model showed lower AIC (738.54) and ECVI (1.02, CI
¼ .919; 1.13) values than the reversed model (AIC ¼ 947.16,
ECVI ¼ 1.31, CI ¼ 1.19; 1.44). In Study 2, the predicted model
showed lower AIC (1252.35) and ECVI (1.04, CI ¼ .958; 1.14)
values than the reversed model (AIC ¼ 1425.96, ECVI ¼ 1.19,
CI ¼ 1.10; 1.29). Thus, in both studies the predicted model
showed a better fit than the reversed causality model.
showed appropriate fit to the data. As hypothe-
sized, normative environment and global aware-
ness predicted global citizenship identification,
which then predicted greater endorsement of
prosocial values (e.g., environmental sustainabil-
ity). We designed Study 2 to replicate the
final adjusted model with a second sample of
participants.
STUDY 2
The purpose of Study 2 is to replicate the final
adjusted model from Study 1 in a separate sample
of participants. We predict the model will show an
appropriate fit to the data similar to Study 1.
Method

Participants and procedure
Undergraduate college participants (N ¼ 1201,
62.8% women) completed the survey for either
course credit toward a psychology class or extra
credit in a nonpsychology class. Their mean age
was 25.86 years (SD ¼ 9.24). The procedure and
materials were identical to Study 1. The scales of
normative environment (a ¼ .81), global awareness
(a ¼ .80), global citizenship identification (a ¼ .89),
intergroup empathy (a ¼ .80), valuing diversity
(a ¼ .82), social justice (a ¼ .73), environmental
sustainability (a ¼ .78), intergroup helping
(a ¼ .77), and responsibility to act (a ¼ .79)
showed appropriate reliability.
TABLE 2
Study 1: Indirect effects through global citizenship
identification
Normative environment Global awareness
Variable Indirect CILower CIUpper Indirect CILower CIUpper
Empathy .41 .348 .486 .10 .053 .163
Diversity .48 .418 .537 .12 .061 .183
Social justice .41 .340 .492 .10 .054 .160
Sustainability .39 .323 .467 .10 .052 .153
Helping .40 .328 .476 .10 .051 .159
Responsibility .55 .484 .622 .14 .072 .211

Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals; bias-corrected
bootstrapping with 5000 iterations; all indirect effects
are significant at p 5 .001.
.51*
Responsible
To Act
Intergroup
Helping
Sustain
Environment
Intergroup
Empathy
Value
Diversity
Social Justice
Normative
Environment
Global
Awareness
Global
Citizenship
.78*
.20*

.53*
.61*
.53*
.50*
.51*
.70*
Figure 1. Study 1 final model standardized betas, *p 5 .001.
Results
All of the assessed variables were moderately to
strongly positively correlated with one another (see
Table 3 for means, standard deviations, and zero-
order correlations between the assessed variables).
Items loaded well on each of the factors, including:
normative environment (.79, .86), global awareness
(.50 to .89), global citizen identification (.89, .89),
intergroup empathy (.88, .77), valuing diversity
(.83, .85), social justice (.73, .79), environmental
sustainability (.83, .77), intergroup helping

(.82, .78), and responsibility to act (.79, .83). The
model fit the data, w2(145) ¼ 1122.35, p 5 .001;
RMSEA ¼ .075, CI(.071; .079), NFI ¼ .916,
CFI ¼ .926. Similarly to Study 1, normative envir-
onment and global awareness were positively
related (r ¼ .47, p 5 .001). Normative environment
(b ¼ .74, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .670 to .801) and global
awareness (b ¼ .21, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .126 to .280)
predicted global citizenship identification (signifi-
cance computed with bias-corrected bootstrapping
with 5000 iterations, 95% confidence intervals).
Global citizenship identification predicted inter-
group empathy (b ¼ .49, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .425 to
.553), valuing diversity (b ¼ .49, p ¼ .001, CI ¼ .424
to .556), social justice (b ¼ .40, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .322
to .474), environmental sustainability (b ¼ .42,
p 5 .001, CI ¼ .340 to .486), intergroup helping
(b ¼ .41, p 5 .001, CI ¼ .339 to .483), and felt
responsibility to act (b ¼ .59, p ¼ .001, CI ¼ .517
to .652). Using bias-corrected bootstrapping (5000
iterations), the indirect effect of normative envir-
onment and global awareness on the prosocial
values (e.g., intergroup helping) was again reliably
carried by global citizenship identification (see
Table 4 for standardized betas of indirect effects
and 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals; all
TABLE 3
Study 2: Correlations and means (standard deviations)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mean (SD)
1. Normative environment 1.0 4.37

(1.33)
2. Global awareness .43 1.0 4.75
(1.18)
3. Global citizenship
identification
.70 .49 1.0 4.26
(1.44)
4. Intergroup empathy .33 .51 .39 1.0 4.85
(1.42)
5. Valuing diversity .35 .56 .39 .46 1.0 4.96
(1.41)
6. Social justice .28 .34 .30 .36 .40 1.0 5.57
(1.29)
7. Environmental sustainability .33 .43 .31 .42 .40 .57 1.0 5.64
(1.19)
8. Intergroup helping .28 .46 .32 .53 .56 .52 .49 1.0 5.54
(1.31)
9. Responsibility to act .41 .62 .47 .53 .61 .41 .51 .61 1.0 4.96

(1.37)
All correlations significant at p 5 .01. Seven-point Likert-type
scale, from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree.
TABLE 4
Study 2: Indirect effects through global citizenship
identification
Normative environment Global awareness
Variable Indirect CILower CIUpper Indirect CILower CIUpper
Empathy .36 .313 .415 .10 .058 .147
Diversity .36 .310 .416 .10 .058 .148
Social justice .29 .235 .353 .08 .048 .124
Sustainability .31 .249 .360 .09 .049 .129
Helping .30 .251 .359 .09 .049 .129
Responsibility .43 .379 .487 .12 .070 .175
Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals; bias-corrected
bootstrapping with 5000 iterations; all indirect effects
are significant at p 5 .001.
indirect effects were significant at p 5 .001, two-

tailed).
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The purpose of the present studies was to test a
model of the antecedents and outcomes of global
citizenship identity. As hypothesized, one’s nor-
mative environment and global awareness pre-
dicted global citizenship identification, and one’s
connection to global citizens predicted endorse-
ment of prosocial values that represent the content
of the group: intergroup empathy, valuing diver-
sity, social justice, environmental sustainability,
intergroup helping, and a felt responsibility to act.
Global citizenship identification mediated the
relationship between normative environment and
global awareness and prosocial values. Overall, the
proposed structural model of the antecedents and
outcomes of global citizenship was supported.
Clarifying global citizenship
Arguments about the meaning of global citizen-
ship across various disciplines have resulted in a
state of confusion and a lack of definition.
Converging on a definition is difficult given the
variety of synonymous category labels (e.g.,
cosmopolitan, planetary citizen), and theorists’
tendency to highlight certain components (e.g.,
social justice) over others (e.g., environmental
sustainability). We adopt the definition of global
citizenship as awareness, caring, and embracing
cultural diversity, while promoting social justice
and sustainability, coupled with a sense of
responsibility to act (Snider et al., in press). The
model of global citizenship tested in the present

paper supports each aspect of this definition.
Individuals who are highly identified global
citizens are globally aware, express caring and
empathy for others, embrace cultural diversity,
promote social justice and environmentally sus-
tainable living, and feel a responsibility to act to
help others.
The model of global citizenship also supports a
wealth of theorizing (Davies, 2006; Dower, 2002a,
2002b; Oxfam, 1997; Pike, 2008; Schattle, 2008)
and research examining global citizenship (Gibson
et al., 2011; Katzarska-Miller et al., in press;
Reysen et al., 2012b; Snider et al., in press). The
consistent pattern across the literature and
research shows global awareness and normative
environment as antecedents to global citizenship,
and the prosocial values as components of the
content of global citizen identity. Utilizing a social
identity perspective, the present research is the first
to show that the antecedents to global citizenship
predict one’s degree of identification with the
category, and global citizenship identification
predicts endorsement of prosocial values hypothe-
sized to represent the content of the group identity.
Thus, while past theorizing has highlighted com-
ponents of the model, the present results show the
pathways to identification with global citizens, and
the prosocial outcomes to feeling connected to the
superordinate global category.
Global awareness and superordinate
identities
The present model shows global awareness as an

antecedent to identification with global citizens.
As noted by Dower (2002a), all humans are global
citizens; however, some individuals lack the
awareness to recognize their connection with
humanity as a whole. Thus, global citizenship
represents an inclusive group membership with all
humans. A wealth of social psychological research
supports the notion that categorizing with an
inclusive superordinate category results in proso-
cial values and behaviors (for a review see Crisp &
Hewstone, 2007). For example, salience of one’s
human identity leads to greater forgiveness to an
outgroup for past harm. However, human identity
salience can also reduce the motivation of victim
groups to act collectively, and salience of bene-
volent (vs. hostile) human group content can lead
perpetrators to legitimize harmful actions against
outgroups and retain negative attitudes (see
Greenway, Quinn, & Louis, 2011).
We suggest that inherent in the content of global
citizen identity is the notion of valuing diversity
and multiculturalism (i.e., recognition of multiple
identities) that is absent in human identity content.
Indeed, Reysen et al. (2012b) found global citizen-
ship identification to uniquely predict prosocial
values beyond identification with the category
label human, as well as other superordinate groups
(e.g., international citizen). In other words, global
citizen content differs from other superordinate
group labels, and raising the saliency of global
citizen will affect participants differently than
saliency of human due to the differing group
content. The present results support past research
by showing that the extent to which individuals are
aware of the larger world and their place in that

world predict prosocial values (including valuing
diversity and intergroup helping) through greater
identification with the superordinate category
‘‘global citizen.’’
Normative environment
A second antecedent to global citizenship identi-
fication is the extent that one’s normative environ-
ment supports aspects of global citizenship.
Results from the present set of studies show that
perceiving valued others embedded in one’s every-
day settings (e.g., friends, family) as endorsing
global citizenship (injunctive norm) predicts iden-
tifying with the group. The results support past
research (Katzarska-Miller et al., in press) that
shows the relationship between cultural context
and identification with global citizens is mediated
by the degree others in one’s normative environ-
ment prescribe the identity. Global citizen theor-
ists, rightly, argue for greater integration and
support for global citizenship education between
school and community (Dower, 2002a, 2002b).
Embedding injunctive norms in the everyday lives
of students may lead to greater identification with
others around the world and subsequent endorse-
ment of prosocial values and behaviors.
The strong influence of social norms on
attitudes and behavior has a long history in
psychology. Individuals shape and are shaped by
the cultural patterns that are produced, repro-

duced, and modified by individuals in settings in
which they are embedded. In other words, every-
day environments (e.g., home, school, work, cities)
are intentionally constructed places that hold the
cultural patterns from prior generations, and
engaging in the settings can influence individuals
through implicit conditioning and priming of
everyday actions (Adams & Markus, 2004).
Cultural patterns and norms afford various
identities to individuals, and to the extent that
these identities are valued, can influence one’s
degree of identification (Reysen & Levine, 2012).
Thus, to the extent that patterns related to global
citizenship are embedded in one’s environment
(Adams & Markus, 2004), and others within that
environment endorse those beliefs, greater identi-
fication with global citizens can be expected.
Global citizenship and prosocial identity
content
Global citizenship identity content contains values
and behaviors (i.e., intergroup empathy, valuing
diversity, social justice, environmental sustainabil-
ity, intergroup helping, and felt responsibility to
act) that are typically examined in isolation with
one another in psychology. The present model
highlights the interconnected nature of these
prosocial values and their relation to social
identity processes. For example, work on inter-
group empathy finds that empathetic feelings for a
person in need are reserved for ingroup members
(Stürmer, Snyder, Kropp, & Siem, 2006). Global
citizen identity relates to empathetic concern for
ingroup and outgroup members. Priming shared

human experiences reduces prejudice toward out-
groups and increases support for peace (Motyl
et al., 2011). Similarly, global citizenship relates to
valuing diversity, reduced prejudice toward out-
groups, and greater endorsement of world peace
(Katzarska-Miller, Barnsley, & Reysen, 2012;
Reysen et al., 2012b).
Groups, and social and moral norms, influence
one’s personal values and subsequent intention to
engage in environmental behaviors (Bamberg &
Möser, 2007). Global citizenship identity content
includes a desire to act for environmentally
sustainable societies (Reysen et al., 2012b). The
relationship between salience of relationships and
helping others is mediated by one’s felt intercon-
nectedness with others (Pavey, Greitemeyer, &
Sparks, 2011). Similarly, global citizenship is
related to a variety (i.e., charity, volunteering) of
helping behaviors (Reysen et al., 2012b), and the
relationship between global awareness (knowledge
and interconnectedness with others) and inter-
group helping is mediated by global citizenship
identification (Gibson et al., 2011). Research
shows the importance of social identities in
predicting collective action (van Zomeren,
Postmes, & Spears, 2008). As shown in the present
model, and in past research (Gibson et al., 2011;
Reysen et al., 2012b), global citizens report a
responsibility to act for the betterment of human-
ity. Overall, the research described above exam-
ined prosocial values separately, while the present
research integrates these disparate areas of
research as outcomes of a psychological connec-
tion with others in the world.

Implications and future directions of
global citizenship
Beyond the prosocial values that represent the
content of global citizen identity, the present
research has implications for a variety of areas
within psychology and other disciplines (e.g.,
education, political science, business). For exam-
ple, psychological concepts of moral identity and
critical moral consciousness are related to empa-
thy, social justice, and a moral responsibility to act
(Mustakova-Possardt, 2004). The motivation
behind a moral identity is posited to be a spiritual
search for truth, similar to the concept of a
religious quest motivation. In a recent series of
studies, Katzarska-Miller et al. (2012) found that
global citizenship identification is closely related to
a religious quest motivation. Global citizenship is
also similar to past findings examining ‘‘world-
mindedness,’’ which is positively related to endor-
sement for collective action and suggested to lead
to greater felt connection with the global commu-
nity (Der-Karabetian, 1992). Within education,

cooperative learning highlights students’ intercon-
nectedness with others and results in greater
empathy and perspective taking, justice beliefs,
and wellbeing (Johnson & Johnson, 2010). The
underlying mechanism behind cooperative learn-
ing may reside in the salience of interconnected-
ness with others, similar to the interconnectedness
component predicting global citizenship.
Based on social identity perspective, global
citizenship has implications for intergroup rela-
tions. As previously noted, superordinate group
salience can have beneficial but also negative
effects on intergroup bias (see Crisp & Hewstone,
2007). The present model shows global citizenship
identification predicting greater intergroup empa-
thy, helping, and valuing diversity. In a recent
study, Jenkins and Reysen (2011) presented
participants with either morally positive or nega-
tive information about an outgroup prior to rating

the perception of the outgroup and endorsed
actions. Participants’ prior rating of global citizen-
ship identification moderated the relationship of
valence of information on outgroup attitudes such
that when the outgroup was portrayed negatively
(vs. positively), highly identified global citizens
were less likely to view the outgroup as an enemy,
which resulted in a lower desire to avoid the
outgroup.
Global citizenship has implications for research
examining immigrants and global travelers. For
example, Berry’s model of acculturation strategies
(e.g., Berry, 2001) has recently been adapted to
account for a larger global identity (Banerjee &
German, 2007). Work on bicultural identities (e.g.,
Chen, Benet-Martı́nez, & Bond, 2008) shows that
bicultural individuals who integrate disparate
cultural identities show better psychological
adjustment in their new environments. Perhaps

an umbrella identity can aid immigrants by
providing an inclusive identity that allows for
identification with both new and prior subgroup
identities. In effect, global citizenship may provide
global sojourners with a way to reduce the
perceived distance between cultures by simulta-
neously identifying with the larger superordinate
global citizen category.
Unethical companies can elicit moral outrage
and protest behaviors on the part of consumers
(Cronin, Reysen, & Branscombe, in press). In
response, corporations endorse and advertise
corporate social responsibility, regardless of
whether they actually perform responsible business
practices, which affects how consumers view those
corporations. Consumer reactions to corporate
practices may depend on consumers’ global
citizenship identification and interact with whether
the corporations’ actions reflect global citizen
values. Corporations are also pushing to hire
employees with a greater global focus and open-
ness to new ideas and experiences. Global citizen-
ship identity is related to greater intellectualism
and openness (Jenkins et al., 2012) beyond
identification with other identities (e.g., nation,
human). Perhaps the characteristics companies
desire in new employees are those associated with
global citizen identity. The present model of global
citizenship holds implications for how companies

present their public image, how consumers react,
and employee hiring and training.
Limitations
Although the present set of studies is novel in
showing antecedents and outcomes of identifying
with global citizens, there are limitations that
should be considered when interpreting the results.
First, participants in the present study consisted of
American undergraduate college students attend-
ing a university in northeastern Texas. As shown
by Pippa Norris’ (2000) examination of World
Values Survey results, younger individuals are
more likely than older adults to feel an attachment
with the world as a whole. While similar patterns
of association between global citizenship identifi-
cation and endorsement of prosocial values have
been found in a community sample including older
adults (Reysen et al., 2010) and participants
sampled in other countries (Katzarska-Miller
et al., in press), caution should be taken in
generalizing the results. Future research can
examine the model tested in the present paper in
other cultural contexts and demographically vari-
able populations. Second, the measures used in the
present studies are subjective self-reports rather
than objective behavioral measures. Future
research should examine whether global citizen-
ship identification is related to prosocial behaviors
when the identity is salient.
Third, the present studies are correlational. The
purpose of modeling the antecedents and out-
comes of global citizenship is to direct future

research endeavors that can experimentally manip-
ulate aspects of the model. Fourth, we implied a
causal direction of antecedents leading to global
citizenship, and global citizenship leading to out-
comes. However, practicing global citizen oriented
activities (e.g., community service) may also lead
to greater global citizenship (e.g., Schattle, 2008).
While we examined, and found, the reverse
causality model to show poorer fit to the data
than the predicted model, future research examin-
ing aspects of the model (e.g., manipulating
responsibility and examining the effect on global
citizenship identification) is needed.
CONCLUSION
Globalization has encouraged many disciplines to
examine the nature of citizenship, identity, and
more generally, the effects of increasing intercon-
nectedness with others. One outcome is the
affordance of identifying the self with a global,
rather than national, identity—global citizen. In
two studies, we tested a model of the antecedents
and outcomes of identification with global citizens.
Global awareness and one’s normative environ-
ment predict identification with global citizens,
and global citizenship predicts prosocial values of
intergroup empathy, valuing diversity, social
justice, environmental sustainability, intergroup
helping, and a felt responsibility to act for the
betterment of the world. The relationship between
normative environment and global awareness and

prosocial values is mediated by global citizenship
identification. Global citizenship highlights the
unique effect of taking a global perspective on a
multitude of topics relevant to the psychology of
everyday actions and environments (e.g., helping
behaviors). The field of psychology has relatively
ignored the exponential cultural and social change
and impact of globalization. Global citizenship
exemplifies the recognition of the impact of
globalization on identity and subsequent prosocial
effects on attitudes and behaviors.
Manuscript received March 2012
Revised manuscript accepted May 2012
First published online July 2012
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for global citizenship. In A. A. Abdi, &
L. Shultz (Eds.), Educating for human rights and
global citizenship (pp. 223–237). Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press.
Reysen, S., & Levine, R. V. (2012). People, culture, and
place: An integrative approach to predicting helping

toward strangers. In P. J. Rentfrow (Ed.),
Psychological geography. Washington, DC: APA.
Reysen, S., Pierce, L., Katzarska-Miller, I., & Nesbit, S.
(2012a). Measuring ingroup identification: The single
item ingroup identification scale. Manuscript in
preparation.
Reysen, S., Pierce, L., Spencer, C., & Katzarska-Miller,
I. (2012b) Exploring the content of global citizenship
identity. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Schattle, H. (2008). The practices of global citizenship.
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Snider, J. S., Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I.
(in press). How we frame the message of
globalization matters. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology.
Stürmer, S., Snyder, M., Kropp, A., & Siem, B. (2006).
Empathy-motivated helping: The moderating role of
group membership. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 32, 943–956.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory
of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin, &
S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup
relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D.,
& Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social
group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008).

Toward an integrative social identity model of
collective action: A quantitative research synthesis
of three socio-psychological perspectives.
Psychological Bulletin, 134, 504–535.
Copyright of International Journal of Psychology is the property
of Routledge and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
listserv without the copyright
holder's express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for
individual use.
Running head: SHORTENED TITLE 1
Week 1 Assignment
Importance of Developing Global Citizenship
Student’s Name
GEN499 General Education Capstone
Professor’s Name

Date
SHORTENED TITLE
2
Note: This assignment should be written in the correct format.
Please click on the Writing Center
tab at the left-hand toolbar of the course. You will then click on
the Writing Resources tab, which
goes over the basics of writing an essay. For information on
how to write in-text citations in APA
format, click on “In-Text Citation Guide” under Integrating
Sources within the Writing
Resources tab. This paper needs to consist of 750 – 1,000 words
(excluding the title and
reference page).
Start your paper with the title of this assignment:
Importance of Developing Global Citizenship
The introduction paragraph of this paper should inform the
reader of the topic you are
writing about while providing background information and the
purpose or importance of

addressing this topic of global citizenship. You should prepare
the reader by stating the concepts
you are about to address further in your paper. Typically a good
introduction paragraph is made
up of 5 – 7 sentences.
Short Title of First Prompt (i.e. Benefits of Being a Global
Citizen)
After viewing the required video Globalization: What Is
Happening to Us? (2010), you
need write a paragraph of 5 – 7 sentences addressing how being
a global citizen in the world of
advanced technology can be beneficial to your success in
meeting your personal, academic, and
professional goals. For instance, in thinking about how you
interact with others in your courses,
you could provide an example of how online courses contribute
to your development as a global
citizen. It’s important to cite the video per APA guidelines
within this paragraph.
Short Title of Second Prompt
https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx?Token=50420
&aid=18596&Plt=FOD&loid=0&w=640&h=480&ref

SHORTENED TITLE
3
After reading the article by Reysen and Katzarska-Miller, you
need to write a paragraph
of 5 – 7 sentences explaining why there has been a disagreement
between theorists about the
definition of global citizenship. Within the article, the authors
address how specific schools of
thought define global citizenship. It would be a good idea to
paraphrase this information in your
own words and cite the article per APA guidelines. Also, within
this paragraph, you should
provide your own definition of global citizenship after reading
what other ideas are from the
article.
Short Title of Third Prompt
Note: Based on the article, you need to write two paragraphs: a
paragraph on each of the two
outcomes of global citizenship you chose (intergroup empathy,
valuing diversity, social justice,
environmental sustainability, intergroup helping, and the level
of responsibility to act for the

betterment of this world).
Name of First Outcome Addressed (i.e. Valuing Diversity)
Within this paragraph you need to explain why this outcome is
important in becoming a global
citizen. It’s a good idea to first define the outcome in your own
words and then provide a
thorough explanation on why it’s important for your own
development as a global citizen.
Name of Second Outcome Addressed (i.e. Social Justice)
Same instructions as the first paragraph above.
Short Title for Fourth Prompt
First Personal Example on (Name First Outcome)
SHORTENED TITLE
4
You need to write a 5 – 7 sentence paragraph describing a
personal experience that has
corresponds to the first outcome you addressed in the third
prompt and has assisted or resulted in
your development as a global citizen.

Second Personal Example on (Name of Second Outcome)
You need to write a 5 – 7 sentence paragraph describing a
personal experience that has
corresponds to the second outcome you addressed in the third
prompt and has assisted or resulted
in your development as a global citizen.
Short Title of Fifth Prompt
You need to write a 5 – 7 sentence paragraph that identifies two
specific education
courses and explains how each of those courses assisted or
influenced your development in
becoming a global citizen.
Conclusion
In this paragraph, you need to summarize the main points of this
assignment and include
a description of why this topic is important to address when it
comes to the development of
global citizenship. Typically a good conclusion paragraph
consists of 5 – 7 sentences. Keep in
mind that you should not share new information in the
conclusion paragraph. This means that
there should not be any in-text citations. You are basically
summarizing what you have written.

SHORTENED TITLE
5
References
Note: References are written below in the correct format per
APA guidelines. In addition to these
two required resources, you must locate another scholarly
source from the Ashford University
Library that applies to this topic and can be used to support
your perspective.
Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). A model of global
citizenship: Antecedents and
outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 858-870.
doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.701749

Jakobs, W. (Director), & Monfils, M. (Producer). (2010).
Globalization: What is happening to
us?- LUX great thinkers series [Video file]. Retrieved
&aid=18596&Plt=FOD&
loid=0&w=640&h=480&ref
WEEK ONE GUIDANCE
Globalization
Over the past several hundred years, advances in transportation
have made international trade and international travel easier,
cheaper, and more frequent. Today it is possible to travel from
any place in the world to any other place in the world in 24
hours or less. There have been consequences for everyone, from
international trade and investment, economic development and
increasing prosperity, to changes in education, personal
experiences, and physical well-being. For the most part, most
people are healthier, better fed, longer-lived, and more
prosperous than at any time in the past. There have been many
benefits from globalization but there have also been some
negative consequences.
Some of those negative consequences have been negative effects
on the physical environment. While some of the more
impoverished or less-technologically advanced countries have
benefited from globalization, other countries have been locked
into a cycle of increasing indebtedness (Shah, 2007). Criticism

has been leveled against the First World countries for removing
local raw materials from impoverished countries to their own
benefit rather than the local citizens.
There are also long-range, long-term consequences that we are
only now beginning to recognize. While the world is no longer
wracked by major wars, there are more small wars than in the
past. Some of that conflict is due to the resistance to
globalization.
Global Citizenship
Thus we are faced with a choice: to become a member of the
globe or to retreat behind our own national walls. Is it,
however, possible to refuse to become a global citizen? At the
rate that the world is getting increasingly smaller and more
immediately connected, more and more political, social, and
cultural issues are becoming international, trans-national, or
global concerns. As we have seen, what happens in Yemen,
Syria, and Somalia has a direct effect on us at home, wherever
home may be.
Please visit and read this page:Global Citizenship from the
United Nations (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site.
POINTS TO PONDER:
One of the principles of Critical Thinking is to consider the
consequences, results, or the outsomces of the decisions we
make.
1. What are the alternatives to becoming a member of the global
community?
2. What are the possible consequences of failing to establish a
global community?
This would seem to put a burden on those of us who want to
accept responsibility for the world we live in and the world of
our children’s children. As the world gets smaller and more
intimately and immediately interconnected, we can become part
of the solution or part of the problem. Global citizenship

involves accepting personal and national responsibility for the
world in which we live. The global citizen is actively engaged
in trying to make things better in order to preserve a high living
standard, peace, and stability around the world. This also means
becoming part of a global community, allying oneself with
people from all around the world, regardless of any differences
in race, religion, ethnicity, or national origin.
Global Education
At this point, it seems that only a disaster will halt the progress
of globalization. Whether we want to be part of a global
civilization or not, it appears as if we will be by default. If that
is the case, then we have to learn how to work within the new,
global context. We will have to learn about other peoples, other
cultures, and other ways of looking at and being involved in the
world. We will have to learn how to appreciate not only how we
are diverse but also how we are all similar underneath the
apparent differences.
One of the reasons for general education courses and liberal arts
courses is to help students see how people are pretty much the
same throughout time and across different cultures. In literature
courses we can look at Oedipus, Othello, Ebenezer Scrooge, and
Hester Prynne share similar characteristics to people we know
even though in some ways they appear at first to be quite
different from us. Under the differences between religious we
can find similar characteristics. Within cultures we can find
how different people have found solutions to similar problems.
In history we can find examples to draw upon in order to avoid
the mistakes others have made in the past.
When we can learn to appreciate the differences and to value
them for what they can add to our lives we can move beyond
xenophobia and make our lives, individually and societally,
better and more meaningful. That is possible, however, only if
we are willing to learn from other cultures and to learn how to
value learning itself.
Individual Identity

There are those around the world as well as here at home who
are afraid of globalization. One of the fears voiced by those
abroad it that the world is going to be turned into some
American version of McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, Kentucky Fried
Chicken, and Walt Disney and that their cultures, religions, and
viewpoints will be taken away from them. Other think that
globalization will be the end of democracy and freedom. See,
for example, Benjamin Barber’s Jihad vs. McWorld (Ballantine
Books, 1996) or Fareed Zakaria’s The Post-American
World (W.W. Norton & Company, 2011). There is the very real
possibility that modern global terrorism is a reaction against the
assumed Americanization of the world.
However, if we look carefully at American corporations’
foreign offices, we see that rather than supplant local cultures,
they have accepted facets of those cultures and adapted to those
cultures. One example is the wide variety of kinds of corn and
potato chips that Frito-Lay offers in different countries, most of
which are not available in the United States.
The question of local and personal identity may be seen as a
threat by some, but it may only be a perceived threat rather than
anything real. We see that the Islamist terrorist groups think
that American (and by extension Christians) are trying to wipe
out Islam and replace all religions with some version of
Christianity; while here in the United States many Christians
seem to think that globalization will spell the end of
Christianity. Both views cannot be true simultaneously, but both
could be wrong.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. If we accept the inevitability of globalization, how can we
make the best of the situation?
2. What is the best of the situation?

The future shape of the world and our own individual lives will
be based on the decisions that we make, both individually and
as a nation. In order to make the best decisions, those most be
informed decisions. Rather than rely on emotions, belief, hopes,
or faith, we should make those decisions on the best available
information and through careful, reasoned thought.
Required Resources
Articles
Dowd, M. (n.d.). What is the purpose of taking general classes
for a college degree? Seattle PI. Retrieved from
http://education.seattlepi.com/purpose-taking-general-classes-
college-degree-1876.html
· In this article, the author explains the importance of breadth of
learning. General education courses encompass several areas of
study (social sciences, math, science, humanities, and nature),
which will help prepare students to think more analytically,
consider many views on a topic, and value cultural differences
when they begin their advanced study courses. This article will
help assist the student in addressing the prompts in the Week
One Discussion Question.
Lewis, H. R. (2008). A core curriculum for tomorrow’s
citizens. Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for
Quick Review, 73(5), 47-50. Retrieved from
https://www.eddigest.com/
· The full-text version of this article can be accessed through
the ERIC database in the Ashford University Library. The
author explains why college students should have the freedom
to choose what they want to learn instead of being forced to
abide by the university’s core curriculum. This article also
addresses citizenship and how it is important for college
graduates to understand the basic principles on which the U.S.
government runs. This article will allow the reader to assess

their own level of civic engagement and determine if their
courses promote this. This article will help assist the student in
addressing the prompts in the Week One Discussion Question.
Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). A model of global
citizenship: Antecedents and outcomes. International Journal of
Psychology, 48(5), 858-870.
doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.701749
the Academic Search Complete (EBSCOhost) database in the
Ashford University Library. This article provides information
concerning the idea of the global citizen. The authors explain
the outcomes of identifying with a superordinate identity
(global citizen) from two different studies. The relationship
between global awareness and social values was evaluated. This
article will allow the reader to assess their level of global
citizenship and how it can impact their own identity and
psychological well-being. This article will assist the student in
completing the Week One Assignment
Seraphin, C. (n.d.). General education requirements: What’s the
point? Collegexpress. Retrieved from
http://www.collegexpress.com/articles-and-advice/majors-and-
academics/articles/college-academics/general-education-
requirements-whats-point/
· In this article, the author explains what general education
requirements are and some of the reasons why colleges include
them in degree requirements. The author suggests that one of
the biggest problems with general education courses is the fact
that students do not think they are important. The author then
supports the fact that general education courses increase a
student’s critical thinking skills, communication skills, and
problem-solving skills before they start taking more advanced
courses in their field of study. This article will help assist the
student in addressing the prompts in the Week One Discussion
Question.
Wehlburg, C. M. (2010). Integrated general education: A brief

look back. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 121, 3-11.
doi:10.1002/tl.383
Ashford University Library. This article addresses the
assessment practices that take place in order to measure the
course learning outcomes in higher education programs.
Assessing general education has been a difficult task compared
to assessing different majors based on content and skills. The
goals of critical thinking, problem solving, and communication
may be more difficult to measure. Assessment procedures tend
to be more qualitative when it comes to general education
curriculum. This article will allow the reader to fully
understand the assessment procedures that have been able to
measure their core general education requirements. This article
will help assist the student in addressing the prompts in the
Week One Discussion Question.
Blog
Austin, M. W. (2011, April 13). The value of general
education [Blog post]. Psychology Today. Retrieved from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ethics-
everyone/201104/the-value-general-education
· In this article, the author gives some reasons that support the
importance of general education courses. The reasons for
general education courses include helping a student become a
better citizen, increasing critical thinking skills, and providing
students with a broad and deep education. This blog post will
help assist the student in addressing the prompts in the Week
One Discussion Question.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site.
Multimedia
Jakobs, W. (Director), & Monfils, M. (Producer).
(2010). Globalization: What is happening to us?- LUX great
thinkers series. [Video file]. Retrieved

· This video series discusses the fear that many people face
regarding globalization and openness to diversity and other
cultures. A few knowledgeable speakers provide suggestions on
how people can become more confident in their ability to deal
with emotions and thoughts that are tied to the pressures of
becoming a global citizen. This video will assist the student in
completing the Week One Assignment.
Recommended Resources
Article
White, J. (2009). Why general education? Peters, Hirst and
history. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 43, 123-141.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2009.00718.x
Ashford University Library. The author of this article provides
historical background information concerning the opposing
views of the purpose of general education from Richard Peters
and Paul Hirst. This article will allow the reader to use critical
thinking skills to assess whether there must be some good
intrinsic reason for an academic curriculum as we see it
today. This article will assist the student in completing the
Week One Assignment.
Multimedia
Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). Integrating
research. [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/5408ee
9b-e793-44d5-8a4d-
e54bc6e72f74/1/Integrating%20Research.zip/story.html
· This tutorial helps students understand why research should be
added to their papers, such as making the paper more credible.
It also provides tips on where research should be added in a
research paper. Furthermore, it provides a step-by-step method
on how to integrate research into a paper through the I.C.E.
Method: Introduce, Cite, and Explain.

Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). In-text citation
helper: A guide to making APA in-text citations. [Video file].
Retrieved from
https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/9fce9d
11-3298-48ef-ac77-12fe7d5c0577/1/In-
Text%20Citation%20Helper%20A%20Guide%20to%20Making%
20APA%20In-Text%20Citations.zip/story.html
· This tutorial provides examples of how to format in-text
citations in APA format based on the number of authors and on
whether or not the source is quoted or paraphrased. This tutorial
first explains the purpose of an in-text citation and when they
should be used in a research paper.
Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). The Grammarly
guide: How to set up & use Grammarly [Video file]. Retrieved
from
https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/44cfa9c
0-9498-4229-a25d-
ea3589506182/1/The_Grammarly_Guide_How_to_Set_Up_%26
_Use_Grammarly.zip/story.html
· This tutorial provides students with information on how to set
up their Grammarly account, so that they can receive feedback
on their written work before it’s due. Grammarly is a free
grammar check program that helps students with proofreading
their work and offers suggestions on how to fix any grammatical
errors.
Web Pages
Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). APA essay checklist
for students . Retrieved from https://awc.ashford.edu/cd-apa-
checklist.html
· This website source through Ashford University provides
embedded links to various resources that instruct students how
to format a paper in APA style. It includes an APA Template
and an In-Text Citation Guide.
Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). APA references
list (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site..
Retrieved from https://awc.ashford.edu/cd-apa-references-

list.html
· This website source through Ashford University provides
guidelines on how to write references in APA format. It also
provides a PDF document of a list of references with an
example of how each type of reference should be written.
Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). How to create APA
headers and a title page in Microsoft Word 2010. Retrieved
from https://awc.ashford.edu/writing-tools-microsoft-office-
2010.html
· This website source through Ashford University provides step-
by-step directions on how to create a title page header and page
numbers, as well as how to provide the content of the title page
in APA format.
Ashford University Writing Center. (n.d.). In-text citation
guide Retrieved from https://awc.ashford.edu/cd-in-text-
citation-guide.html
· This website source through Ashford University provides basic
rules on how and when to write in-text citations. It indicates the
specific information that should be included in each in-text
citation and the appropriate ways that in-text citations can be
written according to APA guidelines.
Week 1 - Assignment
Importance of Becoming a Global Citizen
Prepare: View the Globalization: What is Happening to
Us ? video and read the article A Model of Global Citizenship:
Antecedents and Outcomes by Stephen Reysen and Iva
Katzarska-Miller (2013).
Link to
video:https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx?Token=5
0420&aid=18596&Plt=FOD&loid=0&w=640&h=480&ref
The article mentioned above is attached as a PDF.

Reflect: Please take some time to reflect on how the concept of
global citizenship has shaped your identity, and think about how
being a global citizen has made you a better person in your
community
Write: Use the Week One Assignment Template (attached) when
addressing the following prompts:
· After viewing the video, describe how being a global citizen
in the world of advanced technology can be beneficial to your
success in meeting your personal, academic, and professional
goals.
· After reading the article by Reysen and Katzarska-Miller,
explain why there has been disagreement between theorists
about the definition of global citizenship and develop your own
definition of global citizenship.
· From the article, choose two of the six outcomes of global
citizenship (i.e., intergroup empathy, valuing diversity, social
justice, environmental sustainability, intergroup helping, and
the level of responsibility to act for the betterment of this
world) as stated in the article, and explain why those two are
the most important in becoming a global citizen compared to the
others.
· Describe at least two personal examples or events in your life
that illustrate the development of global citizenship based on
the two outcomes you chose.
· Identify two specific general education courses, and explain
how they each influenced you to become a global citizen.
Your paper
· Must be 750 words in length (excluding title and reference
pages) and formatted according to APA style. Separate title
page with the following:
· Title of paper
· Student’s name
· Course name and number
· Instructor’s name
· Date submitted

· Running header with page numbers
· Must cite the two resources required
Running head: HYPOTHESIS TESTING
1
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
2
Trident University International
Javidi Thomas
Module 3: Case Assignment
BHS220: Introduction to Health Statistics
Dr. Sharleen Goalies
January 31, 2018
Probability Theory
The probability theory is a branch of mathematics that is used to
determine the likelihood of an event occurring. The probability
theory emerged during the 17th century when mathematicians
tried to develop a formula to predict odds of winning in
gambling. Initially, the theory was used to calculate the
likelihood of discrete events to occur. However, it was later

developed to incorporate the continuous variable. Also,
probability theory can be used to determine the likelihood of
discrete variables, continuous variables or a combination of
both. In addition, the discrete probability is used to determine
the likelihood of countable sample variables such as decks of
cards (Gillies, 2012). On the other hand, continuous probability
deals with continuous variables. The likelihood of an event to
occur is calculated by dividing the possible number of events
with the outcomes (Gillies, 2012). Subsequently, the advantage
of the probability theory is that each member of a population an
equal a known chance of being selected. Therefore, the selected
sample is a better representative of the population (Gillies,
2012). On the other hand, the limitation of the probability
theory is the impact of randomness which may result in
inaccurate results. Also, an individual may input incorrect
values in order to manipulate the results.
Two Categories of Probability Interpretations
The first category is subjective probability, it is based on
personal judgment regarding the likelihood of an event
occurring. It differs from one person to another. Also, the
outcome is highly biased due to personal judgment (Gillies,
2012). The second category is known as the objective
probability. Objective probability is based on recorded
observation (Gillies, 2012). The objective probability is the
most commonly used since it is more reliable since the results
are not affected by personal bias. Therefore, objective
probabilities provide more accurate results than subjective
probabilities.
The data in Table 1 below represents data from 2012 National
Health Interview Survey. The data shows the respondents have
ever been tested or they have never been tested for HIV.
Age Group
Tested (thousands)
Never Tested (thousands)
18–44 years
50,080

56,405
45–64 years
23,768
48,537
65–74 years
2,694
15,162
75 years and older
1,247
14,663
Total
77,789
134,767
Table 1- Adult Americans tested and not tested for HIV
The probability that Randomly Selected Adults have never been
tested
The probability of randomly selecting an untested adult from
the data is calculated by dividing the total number of tested
adults with the total of both tested and untested. The
computation is as follows; P(77,789)/(P (77,789) +P(134,767)
=0.63. The results show that 63% of adult Americans have never
been tested for HIV. Therefore, the probability of selecting an
adult American who has been tested for HIV is (1-0.63=0.47) or
47%.
Proportion of adults of 18-44 years who have never been tested
The proportion of the untested group of 18-44 years is
calculated by dividing the tested individuals in the group by the
total number of those tested and untested. Therefore, the
proportion= P(50,080)/(P50,080+P(56,405) = 0.47. This means
that 47% of adults in the group have never been tested for HIV.
According to the results, more people in the group of 18-44
years have been tested for compared to the total American
adults. The study provides useful information about the
proportion of the adults who have or never been tested for HIV
in the U.S.

.
Reference
Gillies, D. (2012). Philosophical Theories of Probability. New
York: Routledge
Running head: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 1
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 6
Javidi Thomas
Dr. Sharleen Goalies
January 20, 2018

Descriptive Data Analysis
The following analysis is about the blood pressure effects of a
contraceptive pill among women between the ages 35 and 44.
Both continuous and discrete variables are present. This paper
aims at utilizing a standard approach to presenting and
understanding data through normal estimations.
Part One
Regarding the blood pressure values indicated in table 2A, it is
a continuous variable. Blood pressure is considered a
continuous variable since the values are obtained from
measuring and not counting which applies to discrete variables.
The application of value intervals is also a justification for
blood pressure being a continuous variable, meaning that blood
pressure can take any of the values in the applied intervals.
Additionally, the data set for blood pressure also applies an
infinity structure where it does not specify the minimum or
maximum measurements (Chen, 2010).
In the event that the number of women under both categories of
users and non-users were identified, the number of women
would be a discrete value. Primarily, the rationale for this
position is that number of women would be obtained through
counting as opposed to measuring which is used for the
continuous variables (Chen, 2010). Furthermore, the number of
women used for the blood pressure research is finite, providing
a complete specified range of numbers. Moreover, the counting
of women will only recognize distinct values such as 1, 2 or 3,
meaning that there is no fraction of a woman. Subsequently, the
women count would have the characteristic of isolated points
and non-overlapping.
Part Two
Figure 1: Histogram of the Blood Pressure of Non-Users.
(Source:
http://www.zweigmedia.com/RealWorld/stats/histogram.html)
Figure 2: Histogram of the Blood Pressure of Users. (Source:

http://www.zweigmedia.com/RealWorld/stats/histogram.html)
The use of the contraceptive pill can have a significant effect on
the blood pressure of its users either through low or high blood
pressure. However, according to the tabulated data on the use of
the contraceptive pill, it has no significant effect on low blood
pressure on its users. On the other hand, the pill is indicated to
cause significant high blood pressure to its users. Compared to
the non-users, the pill has a significant effect in causing
increased high blood pressure. Normal measurements for blood
pressure are medically recommended to be between 90 and 120
for systolic blood pressure. Therefore the inference about the
effects of the pill on blood pressure is based on the higher
percentages of women under users as depicted through the
negative skewness
Part Three
Normal approximation of data is a technique used in the
demonstration of data in estimated distributions. The normal
approximation technique is effective in converting the intervals
into units that are standard for ease of data explanations. In
viewing the data on the systolic blood pressure of women aged
between 35 and 44, normal approximations enabled the
histogram to provide a normal curve that is symmetrical with
value both below and above the data average. As a result, the
set of data on the blood pressures can utilize a common standard
deviation in providing data quality. In estimating the percentage
of the women under a given range of blood pressure, it would
follow that both the standard deviation and the average are
computed for purposes obtaining standard units (Chen, 2010).
This realization is in consideration that normal distributions
develop data inferences about the mean (Chen, 2010).
Conclusion
In general, the application of normal distribution and
approximation enable a harmonious integration of discrete and
continuous variables. The above analysis is an illustration of
processing data to obtain meaningful information. In this case,
the conclusion is that the contraceptive pill causes significant

blood pressure increases.
References
Chen, Y. (2010). Introduction to probability theory. The lecture
notes on information theory. Duisburg-Essen University.
Running head: VARIABLES AND PROBABILITY
1
VARIABLES AND PROBABILITY
3
Javidi Thomas

Dr. Sharlene Gozalians
January 12, 2018
Part 1: Variables
1. A researcher studying life categorizes individuals into single,
married, divorced, or widowed. What type of variable
measurement is this?
This type of variable is the nominal measurement because there
is no intrinsic order. Nominal variables are only classified into
four groups without referring to any other information.
Therefore, nominal variables do not have numeric value and
cannot be quantified.
2. A cognitive scientist places her subjects into categories based
on how anxious they tell her that they are feeling: “not
anxious”, “mildly anxious”,” moderately anxious”, and
“severely anxious” and she uses number 0,1,2 and 3 to label
categories where lower numbers indicate less anxiety. What
type of variable measurement is this? Are the categories
mutually exclusive?
In this situation, the type of measurement variable is ordinal
because the assigned values used between each category cannot
be measured. None of them are equal. Ordinal variables are
mutually exclusive because the you cannot use values to
calculate the difference. You can use them to calculate the
mean. The values express an order. However, the difference

between them are not always the same. (Cook A., Netuveli, G,
&sheik, A., 2004).
3. A physician diagnosis the presence or absence of disease (i.e.
yes or no). What type of measurement is this?
This type of measurement (yes or no) is nominal because they
do not have any numerical values. They are used to represent
two categories. Nominal variables do not have any quantitative
value. Therefore, at times they can be assigned numbers to
represent labels within a given category.
4. A person weighing 200lbs. is considered to be twice as heavy
as a person weighing 100lbs. in this case, what type of
measurement is body weight?
The type of variable is an interval/ratio. It represents the
difference between 100lbs and 200lbs. The scale is measurable
so it allows absolute zero. Ratio scales have all the
characteristics of an interval, nominal, and ordinal scales.
5. A nurse takes measurements of body temperature on patients
and reports them in units of degree Fahrenheit as part of the
study. What type of variable measurement is this?
This type of variable measurement is an interval/ratio. These
values can be compared and you can calculate a mean. In the
situation, the nurse can calculate the mean temperature for
patients. Interval scales possess similar properties to nominal
and ordinal scales.
6. Patients rate their experience in the emergency room on a
five-point scale from poor to excellent (1=very poor, 2=not very
good, 3=neither good nor bad, 4=quite good, and 5=excellent).
What type of variable measurement is this? Is the difference
between 1 and 2 necessarily the same as the difference between
3 and 4? Explain briefly.

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