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Running head: PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 1 PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 2 Business Objectives May 10, 2020 Papa Geo’s Restaurant needs to be competitive and unveil marketing crusades to protect their returns in the business. However, it is guided by typical objectives in the marketing plan. The first objective of the restaurant is ensuring customer satisfaction and loyalty. The target market entails about 10,000 families which is a totality of lower to middle class clients with zero direct competition. However, the customers’ satisfaction is determined the customer’s loyalty to the restaurant especially due to the services that they receive. The restaurant wins the customers through the good Italian food of low price. Stunning cleanliness of the restaurant is welcoming and eye catching which applies to both the foods served and the environment. Generation of the restraint traffic will impact the Restaurant towards success. The restaurant will cultivate a customer base such as having demanding lunchtimes and dinner services through intensive marketing. It will achieve this through weekly and monthly promotions as the marketing strategies. The restaurant needs to attain their financial goals. The objective is to meet the financial income goal of $40000 annually. At the starting of the second year the company expects to attain a minimum of 2% profits of the sales. The main objective of the restaurant is profitability. It is attainable with the managerial ability to achieve the weekly goals especially through cost reduction with profitability growth concurrently.The restaurant needs to develop a restaurant brand. As the restaurant grows successfully, it will improve it’s place in the local market and toughen the brand. The quality of the food served has a great influence on the restaurant branding. The company purposes to cook using healthy products and use the brand to win new customers. Making the teaM: a guide for Managers S i x t h E d i t i o n Leigh L. Thompson Kellogg School of Management Northwestern University 330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 1 10/31/16 8:03 PM Vice President, Business Publishing: Donna Battista Director of Portfolio Management: Stephanie Wall Director, Courseware Portfolio Management: Ashley Dodge Senior Sponsoring Editor: Neeraj Bhalla Editorial Assistant: Lauren Russell Vice President, Product Marketing: Roxanne McCarley Director of Strategic Marketing: Brad Parkins Strategic Marketing Manager: Deborah Strickland Product Marketer: Becky Brown Field Marketing Manager: Lenny Ann Kucenski Product Marketing Assistant: Jessica Quazza Vice President, Production and Digital Studio, Arts and Business: Etain O’Dea Director of Production, Business: Jeff Holcomb Managing Producer, Business: Ashley Santora Operations Specialist: Carol Melville Creative Director: Blair Brown Manager, Learning Tools: Brian Surette Content Developer, Learning Tools: Lindsey Sloan Managing Produce.

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Running head: PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 1 PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 2 Business Objectives May 10, 2020 Papa Geo’s Restaurant needs to be competitive and unveil marketing crusades to protect their returns in the business. However, it is guided by typical objectives in the marketing plan. The first objective of the restaurant is ensuring customer satisfaction and loyalty. The target market entails about 10,000 families which is a totality of lower to middle class clients with zero direct competition. However, the customers’ satisfaction is determined the customer’s loyalty to the restaurant especially due to the services that they receive. The restaurant wins the customers through the good Italian food of low price. Stunning cleanliness of the restaurant is welcoming and eye catching which applies to both the foods served and the environment. Generation of the restraint traffic will impact the Restaurant towards success. The restaurant will cultivate a customer base such as having demanding lunchtimes and dinner services through intensive marketing. It will achieve this through weekly and monthly promotions as the marketing strategies. The restaurant needs to attain their financial goals. The objective is to meet the financial income goal of $40000 annually. At the starting of the second year the company expects to attain a minimum of 2% profits of the sales. The main objective of the restaurant is profitability. It is attainable with the managerial ability to achieve the weekly goals
especially through cost reduction with profitability growth concurrently.The restaurant needs to develop a restaurant brand. As the restaurant grows successfully, it will improve it’s place in the local market and toughen the brand. The quality of the food served has a great influence on the restaurant branding. The company purposes to cook using healthy products and use the brand to win new customers. Making the teaM: a guide for Managers S i x t h E d i t i o n Leigh L. Thompson Kellogg School of Management Northwestern University 330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 1 10/31/16 8:03 PM Vice President, Business Publishing: Donna Battista Director of Portfolio Management: Stephanie Wall Director, Courseware Portfolio Management: Ashley Dodge
Senior Sponsoring Editor: Neeraj Bhalla Editorial Assistant: Lauren Russell Vice President, Product Marketing: Roxanne McCarley Director of Strategic Marketing: Brad Parkins Strategic Marketing Manager: Deborah Strickland Product Marketer: Becky Brown Field Marketing Manager: Lenny Ann Kucenski Product Marketing Assistant: Jessica Quazza Vice President, Production and Digital Studio, Arts and Business: Etain O’Dea Director of Production, Business: Jeff Holcomb Managing Producer, Business: Ashley Santora Operations Specialist: Carol Melville Creative Director: Blair Brown Manager, Learning Tools: Brian Surette Content Developer, Learning Tools: Lindsey Sloan Managing Producer, Digital Studio, Arts and Business: Diane Lombardo Digital Studio Producer: Monique Lawrence Digital Studio Producer: Darren Cormier Digital Studio Producer: Alana Coles Full-Service Project Management and Composition: SPi Global Interior Design: SPi Global Cover Design: Pam Verros Cover Art: © Paul Capobianco Printer/Binder: RRD Crawfordsville Cover Printer: Phoenix Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be ob-
tained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its af- filiates in the U.S. and/or other countries. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks, logos, or icons that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners, and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, icons, or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Thompson, Leigh L., author. Title: Making the team : a guide for managers / Leigh L. Thompson, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University. Description: Sixth Edition. | New York : Pearson Education, 2016. | Revised edition of the author’s Making the team, [2014]
Identifiers: LCCN 2016042609| ISBN 9780134484204 | ISBN 0134484207 Subjects: LCSH: Teams in the workplace. | Performance. | Leadership. | Organizational effectiveness. Classification: LCC HD66 .T478 2016 | DDC 658.4/022—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc. gov/2016042609 ISBN 10: 0-13-448420-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-448420-4 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 2 10/31/16 8:03 PM https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042609 https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042609 http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions For my home team: Bob, Sam, Ray, and Anna A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 3 10/31/16 8:03 PM BRIEF CONTENTS Part 1 Building the team 1 Chapter 1 Types of Teams 3 Chapter 2 Designing the Team 26 Chapter 3 Leading Teams 51 Chapter 4 Team Cohesion and Trust 82 Part 2 team Performance 109 Chapter 5 Performance and Productivity 111 Chapter 6 Team Communication and Collective Intelligence
133 Chapter 7 Team Decision Making 163 Chapter 8 Managing Team Conflict 196 Chapter 9 Creativity and Innovation in Teams 219 Part 3 teams in Organizations 249 Chapter 10 Subgroups and Multi-Teams 251 Chapter 11 Team Networking and Social Capital 275 Chapter 12 Virtual Teamwork 299 Chapter 13 Multicultural Teams 323 Appendix 1 Rewarding Teamwork 345 Appendix 2 Managing Meetings 361 Appendix 3 Creating Effective Study Groups 371 References 374 Name Index 434 Subject Index 449 iv A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 4 10/31/16 8:03 PM CONTENTS Preface xvii Part 1 Building the team 1 Chapter 1 tYPES OF tEaMS 3 Teams vs. Groups 4 Why Should Organizations Have Teams? 5 Information Technology 5
Competition 6 Globalization and Culture 7 Multigenerational Teams 7 Task Focus 8 Tactical Teams 8 Problem-Solving Teams 9 Creative Teams 9 Types of Team Autonomy 12 Manager-Led Teams 12 Self-Managing Teams 13 Self-Directing Teams 15 Self-Governing Teams 15 Observations About Teams and Teamwork 16 Teams Should Be the Exception, Not the Rule 16 Managers Fault the Wrong Causes for Team Failure 17 Teams Require Attention 17 Experimenting with Failures Leads to Better Teams 17 Conflict is Not Always Detrimental 18 Strong Leadership is Not Always Necessary for Strong Teams 18 Good Teams Can Still Fail Under the Wrong Circumstances 18 Retreats Will Not Fix All the Conflicts Between Team Members 19 What Leaders Tell Us About Their Teams 20 Most Common Type of Team 20 Team Size 20 Team Autonomy versus Manager Control 20 Team Longevity 20 The Most Frustrating Aspect of Teamwork 20 v
A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 5 10/31/16 8:03 PM vi Contents Developing Your Team-Building Skills 22 Accurate Diagnosis of Team Problems 22 Evidence-Based Management 23 Expert Learning 24 A Warning 24 Chapter Capstone 25 Chapter 2 DESIGNING tHE tEaM 26 Team Design 27 Define the Goal 27 Ends vs. Means 27 Performance vs. Learning Goals 28 Promotion vs. Prevention Goals 29 Goal fit 29 Pre-Planning vs. On-line Planning 30 Timelines and Time Pressure 30 Capacity Problems vs. Capability Problems 32 Selecting Team Members 32 Member-Initiated Team Selection 33 Optimal Team Size 33 Skills, Talents, and Abilities 35 Roles and Responsibilities 35 Diversity 38 Processes: How to Work Together 43 Task vs. Outcome Interdependence 43 Transition and Action Processes 45
Structure 45 Norms 46 Team Coaching 48 Chapter Capstone 50 Chapter 3 LEaDING tEaMS 51 Leadership Versus Management 52 The Leadership Paradox 52 Leaders and the Nature–Nurture Debate 54 Trait Theories of Leadership 54 Incremental Theories of Leadership 57 Leadership Styles 58 Task Versus Person Leadership 59 Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership 60 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 6 10/31/16 8:03 PM Contents vii Autocratic Versus Democratic Leadership 62 Leader Mood 65 Expectations of Leaders 66 Implicit Leadership Theories 66 Prototypicality 66 Status & Uncertainty 66 Leader–Member Exchange 68 Attributes that Influence Differential Treatment 68 Advantages of Differential Treatment 69 Disadvantages of Differential Treatment 70
Power 70 Sources of Power 71 Power Distance 72 Using Power 73 Effects of Using Power 73 Participative Management 74 Task Delegation 77 Parallel Suggestion Involvement 77 Job Involvement 79 Organizational Involvement 79 Chapter Capstone 81 Chapter 4 tEaM COHESION aND trUSt 82 Team Identity 83 Group Entitativity 83 Group Identity 83 Identity Fusion 84 Common Identity and Common Bond Groups 84 Relational and Collective Identity 84 Self-verification vs. Group-verification 85 Team-Member Exchange 85 Group-serving Attributions 87 Group Potency and Collective Efficacy 87 Team Efficacy and Performance 87 Group Mood and Emotion 88 Group Affect and Performance 90 Emotional Contagion 90 Behavioral Entrainment 91 Emotional Nonconformity 92
A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 7 10/31/16 8:03 PM Emotional Intelligence 92 Leadership and Group Emotion 92 Group Cohesion 94 Cohesion and Team Behavior 94 Cohesion and Performance 94 Building Cohesion in Groups 95 Fear of Social Exclusion 96 Group Trust 96 Trust vs. Respect 96 Trust & Monitoring 97 Trust Congruence 98 Propensity to Trust 98 Types of Trust 98 Repairing Broken Trust 100 Psychological Safety 100 Group Socialization & Turnover 101 Group Socialization 102 Phases of Group Socialization 102 Old-timers’ Reactions to Newcomers 105 Deviant Opinions 106 Newcomer Innovation 106 Turnover and Reorganizations 107 Chapter Capstone 108 Part 2 team Performance 109 Chapter 5 PErFOrMaNCE aND PrODUCtIVItY 111
An Integrated Model of Team Performance 112 Team Context 112 Organizational Context 113 Team Design 113 Team Culture 113 Essential Conditions for Successful Team Performance 114 Expertise 115 Engagement 118 Execution 126 Performance Criteria 128 Productivity 128 viii Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 8 10/31/16 8:03 PM Cohesion 129 Learning 130 Integration 130 Team Performance Equation 131 Chapter Capstone 132 Chapter 6 tEaM COMMUNICatION aND COLLECtIVE INtELLIGENCE 133 Collaboration 134 Uneven Communication 134 Knowledge Specialization 135 Knowledge Sharing and Knowledge Hiding 135 Transforming Knowledge into
Solution s 136 Experienced Community of Practice 136 Adaptive Capacity 137 Monitoring and Talking to the Room 137 Team Mental Models 137 Reflective vs. Reflexive Mental Models 138 Representational Gaps 138 Accuracy 139 Correspondence 140 Transactive Memory Systems 141 Centralized vs. Decentralized TMS 142 Differentiated vs. Integrated TMS 142 Tacit Coordination 143 Routine vs. Nonroutine Tasks 143 Resilience to Team Member Loss 144 Reaction to Free-Riding 144 Developing a TMS 144 Common Information Effect 148
Hidden Profile 151 Ineffective Strategies 153 Effective Interventions 154 Team Learning 158 Environment 158 Newcomers and Rotators 158 Vicarious vs. In Vivo Experience 159 Threat, Change, and Failure 159 Contents ix A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 9 10/31/16 8:03 PM After-Action Review (AAR) 159 Routinization vs. Innovation Trade-Offs 159 Chapter Capstone 162 Chapter 7 tEaM DECISION MaKING 163 Team Decision Making 164 Individual Decision-Making Biases 164
Framing Bias 165 Overconfidence 165 Confirmation Bias 167 Decision Fatigue 168 Individual Versus Group Decision Making 168 Demonstrable versus Non-Demonstrable Tasks 168 Groups Out-Perform Individuals 168 Group to Individual Transfer 169 Minorities versus Majorities 170 Group Decision Rules 170 Refusal to Make Decisions 172 Groupthink 172 Learning from History 174 Reducing Groupthink 174 Escalation of Commitment 178 Project Determinants 180 Psychological Determinants 180 Social Determinants 181 Structural Determinants 181 Minimizing Escalation of Commitment to a Losing Course of Action 182
Abilene Paradox 183 How to Avoid the Abilene Paradox 184 Group Polarization 185 The Need to be Right 187 The Need to be Liked 187 Conformity Pressure 188 Unethical Decision Making 190 Rational Expectations Model 190 False Consensus 191 Vicarious Licensing 191 Desensitization 191 Chapter Capstone 195 x Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 10 10/31/16 8:03 PM Chapter 8 MaNaGING tEaM CONFLICt 196 Relationship, Task & Process Conflict 197
Relationship Conflict 197 Task Conflict 199 Process Conflict 199 Impact on Performance 200 Personality & Conflict 202 Team Identification 202 Power & Conflict 202 Organizational Climate and Conflict 203 Global Culture and Conflict 203 Types of Conflict 204 Proportional and Perceptual Conflict 204 Conflict States vs. Conflict Processes 205 Conflict Contagion 205 Distributive vs. Procedural Conflict 205 Equity, Equality and Need 205 Minority and Majority Conflict 207 Work–Family Conflict 209 Organizational Culture Conflict 209 Conflict Management 209 Conflict Modes 209 Contingency Theory of Task Conflict and Performance in Teams 211 Investment Model of Conflict 212
Wageman and Donnenfeld’s Conflict Intervention Model 214 Interests, Rights, and Power Model of Disputing 216 Chapter Capstone 217 Chapter 9 CrEatIVItY aND INNOVatION IN tEaMS 219 Nature vs. Nurture 220 Creativity Versus Innovation 221 Convergent versus Divergent Thinking 221 Radical versus Incremental Innovation 223 Creative Realism 224 Fluency, Flexibility, and Originality 226 Exploration versus Exploitation 227 Brainstorming Versus Brainwriting 228 Brainstorming 228 Brainstorming versus Nominal Group 229 Contents xi A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 11 10/31/16 8:03 PM
Brainwriting 230 Speedstorming 231 Electronic Brainstorming 232 Threats to Team Creativity 233 Social Loafing 233 Conformity 234 Production Blocking 234 Performance Matching 235 What Goes on During a Typical Group Brainstorming Session? 236 Best Practices for Enhancing Team Creativity 236 Motivational Methods 236 Cognitive Methods 238 Facilitator-Led Methods 241 Leader and Organizational Methods 244 Chapter Capstone 247 Part 3 teams in Organizations 249 Chapter 10 SUBGrOUPS aND MULtI-tEaMS 251 Intergroup Relations 252
In-Groups and Out-Groups 252 Social Comparison 252 Team Rivalry 253 In-group Bias 254 Transgression Credit 254 Subgroups 254 Size 255 Identity, Resource, and Knowledge Subgroups 255 Number of Groups 256 Impact on Performance 256 Faultlines 257 Status 259 Deference 261 Intragroup Deviance 261 Team Boundaries 261 Underbounded versus Overbounded Teams 261 Founding Teams 262 Informing, Parading, and Probing Teams 262 X-Teams 263 xii Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 12 10/31/16 8:03 PM
Teams in Matrix Organizations 264 Cross-functional Teams 264 Multi-team Systems 264 Integration Between Teams 265 Integration Across Multiple Teams and Components of a Business Unit 266 Teamwork in Reorganizations & Mergers 267 Reorganizations 267 Mergers 267 Improving Interteam Relationships 269 Perspective Taking 269 Superordinate Identity 269 Contact 270 Apology 272 Assistance and Help 273 Affirmation 273 Chapter Capstone 274
Chapter 11 tEaM NEtWOrKING aND SOCIaL CaPItaL 275 Taskwork and Teamwork 276 Taskwork vs. Teamwork 276 Taskwork and Teamwork Network Structures 276 Factors that Affect Networks 277 External Leadership 277 General vs. Differential 278 External Roles of Team Members 278 Organizational Networks 280 Sharing Knowledge 280 Insider vs. Outsider Knowledge Valuation 280 Human Capital and Social Capital 282 Boundary Spanning 284 Boundary Loosening Versus Boundary Tightening 285 Cliques Versus Entrepreneur Networks 285 Team Social Capital 287 Friendship, Trust, and Advice Ties 288 Leadership Ties 290 Increasing your Social Capital 292 Analyze your Social Network 293
Identify Structural Holes 293 Expand the Size of the Network 294 Contents xiii A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 13 10/31/16 8:03 PM Diversify Networks 295 Build Hierarchical Networks 296 Recognize Gender Scripts in Networks 297 Reputation Management 297 Chapter Capstone 298 Chapter 12 VIrtUaL tEaMWOrK 299 Place–Time Model of Social Interaction 300 Face-to-Face Communication 301 Same Time, Different Place 303 Different Time, Same Place 305 Different Place, Different Time 306 Information Technology and Social Behavior 309
Reduced Status Differences: The Weak Get Strong Effect 309 Equalization of Participation 310 Increased Time to Make Decisions 310 Information Suppression 311 Risk Taking 311 Disinhibition and the Negativity Effect 312 Task Performance and Decision Quality 312 Trust and Rapport 313 Virtual, Hybrid, and Traditional Teams 313 Prevalence 313 Advantages 314 Identification 315 Leadership 315 Attention and Problem-Solving 316 Conflict 316 Geographic Faultlines 316 Enhancing Virtual Teamwork 317 Team Formation 317 Technology 317 Shared Mental Models 318 Boundary Objects 319 Initial Face-to-Face Experience 320 Objective Self-Awareness 321
Integrity 321 xiv Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 14 10/31/16 8:03 PM Cave and Commons Flexibility 321 Coaching the Virtual Team 322 Chapter Capstone 322 Chapter 13 MULtICULtUraL tEaMS 323 Challenges of Cross-Cultural Teamwork 324 Multinational Teams 324 Stereotypes versus Prototypes 324 Cultural Values 325 Defining Culture 325 Iceberg Model 325 Hofstede’s Model 325 Dignity, Face and Honor Cultures 331 Tight versus Loose Cultures 333
Cultural Intelligence 333 CQ Model 333 Cultural Metacognition 335 Fusion Teamwork 336 Multicultural Engagement 336 Work Ways 337 Multicultural Teamwork 337 Creative Innovation 337 Relationship Orientation 338 Networks 338 Egalitarian Values 338 Status Perceptions 339 Emotional Display 339 Multicultural Collaboration 340 Ethnocentrism 340 Cultural Relativism 340 Managing Multicultural Teams 341 Change and Adaptation 341 Transactive Memory Systems 342 Language Barriers 342
Cultural Change 342 Integration 343 Assimilation 343 Contents xv A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 15 10/31/16 8:03 PM Separation 343 Marginalization 344 Chapter Capstone 344 Appendix 1 Rewarding Teamwork 345 Appendix 2 Managing Meetings 361 Appendix 3 Creating Effective Study Groups 371 References 374 Name and Author Index 434 Subject Index 449 xvi Contents
A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 16 10/31/16 8:03 PM PREFACE Making the Team has two audiences: leaders and team members. For leaders, the book provides direction about how teams can be designed to function optimally; for team members, the book focuses on the skills necessary to be productive. Since the publication of the first five editions, many advances have occurred in team and group research. Every chapter has new information, new research, updated examples, and more. Specifically, I have made the following major changes to the sixth edition of Making the Team: 1. Revised chapter structure: The order of the chapters is slightly changed to reflect the revised three-part structure of the book: Building the Team,
Team Performance, and Teams in Organizations. The book still contains 13 chapters (suitable for semes- ter or quarter-length courses). Rewarding Teamwork is now an appendix. And Vir- tual Teams and Multicultural Teams are each separate chapters. 2. Internal structure of chapters: Most of the chapters have new subheads that reflect new theories, research, and topics. 3. New, updated research: True to the book’s defining characteristic—providing managers with the most up-to-date research in a digestible fashion—I have included the latest research about teamwork and group behavior, thus keeping the book true to its strong research focus and theory-driven approach. 4. Surveys of managers and executives: The updated research also reports on the survey of executives that we have conducted at Kellogg for the past 17 years. The survey in the first edition reported the responses of 149 managers and executives;
the sixth edition has a database of more than 1,200 team managers. 5. New research studies: More than 220 new research studies have been cited. 6. More case studies: I have included more examples and illustrations of effective (as well as ineffective) teamwork. More than 160 new case studies and examples of actual company teams have been added. And, each chapter has a new, updated opening example. 7. Illustrations and examples: Many of the concepts and techniques in the chapters are supplemented with illustrations and examples from real teams, both contem- porary and historical. I do not use these examples to prove a theory; rather, I use them to illustrate how many of the concepts in the book are borne out in real-world situations. New exercises, cases, and supplemental material: The
supplemental material and teaching support materials have been greatly improved so as to complement the text. This allows students to have a more integrated experience inside and outside of the classroom. The book strongly advocates experientially based teaching, and the instruc- tor now has even more options for making the concepts come alive in the classroom. All of the supplements are available on Pearson’s Instructor’s Resource Center; instruc- tors should contact a Pearson sales representative to be assigned a user name and password. I have also developed a MOOC (massive online open course) that anybody, anywhere in the world can enroll in for no charge: High Performance Collaboration: Leader- ship, Teamwork, and Negotiation (on coursera). In addition, I have developed Teamwork xvii A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 17 10/31/16 8:03 PM
xviii Preface 101, which contains four 15-minute videos about teamwork, accessible by: http://www .kellogg.northwestern.edu/news_articles/2014/12202014- teamwork-101.aspx, or simply Google “teamwork 101 Kellogg.” The revision was sparked not only by advances—as well as calamities—in the corporate world, but even more, by the great scientific research about teamwork that my colleagues have relentlessly contributed to the field of management science in the years since the first edition was published. One of the reasons why I love this field is that there are so many wonderful people with whom to collaborate. The following people have had a major impact on my think- ing and have brought joy and meaning to the word collaboration: Cameron Anderson, Linda Babcock, Max Bazerman, Terry Boles, Jeanne Brett, Susan Brodt, John Carroll,
Hoon-Seok Choi, Taya Cohen, Jennifer Crocker, Susan Crotty, Jeanne Egmon, Hal Ersner-Hershfield, Gary Allen Fine, Craig Fox, Adam Galinsky, Wendi Gardner, Dedre Gentner, Robert Gibbons, Kevin Gibson, James Gillespie, Rich Gonzalez, Deborah Gru- enfeld, Brian Gunia, Erika Hall, Reid Hastie, Andy Hoffman, Elizabeth Seeley Howard, Molly Kern, Peter Kim, Shirli Kopelman, Rod Kramer, Laura Kray, Terri Kurtzburg, Sujin Lee, Geoffrey Leonardelli, John Levine, Allan Lind, George Loewenstein, Jeff Loewen- stein, Bob Lount, Denise Lewin Loyd, Brian Lucas, Beta Mannix, Kathleen McGinn, Vicki Medvec, Tanya Menon, Dave Messick, Terry Mitchell, Don Moore, Michael Mor- ris, Keith Murnighan, Janice Nadler, Maggie Neale, Erika Petersen, Kathy Phillips, Jason Pierce, Robin Pinkley, Jo-Ellen Pozner, Mark Rittenberg, Ashleigh Rosette, Ken Savitsky, David Schonthal, Vanessa Seiden, Catherine Shea, Marwan Sinaceur, Ned Smith, Har- ris Sondak, Tom Tyler, Leaf Van Boven, Kimberly Wade- Benzoni, Cindy Wang, Juinwen Wang, Laurie Weingart, Judith White, and Elizabeth Ruth
Wilson. The revision of this book would not have been possible without the dedication, organization, and creativity of Ellen Hampton, Larissa Tripp, and Joel Erickson, who created the layout, organized the information, edited the hundreds of drafts, mastered the figures, organized the permissions for the exhibits in each chapter, and researched many of the case studies for this book. In the book, I talk quite a bit about the “power of the situation” and how strongly the environment shapes behavior. The Kellogg School of Management is one of the most supportive, dynamic environments that I have ever had the pleasure to be a part of. My colleagues across the Kellogg School are uniquely warm, constructive, and gener- ous. Directing the KTAG (Kellogg Team and Group) Center has been a pleasure beyond compare. I am very grateful for the generous grants I have received through the years from the National Science Foundation’s Decision, Risk and
Management Program, the Kellogg Team and Group Center, and its sister, the Dispute Resolution Research Center. This book is very much a team effort of the people I have mentioned here; their talents are diverse, broad, and extraordinarily impressive. I am deeply indebted to my colleagues and students, and I am grateful that they have touched my life. I would like to thank Paul Capobianco for the photograph of the University of Wisconsin Men’s Heavy Weight Varsity rowing team: Cox: Brandt Roen, 8: Sam Weeks, 7: Sebastian Amberger, 6: James Lueken, 5: Christoph Bub, 4: Jonah van der Weide, 3: George Perrett, 2: Nick Montalvo, Bow: Jacob Hurlbutt. A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 18 10/31/16 8:03 PM http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/news_articles/2014/12202 014-teamwork-101.aspx http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/news_articles/2014/12202 014-teamwork-101.aspx
P A R T Building the TeamI M01A_THOM4204_06_SE_P01.indd 1 10/24/16 9:28 PM M01A_THOM4204_06_SE_P01.indd 2 10/24/16 9:28 PM This page intentionally left blank 3 The ad was posted to Facebook: Diggers needed for an exotic expedition. Experience needed in paleontology or anthropology. Willing to fly to South
Africa within the month. And “the person must be skinny and preferably small, they must not be claustrophobic, they must be fit, they should have some caving experience. Climbing experience would be a bonus.1” Dr. Lee Berger, a university paleoanthropologist, selected six slender women from 57 applicants for a major excavation. The team squeezed themselves through a long vertical chute which narrowed to a gap just 18 inches wide and inched their way to a landing zone at the bottom of the cave. The team of women crouched in the fossil chamber plotting, digging, and bagging densely packed bones in 6-hour shifts in near total darkness, connected to the surface by the nearly two miles of power cables that local climbers had threaded from the surface to the fossil chamber. Dozens of scientists watched excitedly on video from a tent outside the cave and waited to catalog samples. Dr. Berger invited 30 scientists from 15 countries to Johannesburg for a 6-week frenzy of fossil
research and the putting together of skeletons from the assembled parts. Teams were divided by specific body part—one group for feet, one for legs, one for skulls, and so forth, while Berger and his advisers rushed between groups. The discovery of 1,550 fossil fragments was ultimately regarded as a breakthrough discovery in the field.2 2Smith, D. (2015, September 10). Small spelunkers required: The ad that led to the discovery of Homo naledi. The Guardian. guardian.com; Young, E. (2015, September 10). 6 tiny cavers, 15 odd skeletons, and 1 amaz- ing new species of ancient human. The Atlantic. theatlantic.com; Schreeve, J. (2015, September 10). This face changes the human story. But how? National Geographic. nationalgeographic.com 1From ad posted to Facebook by Lee Berger, © October 7, 2013 Dr.Lee Berger. Types of Teams1 C
H A P T E R M01B_THOM4204_06_SE_C01.indd 3 10/24/16 4:37 PM http://nationalgeographic.com http://theatlantic.com http://guardian.com 4 Part1 • BuildingtheTeam A shared goal and an interdependent group of people are the defining characteristics of teams. Whereas most businesspeople are not digging up fossils in caves, they do engage in missions that involve significant economic and social
stakes. Virtually everyone who has worked in an organization has been a member of a team at one time or another. Good teams are not a matter of luck; they result from hard work, careful planning, and commitment from the sponsoring organization. Designing effec- tive teams is a skill that requires a thorough understanding of groups to ensure that the team works as designed. Although there are no guarantees, understanding what makes teams work will naturally lead to better and more effective teams. This book introduces a systematic approach that allows leaders, managers, executives, trainers, and professionals to build and maintain excellent teams in their organizations. Our systematic approach is based on scientific principles of learning and change. Implementing change requires that managers audit their own behavior to see where mistakes are being made, consider and implement new techniques and practices, and then examine their effects. Unfortunately, accomplishing these
tasks in a typical orga- nization is not easy. This chapter sets the stage for effective learning by defining what a team is—it’s not always clear! We distinguish three types of teams in organizations based on their task focus. We also distinguish four types of teams in terms of their authority. We expose the most common myths about teamwork and share some observations from team leaders. We provide the results of our survey assessment on how teams are used in organizations and the problems with which managers are most concerned. TEAMS VS. GROUPS A group is a collection of people. A team is an interdependent group of people working for a shared goal. A work team is a collection of individuals who share responsibility for specific outcomes for their organizations. Not everyone who works together or is in proximity belongs to a team. A team is a group of people who are interdependent with respect to information, resources, and skills and who seek to
combine their efforts to achieve a common goal. Teams have five key defining characteristics.3 First, teams exist to achieve a shared goal. Simply put, teams have work to do. Teams produce outcomes for which members have collective responsibility and reap some form of collective reward. Second, team members are interdependent … Research-Technology Management • January—February 2012 | 51 The physical design of high-tech workplaces is a key chal- lenge facing senior management today. In a world in which collaboration is increasingly seen as the engine of innova- tion, the physical layout of high-tech workplaces must facilitate the face-to-face (F2F) communication among R&D team members that breeds productive collaboration. Al- though the physical design of the workplace is but one vari- able in a complex constellation of factors that affect team F2F
communication, it is an important one for, as Elsbach and Pratt (2008) recently noted, “everything from the effi cient manufacture of computer chips to the research and develop- ment of new fl avors of potato chips is affected by the design and arrangement of machinery, work spaces, environmental controls, and equipment” (182). Further, despite the increas- ing use of distributed teams connected through electronically mediated communication such as email, texting, instant messaging, videoconferencing, phone, and fax, recent studies have underlined the importance of F2F communication for successfully accomplishing complex team tasks ( Elsbach and Pratt 2008 ; Allen and Henn 2007 ). F2F communication is important to all team tasks, but es- pecially to the high-tech work of R&D teams. R&D projects involve non-routine tasks with a high degree of uncertainty; past studies have shown that F2F communication is more effective than other types of communication media for trans- ferring the complex, context-specifi c information required to accomplish tasks related to advancing knowledge and de- veloping new technologies ( Tushman 1979 ; Santoro and Saparito 2003 ). James Stryker earned his PhD in management from Rutgers University and is
an assistant professor of management in the department of business at Holy Names University, Oakland, California. He is also a licensed architect and holds a Master of Architecture degree from Yale University. Professor Stryker’s princi- pal research interests are in the areas of team communication and the design of the physical workplace, organizational leadership, team decision making, and group dynamics. In addition to his academic career, he has over 20 years experience in the programming, design, and construction of high-tech R&D facilities. His work experience includes serving as director of facilities for a Fortune 100 pharmaceutical company and senior project manager for two nationally ranked architectural and engineering design fi rms. [email protected] Michael Santoro earned his PhD in management from Rutgers University and is an associate professor of management in the College of Business and Economics at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
Professor Santo- ro’s principal research interests are in the areas of strategic alliances and the external sourcing of knowledge and technological innovation. He has nearly 30 publications in edited volumes and leading peer-reviewed journals and serves on the editorial review board of IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. He is a recipient of the prestigious Carl R. and Ingeborg Beidleman Research Award, the Class of 1961 Professorship, and the James T. Kane Faculty Fellowship. Prior to his academic career, he spent 21 years with Automatic Data Processing, Inc. (ADP), holding a number of middle and senior management positions. [email protected] DOI: 10.5437/08956308X5501013 FEATURE ARTICLE Facilitating Face-to-Face Communication in High-Tech Teams Face-to-face communication is a necessary component of team
collaboration; the physical design of the space, including the visibility of workstations and the availability of community spaces, can affect the level of face-to-face communication. James B. Stryker and Michael D. Santoro OVERVIEW: Despite the increasing use of electronically mediated methods for team communications, research continues to underline the importance of face-to-face (F2F) communication for the successful accomplishment of complex, high-tech team tasks. Although a crucial aspect of F2F communication is the physical proximity of team members, studies that have explored the relationship between the design of the physical workplace and F2F communication have produced confl icting fi ndings. This paper reports the results of a fi eld study conducted at two R&D sites of a large U.S. high technology and life sciences company; the results suggest that the typical space planning solution of simply moving people from closed offi ces to open cubicles does not in and of itself increase F2F communication. Rather, the level of F2F communication depends on the location of team members’ workstations within the overall confi guration of the space and the amount of space provided
to support collaboration opportunities, including both formal and informal spaces. Based on the results of the study, we offer suggestions for the layout and design of R&D workstations to foster productive F2F encounters. KEYWORDS: R&D teams , Collaboration , Workplace design , Face-to-face communication 52 | Research-Technology Management Facilitating Face-to- Face Communication However, unlike electronic mediums of communication, F2F communication requires an actual physical place for peo- ple to meet to exchange information. In this context, it is clear that careful consideration must be given to the physical design of R&D facilities in order to facilitate productive F2F interac- tions and to ensure that capital investments in new and up- graded facilities deliver their full value. This is a signifi cant consideration for senior management. On average, the value of facilities and real estate accounts for 25 percent of all Fortune 500 company assets, and organizational occupancy costs rank second in fi rm costs, behind only worker compensation and benefi ts ( Berry 1996 ). A facility designed to encourage
interac- tions among colleagues can help deliver on that investment. With that in mind, we set out to study how the layout and design of physical workspaces, including such factors as worker proximity (usually referred to as “headcount den- sity” in the literature), workstation openness and visibility, and proximity to shared spaces (referred to in the literature as “collaboration opportunity”) may shape patterns of F2F communication. Background: Physical Structure Research Early physical structure research focused on two issues: the proximity of organizational members and the dynamics and consequences of relocating organizational members from the traditional closed offi ce to open workstations. Concerning proximity of communication partners, the fi ndings have been clear: the probability of F2F communication between two people is inversely related to the distance separating them. Specifi cally, Allen (1977) has shown that the probabil- ity of F2F communication between two people is greatest when they are located within 10 meters of each other and declines to an asymptotic level after about 25 meters of sepa- ration. However, although the probability of F2F communi- cation declines with distance from communication partner,
proximity does not guarantee that F2F communication will actually take place. Moenaert and Caeldries (1996) found no reported increase in the quantity of F2F communication with colleagues after a relocation and consolidation of R&D per- sonnel, while Hatch (1985) found a negative correlation be- tween the proximity of organizational members and the quantity of time spent in F2F work activities. Concerning open versus closed offi ces and workstations, architects and interior designers predicted that more open workstation designs would promote communication ( Davis 1984 ), but actual fi eld studies provided confl icting fi nd- ings. Allen (1977) found that “among the members of the The probability of F2F communication between two people is inversely related to the distance separating them. experimental department [for engineers who spoke with one another at a frequency of once a week or more] communica- tion increased signifi cantly both in terms of the number of communications per person and in number of individuals with whom the average engineer communicated” when an
open workstation format was implemented (279). However, Sundstrom, Burt, and Kamp (1980) found that after a move from closed offi ce to open workstations “practically no rela- tionship was found at all between architectural accessibility and social interaction among co-workers” (113). More recent studies have looked at the overall layout and design of the workplace. For example, studies by Spiliopoulou and Penn (1999) and Boutellier et. al. (2008) found that people occupying workstations adjacent to highly traveled corridors or public spaces reported signifi cantly more F2F communication compared to workers occupying worksta- tions more distant from main routes of circulation. Key Variables in Workplace Design To address the mixed results and confl icting fi ndings of previ- ous research, this study addresses the research question of how physical workplace design can facilitate F2F communi- cation, focusing on the two variables that are most often considered when designing the workplace to facilitate com- munication—open versus closed workstations and head- count density, where headcount density refers to the number of organizational members within a given proximity to each other.
To examine the impact of physical design, usually concep- tualized as an opposition between closed offi ces and open workspaces, we adopted a slightly different perspective, dis- tinguishing between high-visibility and low-visibility work- stations. This variable was introduced to allow exploration of the notion that visibility within the overall layout of the workspace drives team F2F communication, rather than the physical characteristics of closed offi ces versus open, low- walled workstations. Further, when considering the impor- tance of headcount density to foster F2F communication, it was not clear that previous research always distinguished be- tween team and non-team communication. We therefore examined the relationship between the numbers of workers located in close proximity to one another while carefully controlling for team membership. Finally, this study introduces and explores a new variable not previously considered within the context of physical structure research: the effect of collaboration opportunity on F2F communication, where collaboration opportunity is de- fi ned as the number of formal and informal meeting places for F2F communication available within the workplace ( Stryker 2004 ).
Headcount Density. Headcount density, or the number of organizational members located within close proximity to one another, is among the most studied variables in work- place design. Based on Allen’s (1977) research, close proxim- ity is defi ned as members located within 10 meters. Similar to research fi ndings with regard to workstation barriers and en- closures, the fi ndings concerning the relationship between Facilitating Face-to-Face Communication January—February 2012 | 53 headcount density and F2F communication have been con- tradictory ( Hatch 1985 ; Moenaert and Caeldries 1996 ). In reviewing the research literature on headcount density, we noted that previous studies did not always distinguish be- tween team and non-team F2F communication. Previous re- search (e.g., Tushman 1979 ) has shown that R&D team members have a high need to communicate F2F due to the complexity and non-routine nature of their research tasks. Therefore, in this study, we specifi cally focused on the rela- tionship between team membership and headcount density to further tease out this issue and ascertain its possible effect
on F2F communication. Workstation Visibility. Elsbach and Pratt’s recent re- view (2008) of the literature on workplace design notes that the relationship between barriers and enclosures and F2F communication is one of the most studied workplace design features. The traditional argument has been that the in- creased visibility afforded workers by open workstation de- sign promotes serendipitous meetings and therefore encourages F2F communication. However, as noted above, research examining these variables has produced confl icting fi ndings. This inconsistency may stem from a key variable in the physical design of the workspace that has been overlooked: the visibility of the offi ce or workstation within the overall layout of the facility’s design. In preparing for this study, we visited two research sites to observe the interactions of R&D team members. Over time, it became evident that the type of workstation—open cubicle workstation versus closed of- fi ce—was only one factor affecting F2F communication. An- other key element was the location of the workstation and its position in relation to main routes of circulation. For exam- ple, at one of the research sites, some closed offi ces with glass walls were located directly along the main building corridor,
providing high visibility to their occupants and to those pass- ing by, thereby facilitating F2F communication. Other offi ces were located away from this main corridor, behind the indi- vidual research laboratory; these locations provided their oc- cupants a relatively low level of visibility and therefore less opportunity to interact. Similarly, at the other research site, some workstations were clearly visible from the main corri- dor and the open public atrium, while others were across a hallway and much less visible from public spaces, providing less opportunity for F2F interaction and communication. From these preliminary fi eld observations we surmised that it was not just the openness of the workstation that may affect team member visibility and provide more opportunity for F2F communication, but rather the combination of work- station openness and the overall layout of the building that creates opportunities for F2F communication. This combina- tion of openness and location, therefore, became a key focus of this study. Collaboration Opportunity. Finally, in this study we explore a new physical design variable, collaboration oppor- tunity ( Stryker 2004 ). In a classic study of residents of an apartment complex, Festinger, Schacter, and Back (1950) found that the design of an apartment complex promoted
We surmised that it was not just the openness of the workstation that may provide more opportunity for F2F communication but the combination of workstation openness and the overall layout of the building. social interaction through the placement of common use fa- cilities such as stairways, elevators, and laundry rooms along corridors and public paths of circulation. These common use facilities acted as “centers of gravity” ( Allen and Henn 2007 ), attracting people and thereby increasing the opportunity for and likelihood of interaction. Applying this concept to the R&D work environment, we explored the idea that the design of the workplace could fa- cilitate communication by providing specifi c shared space destinations that act as centers of gravity, drawing organiza- tional team members and thus increasing the likelihood of
F2F interaction and communication and thereby presenting increased opportunities for collaboration. Collaboration op- portunity is defi ned as specifi c places within the physical lay- out that encourage people to gather and includes formal spaces such as conference rooms and meeting rooms as well as informal meeting places such as coffee areas, copy rooms, stairways, elevator lobbies, and bathrooms. Research Setting and Study Participants To explore our research question, “How can the physical workplace be designed to facilitate F2F communication?”, this study considered the design and layout of R&D laborato- ries at two different sites of a major life sciences company. The research director at Site 1 had recently been the lead scientist in the design of a new R&D laboratory at that site, and he was interested in fi nding out if the design of the facil- ity actually promoted team communication. He recom- mended that the research director at Site 2 and his team join the study in order to add participants, since the two locations have substantially similar populations. Statistical analyses found no signifi cant differences in demographic data be- tween sites 1 and 2 with respect to participant age, tenure with the fi rm, level of education, gender, sociability index, or managerial level.
Moreover, although both sites are new-product R&D sites that engage in similar types of activities, the physical layout of the facilities at these two campuses are very different and offer strongly contrasting physical designs. Site 1 is a recently completed R&D laboratory at the company’s corporate head- quarters; it is a three-story facility housing state-of-the-art laboratories, offi ces, and open workstations oriented around an open, sky-lit atrium. Open workstations and four 54 | Research-Technology Management Facilitating Face-to- Face Communication glass-walled offi ces surround the atrium on each fl oor. Other features of the design include a coffee bar, three glass-walled meeting rooms, and an informal break area located at the end of the atrium. The research laboratories at Site 2 are housed on the sec- ond fl oor of a combined offi ce, laboratory, and warehouse facility constructed in the 1920s. The laboratory fl oor has a series of labs and offi ces in the center of the fl oor surrounded by a loop corridor. The offi ces are separated from the labs by a glass wall. On the other side of the main loop corridor are
another series of laboratories with the lab offi ces located along the exterior wall of the building. The break area for lab employees is located on the third fl oor, as are the toilets; a large cafeteria and common meeting rooms are located on the eighth fl oor of the building. In summary, the two research sites were selected because, although they are both R&D sites within the same company and the researchers employed at these sites have similar backgrounds, experiences, and tasks to accomplish, the two sites provide contrasting physical workspace designs and very different headcount density and collaboration opportu- nity factors. Data Collection Observational data was gathered during numerous trips to both sites, during which the researchers walked the facilities, observed researcher interactions at various times of the day, and in general became familiar with the facility operations. To gather data regarding F2F interactions, volunteers from among the staff at each site were asked to complete a 43-item questionnaire that asked for information about both demo- graphic and social structure control variables. Items on the questionnaire were designed to assess such factors as leader-
ship styles, individual sociability, and team rewards, as well as to gather data regarding position (managerial vs. non- managerial) and such demographic factors as age, education, and tenure with the fi rm. Participants also identifi ed the location of their worksta- tions on an architectural fl oor plan of the site; this allowed the research team to gather additional information about headcount density, workstation visibility, and collaboration opportunity. • Headcount Density. For the purposes of this study, headcount density was defi ned as the number of persons who occupy a workstation within a 10-meter radius of the target individual’s primary workstation. A 10-meter radius was selected since prior research ( Allen 1977 ) has shown that the highest probability for F2F communica- tion occurs within 10 meters of a person’s workstation. • Workstation Visibility . At Site 1, open workstations and closed offi ces located adjacent to the atrium are highly visible to all occupants of all three laboratory fl oors, whether from the open stair in the center of the atrium, the atrium corridor, or the break areas at the end
of the atrium. These were therefore identifi ed as high- visibility workstations. Workstations located across the inner corridor, adjacent to the laboratories, are less visi- ble, especially from the break areas and the bridges cross- ing the atrium; these were therefore identifi ed as low-visibility workstations. At Site 2, offi ces located in the center of the fl oor directly along the main circulation corridor were identifi ed as high-visibility workstations. Other offi ces located along the exterior walls of the building and separated from the main corridor by the laboratory were identifi ed as low- visibility workstations. • Collaboration Opportunity. Collaboration opportu- nity was defi ned as the number of formal or informal contact places located within a 25-meter radius of the target individual’s workstation. That radius was chosen because, as noted above, Allen (1977) has shown that the probability of F2F communication diminishes to an asymptotic level after approximately 25 meters. Contact places counted included formally designated meeting spaces such as conference rooms and meeting rooms as well as informal gathering places such as coffee bars, re-
strooms, copy rooms, mailboxes, supply closets, vending machines, elevators, and stairways. After completing the initial questionnaire, participants were sent a web-based questionnaire 2–3 times each week on randomly selected days for 8 weeks. The web-based ques- tionnaire asked participants to a) identify whom they had met in F2F communication that day, b) indicate whether that person was a team member or non-team member, and c) identify where that communication took place (their work- station, the other person’s workstation, formal conference room or meeting room, informal meeting room or break area, passing in the corridor, or other). Although the quality of F2F communication is at least as important as its quantity, we counted all F2F communica- tions in this study. This decision was motivated by two key considerations. First, early research in this area ( Zajonc 1968 ) has shown that all types of workplace F2F communication promote personal attraction and team cohesion by encourag- ing feelings of familiarity, similarity, and shared affect, and recent research on R&D teams ( Beal et al. 2003 ) has demon- strated that cohesive teams performed team tasks more
effi ciently—especially the team tasks that require close coor- dination and communication, like R&D tasks. Second, senior R&D managers at the research sites were interested in deter- mining the extent to which the physical design of the labo- ratory work place facilitated all types of F2F communication. Results Results revealed signifi cant differences in levels of F2F com- munications based on location and headcount density; whether employees worked in open workstations versus closed offi ces seemed to have less effect ( Table 1 ). Occupants of high-visibility workstations and occupants in high headcount-density layouts reported signifi cantly more team F2F communication than low-visibility, low headcount- density workstation layouts. Further, occupants with high Facilitating Face-to-Face Communication January—February 2012 | 55 collaboration opportunity reported signifi cantly more team F2F communication than those in low collaboration-oppor- tunity workstations. We found no signifi cant difference in the level of F2F communication between high-visibility open
workstations and high-visibility closed offi ces, suggesting that visibility was the overriding factor that infl uenced team communication, rather than the type of workstation. How- ever, for low-visibility workstations, we found signifi cantly more team F2F communication in open workstations com- pared to closed offi ces. Specifi cally, respondents occupying high-visibility work- stations reported 59 percent more F2F team communication than those in low-visibility workstations (Table 1). In high- visibility work locations, there was no signifi cant difference in F2F communication between open, low-walled workstations and closed offi ces. In low-visibility situations, respondents in open, low-walled workstations reported 51 percent more team F2F communication than occupants of closed offi ces. Respondents in high headcount-density workstation lay- outs (average 16 persons within a 10-meter radius) reported 84 percent more F2F team communication than workers in low headcount-density layouts (average 4 persons within 10 meters). Respondents occupying workstations with high collabora- tion opportunity (average 22 formal or informal meeting places within 25 meters) reported 102 percent more F2F
team communication than those located in workstations with low collaboration opportunity (average 4 formal or in- formal meeting places). Discussion Many studies (e.g., Tushman 1979 ; Santoro and Saparito 2003 ) have shown that facilitating team F2F communica- tions, particularly among knowledge workers such as high- tech R&D staff, plays a critical role in accomplishing complex team tasks such as advancing knowledge and new technolo- gies. The results of this study highlight some key factors that bring much-needed clarity to the question of just how to ac- complish that goal. Previous studies did not consider workstation location and visibility in the overall context of the layout of the facility. This study found that workstation visibility—not whether a person was in a closed offi ce or an open cubicle—was a key factor in facilitating F2F communication; in high-visibility locations, there was no signifi cant difference in F2F communication for open versus closed workspaces. In lower- visibility work locations, however, the question of open ver- sus closed workspaces becomes more signifi cant; R&D workers in low-visibility locations reported signifi cantly
more team F2F communication when they worked in open, low walled workstations compared with closed offi ces. This study also found that team F2F communication was signifi cantly greater when team members were located in high-density work areas (average 16 persons within 10 me- ters) with a large number of informal meeting places located nearby (average 22 formal and informal meeting places within 25 meters). These fi ndings suggest that common-use features in the workplace may have a similar “center of grav- ity” effect as was observed in common-use facilities in a resi- dential apartment complex ( Festinger, Schacter, and Back 1950 ). Just as common-use areas in residential apartment complexes draw residents together, common-use areas in the workplace appear to attract and encourage team F2F interaction. What these fi ndings suggest is that to facilitate team F2F communication, workstations should be designed to be as highly visible as possible, placed adjacent to main routes of circulation, open atria, or other similar centers of gravity. Clearly, not all workstations can be located along main cor- ridors or in other high-visibility locations. Our data suggest that open workstations with low partitions and no doors can help offset the disadvantages of lower-visibility areas, since
they help facilitate increased team F2F communication in these areas. This fi nding may be of particular interest to R&D managers located in older facilities in need of renovation. In considering facility renovations, converting some of the tra- ditional, closed offi ces to open, low-walled workstations and providing increased informal meeting places offer one way to increase team F2F communication and collaboration. TABLE 1 . F2F Team Communication Results Differences in F2F Communication N=2095 F2F communication events over eight-week test period 1 High-visibility workstations compared to low-visibility workstations a +59% a 2 Open workstations compared to closed offi ces in high- visibility locations No signifi cant difference 3 Open workstations compared to closed offi ces in low- visibility locations +51% a 4 High headcount density compared to low headcount density(16 persons within 10 meters versus 4 persons) +84% a
5 High collaboration opportunity compared to low collaboration opportunity(22 places for formal or informal meetings within 25 meters versus 4) +102% a Results signifi cant @ p< 0.05 a To test for a potential self-selection bias for workstation visibility, we looked at age, level of education, gender, level of managerial responsibility, level of sociability, and tenure with the company and found no signifi cant differences between occupants of high-visibility workstations compared with low-visibility workstations. In high-visibility locations, there was no signifi cant difference in F2F communication for open versus closed workspaces. 56 | Research-Technology Management Facilitating Face-to-
Face Communication We acknowledge that the generalizability of these results may be somewhat … Your Company Name Your Company Name Budget Proposal for [enter years here] BUSN278 [Term] Professor[name] DeVry University
Table of Contents Section Title Subsection Title Page Number1.0Executive Summary 2.0Sales Forecast 2.1Sales Forecast 2.2Methods and Assumptions 3.0Capital Expenditure Budget 4.0Investment Analysis
4.1Cash Flows 4.2NPV Analysis 4.3Rate of Return Calculations 4.4Payback Period Calculations 5.0Pro Forma Financial Statements 5.1Pro Forma Income Statement 5.2Pro Forma Balance Sheet 5.3Pro Forma Cash Budget 6.0Works Cited
7.0Appendices 7.1Appendix 1: [description] 7.2Appendix 2: [description] (Please put page numbers in the last column of the table of contents above, because they apply to your finished assignment. Do this after your project is complete. Remove this text and all text that is in italics in this template when finished with your project.) (Also, please submit your Excel spreadsheet that shows your supporting calculations.) 1.0 Executive Summary
The first paragraph of this executive summary should give a brief description of the business to which this budget applies. Very briefly describe the products and services of this company, the geography or demographics of the customers it serves, and why people purchase the main product of this business. Much or all of this information will be found in the business profile provided to you. Please use your own words, and please do not simply copy and paste the explanation in the course materials. Make assumptions if necessary. Also, provide a second paragraph that describes how the budget supports the company’s strategy. Finally, provide a third paragraph in which you summarize the key points from your budget, including the planning horizon; the amount of up-front investment; the NPV, payback, and IRR of the project; and key figures from your income statement, cash budget, and balance sheet. Remember, this is not a thesis or introduction of what you will talk about—it contains the major, specific content of each section. The second and third paragraphs should be written after you have completed all other sections of this template.
As you complete sections of this template, please remove all italicized text in all sections of this template and replace it with your own text or you will lose points! 2.0 Sales Forecast Briefly introduce the sales forecast section. 2.1 Sales Forecast Here you should include a simple table showing the years and the total sales for each year, along with a brief explanation of why sales are expected to rise, fall, change, or stay the same in certain years. Provide a brief explanation of the sales forecast, indicating why you expect sales to rise or fall during the planning horizon. Your explanation should be consistent with the trends and changes in sales found in your table. Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Sales
2.2 Methods and Assumptions Here you should describe how you arrived at your sales forecast in section 2.1. You should provide any detailed calculations that led you to the sales forecast values. You should also summarize any research or figures that led you to make this sales forecast. 3.0 Capital Expenditure Budget Here you should provide a screenshot of your capital expenditure budget, also listing the sources of data and assumptions that led to each line item in table format. Briefly describe the total investment and, if necessary, why major items are necessary to achieve the company’s strategy. 4.0 Investment Analysis
Briefly describe the NVP, IRR, accounting rate of return, and payback period for this analysis. Indicate the discount rate you used and how you arrived at it.4.1 Cash flows Provide an Excel spreadsheet screenshot that shows how you arrived at the net cash flows for each period in your planning horizon, and describe its highlights. 4.2 NPV Analysis Provide a screenshot of your Excel NPV analysis here, and describe its highlights. 4.3 Rate of Return Provide a screenshot of your IRR and accounting rate of return calculations here, and explain the highlights.4.4 Payback Period Provide a screenshot of your Excel calculation of the payback period for this venture. 5.0 Pro forma Financial Statements Briefly introduce this section here.5.1 Pro Forma Income Statement Describe key figures and assumptions from the income statement, such as important profit or sales figures and their
causes. Also, provide a screenshot of your pro forma income statement. 5.2 Pro Forma Balance Sheets Provide a screenshot of your balance sheets and describe key figures they contain. 5.3 Pro Forma Cash Budget Provide a screenshot of the cash budget and describe the impact of the budget on cash balances. 6.0 Works Cited List any sources you cited in the body of your report. 7.0 Appendices NOTE: Start this section at the top of a new page. This section of the budget proposal is where you’ll attach all of the supporting materials that you’ve referenced in the preparation of your plan and that is too detailed or extensive to be included in the body of the report. Use this page to separate the appendices from the text in the body of your report. Make certain that you update the table of contents to include the title of each exhibit in the appendix and its page number.7.1
Appendix 1: [put a description here]7.2 Appendix 1: [put a description here]7.3 Appendix 1: [put a description here] Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 BUSN278 Course Project Overview This is an individual project where you’ll be acting as a consultant to an en- trepreneur who wants to start a new business. As the consultant, you’ll create a 5 year budget that supports the entrepreneur’s vision and strategy and needs for equipment labor and other startup costs. You can choose from one of three types of new business
startups -- a landscap- ing company, a restaurant, or an electronics store that sells portable computing devices. Each business has its own Business Profile detailed in the below sec- tions. The purpose of the Business Profile is to guide you in understanding the scope of the business, the entrepreneur’s startup costs, and financial assump- tions. The project requires you to create a written budget proposal, a supporting Ex- cel Workbook showing your calculations, as well as a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the key elements of the budget proposal, which you assume will be presented to a management team. This is an individual project. Each week you will complete a section of the project in draft form. In Week 7, you will submit the Final version of the project’s Budget Proposal, Budget Workbook. In Week 8 you will present and
defend your budget. Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx1 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Deliverables Schedule / Points Business Profile: Papa Geo’s Restaurant Vision The vision of the entrepreneur is to create a single-location, sit- down Italian
restaurant called Papa Geo’s. The goal is to generate an income of $40,000 per year, starting sometime in the second year of operation, as wells as profit that is at least 2% of sales. Strategy a) Market Focus/Analysis The restaurant targets middle to lower-middle class families with children as well as adults and seniors, located in Orlando, Florida. The area within 15 minutes of the store has 10,000 families, mostly from lower to middle class neighborhoods. Average family size is 4 people per household. There is no di- rect competition; however, there are fast food restaurants like McDonald’s, Taco Bell and Wendy’s in the geographical target market. The lower-to middle class population is growing at about 6% per year over the next five years in this area. Week Deliverable Points
Draft Sections 1 Section 1.0 Executive Summary 10 2 Section 2.0: Sales forecast 10 3 Section 3.0 : Capital Expenditure Budget 10 4 Section 4.0 Investment Analysis 10 5 Sections 5.1 and 5.2: Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance Sheet 10 6 Section 5.3 Pro Forma Cash Flow statements 10 Final Deliverables 7 Final Budget Proposal 150 8 Final Presentation w/ PowerPoint 60
Total project points 270 Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx2 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 b) Product The product is Italian food served buffet style, in an all-you- can-eat format, with a salad bar, pizza, several different types of pasta with three or four types of sauces, soup, desserts and self-serve soda bar. The restaurant
is also to have a 500 square foot games area which has game machines that children would be interested in using. c) Basis of Competition Customers come to come to this restaurant because of the good Italian food at a low price – where you can get a meal for $7 including drinks. Customers also eat at Papa Geo’s due to the cleanliness of the facility, the speed of getting their seat and food, as well as the vending machines which keep the children busy while adults enjoy their meal. Startup Requirements* Given Costs The cost of registering a Limited Liability Company in Florida, filing fees listed at the bottom of the application form located at http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/ cr2e047.pdf Renovation of the facility expected to cost $15000
Business Insurance, estimated at $1000 per year Health and other benefits are 20% of the salaries of the manager and assistant manager Costs you should estimate through research, experience or other methods • Soda Fountain Bar • 2 Pizza Ovens • Salad and Pizza/Dessert Bar • Approximately 100 square foot commercial refrigerator • 2 cash registers • 6 Video Game vending machines • Average of 6 staff members at any given time • Management Office with desk, lower-priced laptop computer • Staff lunchroom equipment such as microwave, sink, cupboards and re- frigerator Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or
used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx3 10 http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 • 20 four-seater tables with chairs • Busing cart for transporting dirty dishes from the dining area to the dishwashing area • 140 sets of dishes, cutlery and drinking cups • Commercial Dishwasher • Miscellaneous cooking and food handling equipment like trays, lifters,
spoons, pots etcetera • The cost of an average of 7 employees on the payroll. • All operating costs, such as advertising, rent for a 3500 square foot facil- ity with male and female washrooms, already installed, utilities, main- tenance, and annual depreciation. *if you have questions about startup requirements, or think other startup costs are necessary for the business are missing, then make an assumption and state it in the relevant section of the report. Given Financial Assumptions* • The owner will be granted a loan for the initial startup, repayable over 10 years at current interest rates for small business loans • The owner will use personal funds to operate the business until it gener- ates enough cash flow to fund itself.
• Essentially, all sales are made by credit card. All credit card sales are a paid to the restaurant daily by the credit card company • 2.5% of sales is paid to a credit card company in fees • Food suppliers give 30 days of trade credit • Inventories are expected to be approximately 10% of the following month’s sales • The average meal costs $4.00 in materials and labor. • The average family spends $4.00 on vending machine tokens • Equipment is depreciated on a straight-line basis over 5 years • Managers have health benefits, other workers do not. The company will operate from 10:00 am to 9 pm, 7 days a week. • The entrepreneur will manage the store and draw a salary. Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and
retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx4 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 • Every shift has one person on the cash register, one keeping the food bars stocked with food, and one on busing and table cleaning, a manager and assistant manager. *If you believe any other assumptions are necessary, then please state them in your budget proposal Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or
used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx5 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Business Profile: The Cutting Edge Landscaping Vision The vision of the entrepreneur is to create a 5-team landscaping business that caters to upscale neighborhoods in Miami, Florida. The company is to be called “The Cutting Edge”. The goal of the entrepreneur is to generate income of at least $42,000 per year as his personal salary, as well as profits of 4% after tax sometime no later than the second year of operation. The
entrepreneur in- tends to buy a route of 100 homes from a lawn service company whose owner is retiring. Strategy a) Market Focus/Analysis The landscaping business targets upscale neighborhoods with home associations which demand lawns to be manicured and well-cared for. Customers tend to be upper middle, to upper-class individuals with household income levels of $110,000 or more. The geographic focus is Miami and its surrounding area. The area is expected to showing slow economic growth of about 1% per year over the next five years. b) Product The product is lawn maintenance and landscaping services as well as minor irri- gation equipment repair. The primary source of income is expected to be in the form of lawn-cutting, debris-blowing, and edge trimming
services. Howev- er, the company will also do reseeding, landscaping and foliage/tree planting, tree trimming and light irrigation system repair when necessary to keep their customer’s lawns watered and healthy. c) Basis of Competition Customers hire the Cutting Edge due to its reliability in showing up when they are supposed to, quality lawn service, as well as their ability to keep lawn sprinkler systems in good repair, sparing the homeowner of the inconvenience of calling a sprinkler repair for minor repairs such as broken or clogged sprin- kler heads, or other minor sprinkler system repairs. Startup Requirements* Given Costs The cost of registering a Limited Liability Company in Florida, filing fees listed at the bottom of the application form located at http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/
cr2e047.pdf Business Insurance, estimated at $1000 per year No health benefits except for the owner of the business Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx6 10 http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Workman’s compensation fees The cost of the initial route of 100 homes, at a cost of $120,000
Costs you should estimate through research, experience or other methods • Team equipment for lawn cutting, which includes equipment for a two- person team: • A pickup truck • A trailer • A large riding lawnmower • A smaller riding lawnmower • A push lawn-mower • Two gas-powered lawn-trimmers • Two gas-powered lawn edgers • Safety equipment for eyes and ear protection • Tools for minor equipment repair on the job • A drink cooler • 2 gas powered blowers • 2 tree/hedge trimmers • 2 long ladder • Buck Saws for cutting branches • The cost of 10 workers, two per team • All operating costs such as advertising, phone, as well a small 400 square
foot office complete with utilities, internet a laptop computer and ac- counting software like QuickBooks, as well as office supplies, as well as annual depreciation on equipment. *if you have questions about startup requirements, or think other startup costs are necessary for the business are missing, then make an assumption and state it in the relevant section of the report. This list is not necessarily complete. Given Financial Assumptions* • The owner will be granted a loan for the initial startup, repayable over 10 years at current interest rates for small business loans • The owner will use personal funds to operate the business until it gener- ates enough cash flow to fund itself. Copyright ®© 2018
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx7 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 • Essentially, 60% sales are made by credit card and 40% are made by check. All credit card sales are a paid to the restaurant daily by the credit card company. • 2.5% of sales is paid to a credit card company in fees • The average lawn service costs $150 per month. Irrigation repairs are
minimal at an average of $50 per customer per year, landscaping and other services are about $200 per customer per year. • Equipment is depreciated on a straight-line basis over 5 years • The owner has health benefits, other workers do not. • Each lawn takes about 1.5 hours to cut and manicure, as well as any other repairs or extra services like tree or shrub trimming. • The entrepreneur will manage the company and draw a salary, but will not service lawns or perform other services. *If you believe any other assumptions are necessary, then please state them in your budget proposal Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx8 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Business Profile: Wireless World - Wireless Device Retail Store Vision The vision of the entrepreneur is to create a single-location retail operation that sells portable wireless devices called Wireless World. The company sells phones, wireless eBook readers, high-end notebook and netbook computers, iPads, and other wireless computing devices. Strategy a) Market Focus/Analysis This store targets tech-savvy individuals who are mostly
students from wealthy families or working adults between the ages of 22 and 49 years of age. These individuals either purchase the products because they love wireless gadgets, think the gadgets will improve their productivity, or think the wireless gadgets are fashionable and consistent with their lifestyle. The store is located in a high-end shopping center called Millennia Mall alongside Neiman Marcus, Macy’s and other high-end stores. b) Product Products are cutting edge wireless devices from brand name companies, as well as specialty companies that have unique products that are not readily available at other stores. c) Basis of Competition Customers shop at the store partly for the high-end shopping experience, knowledgeable staff, and superior customer service and return policies, and
because of the broad selection of well-known, brand-name products, as well as lesser known companies with highly unique and innovative wireless devices. They also shop at the store because it is stocked with cutting edge products that are new to the market. Startup Requirements* Given Costs The cost of registering a Limited Liability Company in Florida, filing fees listed at the bottom of the application form located at http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Renovation of the facility expected to cost $25000 Business Insurance, estimated at $1000 per year Health and other benefits are 20% of the salaries of the manager and assistant manager Initial Investment in Inventory is $20,000 Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx9 10 http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Costs you should estimate through research, experience or other methods • The cost of an average of 7 employees on the payroll. All operating costs, such as advertising, rent for a 3500 square foot facility with male and fe- male washrooms, already installed, utilities, maintenance, and annual de- preciation. *if you have questions about startup requirements, or think
other startup costs are necessary for the business are missing, then make an assumption and state it in the relevant section of the report. Given Financial Assumptions* • The owner will be granted a loan for the initial startup, repayable over 10 years at current interest rates for small business loans • The owner will use personal funds to operate the business until it generates enough cash flow to fund itself. • Essentially, all sales are made by credit card. All credit card sales are a paid to the store daily by the credit card company • 2.5% of sales is paid to a credit card company in fees • Merchandise suppliers give 30 days of trade credit • Inventories are expected to be approximately 10% of the following month’s sales • Managers have health benefits, other workers do not. • The company will operate from 10:00 am to 9 pm, 6 days a week.
• The entrepreneur will manage the store and draw a salary. *If you believe any other assumptions are necessary, then please state them in your budget proposal Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx10 10 Export SummaryThis document was exported from Numbers. Each table was converted to an Excel worksheet. All other objects on each Numbers sheet were placed on separate worksheets. Please be aware that formula calculations may differ in Excel.Numbers Sheet NameNumbers Table NameExcel
Worksheet NameInstructionsTable 1Instructions2.1 & 2.2 Sales ForecastTable 12.1 & 2.2 Sales Forecast3.0 Capital Expenditure BudgetTable 13.0 Capital Expenditure Budget4.1 CashflowsTable 14.1 Cashflows4.2 NPV AnalysisTable 14.2 NPV Analysis4.3 Rate of Return CalculationsTable 14.3 Rate of Return Calculations4.4 Payback Period CalculationsTable 14.4 Payback Period Calculations5.0 Pro Forma FinancialsTable 15.0 Pro Forma Financials InstructionsBUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Template InstructionsUse this spreadsheet structure to lay out the various sections of your project.The purpose of this spreadsheet is to make it easy for your professor to locate the various sections of your project. Please don't alter the worksheet tabs or titles.After you finish your calculations in this spreadsheet, you will have tocreate a written report in which you take screenshots from this spreadsheetand put them in the Budget Proposal Template, along with necessary explanations. Detailed instructions for how to write the reportare found in the Budget Proposal Template, a Word document. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 2.1 & 2.2 Sales ForecastPut your sales forecasting calculations here. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P
3.0 Capital Expenditure Budget &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.1 CashflowsPut your detailed cash inflows and cash outflows here, also showing net cash flow. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.2 NPV AnalysisCreate an NPV analysis here. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.3 Rate of Return CalculationsShow your rate of return calculations in this worksheet. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.4 Payback Period CalculationsShow your payback period calculations here. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 5.0 Pro Forma FinancialsPut your pro forma income statement, balance sheet, and cash budget here, along with any other supporting calculations or schedules. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P
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Running head PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 1PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 2.docx

  • 1. Running head: PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 1 PAPA GEO’S RESTAURANT 2 Business Objectives May 10, 2020 Papa Geo’s Restaurant needs to be competitive and unveil marketing crusades to protect their returns in the business. However, it is guided by typical objectives in the marketing plan. The first objective of the restaurant is ensuring customer satisfaction and loyalty. The target market entails about 10,000 families which is a totality of lower to middle class clients with zero direct competition. However, the customers’ satisfaction is determined the customer’s loyalty to the restaurant especially due to the services that they receive. The restaurant wins the customers through the good Italian food of low price. Stunning cleanliness of the restaurant is welcoming and eye catching which applies to both the foods served and the environment. Generation of the restraint traffic will impact the Restaurant towards success. The restaurant will cultivate a customer base such as having demanding lunchtimes and dinner services through intensive marketing. It will achieve this through weekly and monthly promotions as the marketing strategies. The restaurant needs to attain their financial goals. The objective is to meet the financial income goal of $40000 annually. At the starting of the second year the company expects to attain a minimum of 2% profits of the sales. The main objective of the restaurant is profitability. It is attainable with the managerial ability to achieve the weekly goals
  • 2. especially through cost reduction with profitability growth concurrently.The restaurant needs to develop a restaurant brand. As the restaurant grows successfully, it will improve it’s place in the local market and toughen the brand. The quality of the food served has a great influence on the restaurant branding. The company purposes to cook using healthy products and use the brand to win new customers. Making the teaM: a guide for Managers S i x t h E d i t i o n Leigh L. Thompson Kellogg School of Management Northwestern University 330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 1 10/31/16 8:03 PM Vice President, Business Publishing: Donna Battista Director of Portfolio Management: Stephanie Wall Director, Courseware Portfolio Management: Ashley Dodge
  • 3. Senior Sponsoring Editor: Neeraj Bhalla Editorial Assistant: Lauren Russell Vice President, Product Marketing: Roxanne McCarley Director of Strategic Marketing: Brad Parkins Strategic Marketing Manager: Deborah Strickland Product Marketer: Becky Brown Field Marketing Manager: Lenny Ann Kucenski Product Marketing Assistant: Jessica Quazza Vice President, Production and Digital Studio, Arts and Business: Etain O’Dea Director of Production, Business: Jeff Holcomb Managing Producer, Business: Ashley Santora Operations Specialist: Carol Melville Creative Director: Blair Brown Manager, Learning Tools: Brian Surette Content Developer, Learning Tools: Lindsey Sloan Managing Producer, Digital Studio, Arts and Business: Diane Lombardo Digital Studio Producer: Monique Lawrence Digital Studio Producer: Darren Cormier Digital Studio Producer: Alana Coles Full-Service Project Management and Composition: SPi Global Interior Design: SPi Global Cover Design: Pam Verros Cover Art: © Paul Capobianco Printer/Binder: RRD Crawfordsville Cover Printer: Phoenix Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be ob-
  • 4. tained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its af- filiates in the U.S. and/or other countries. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks, logos, or icons that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners, and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, icons, or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Thompson, Leigh L., author. Title: Making the team : a guide for managers / Leigh L. Thompson, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University. Description: Sixth Edition. | New York : Pearson Education, 2016. | Revised edition of the author’s Making the team, [2014]
  • 5. Identifiers: LCCN 2016042609| ISBN 9780134484204 | ISBN 0134484207 Subjects: LCSH: Teams in the workplace. | Performance. | Leadership. | Organizational effectiveness. Classification: LCC HD66 .T478 2016 | DDC 658.4/022—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc. gov/2016042609 ISBN 10: 0-13-448420-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-448420-4 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 2 10/31/16 8:03 PM https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042609 https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042609 http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions For my home team: Bob, Sam, Ray, and Anna A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 3 10/31/16 8:03 PM BRIEF CONTENTS Part 1 Building the team 1 Chapter 1 Types of Teams 3 Chapter 2 Designing the Team 26 Chapter 3 Leading Teams 51 Chapter 4 Team Cohesion and Trust 82 Part 2 team Performance 109 Chapter 5 Performance and Productivity 111 Chapter 6 Team Communication and Collective Intelligence
  • 6. 133 Chapter 7 Team Decision Making 163 Chapter 8 Managing Team Conflict 196 Chapter 9 Creativity and Innovation in Teams 219 Part 3 teams in Organizations 249 Chapter 10 Subgroups and Multi-Teams 251 Chapter 11 Team Networking and Social Capital 275 Chapter 12 Virtual Teamwork 299 Chapter 13 Multicultural Teams 323 Appendix 1 Rewarding Teamwork 345 Appendix 2 Managing Meetings 361 Appendix 3 Creating Effective Study Groups 371 References 374 Name Index 434 Subject Index 449 iv A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 4 10/31/16 8:03 PM CONTENTS Preface xvii Part 1 Building the team 1 Chapter 1 tYPES OF tEaMS 3 Teams vs. Groups 4 Why Should Organizations Have Teams? 5 Information Technology 5
  • 7. Competition 6 Globalization and Culture 7 Multigenerational Teams 7 Task Focus 8 Tactical Teams 8 Problem-Solving Teams 9 Creative Teams 9 Types of Team Autonomy 12 Manager-Led Teams 12 Self-Managing Teams 13 Self-Directing Teams 15 Self-Governing Teams 15 Observations About Teams and Teamwork 16 Teams Should Be the Exception, Not the Rule 16 Managers Fault the Wrong Causes for Team Failure 17 Teams Require Attention 17 Experimenting with Failures Leads to Better Teams 17 Conflict is Not Always Detrimental 18 Strong Leadership is Not Always Necessary for Strong Teams 18 Good Teams Can Still Fail Under the Wrong Circumstances 18 Retreats Will Not Fix All the Conflicts Between Team Members 19 What Leaders Tell Us About Their Teams 20 Most Common Type of Team 20 Team Size 20 Team Autonomy versus Manager Control 20 Team Longevity 20 The Most Frustrating Aspect of Teamwork 20 v
  • 8. A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 5 10/31/16 8:03 PM vi Contents Developing Your Team-Building Skills 22 Accurate Diagnosis of Team Problems 22 Evidence-Based Management 23 Expert Learning 24 A Warning 24 Chapter Capstone 25 Chapter 2 DESIGNING tHE tEaM 26 Team Design 27 Define the Goal 27 Ends vs. Means 27 Performance vs. Learning Goals 28 Promotion vs. Prevention Goals 29 Goal fit 29 Pre-Planning vs. On-line Planning 30 Timelines and Time Pressure 30 Capacity Problems vs. Capability Problems 32 Selecting Team Members 32 Member-Initiated Team Selection 33 Optimal Team Size 33 Skills, Talents, and Abilities 35 Roles and Responsibilities 35 Diversity 38 Processes: How to Work Together 43 Task vs. Outcome Interdependence 43 Transition and Action Processes 45
  • 9. Structure 45 Norms 46 Team Coaching 48 Chapter Capstone 50 Chapter 3 LEaDING tEaMS 51 Leadership Versus Management 52 The Leadership Paradox 52 Leaders and the Nature–Nurture Debate 54 Trait Theories of Leadership 54 Incremental Theories of Leadership 57 Leadership Styles 58 Task Versus Person Leadership 59 Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership 60 A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 6 10/31/16 8:03 PM Contents vii Autocratic Versus Democratic Leadership 62 Leader Mood 65 Expectations of Leaders 66 Implicit Leadership Theories 66 Prototypicality 66 Status & Uncertainty 66 Leader–Member Exchange 68 Attributes that Influence Differential Treatment 68 Advantages of Differential Treatment 69 Disadvantages of Differential Treatment 70
  • 10. Power 70 Sources of Power 71 Power Distance 72 Using Power 73 Effects of Using Power 73 Participative Management 74 Task Delegation 77 Parallel Suggestion Involvement 77 Job Involvement 79 Organizational Involvement 79 Chapter Capstone 81 Chapter 4 tEaM COHESION aND trUSt 82 Team Identity 83 Group Entitativity 83 Group Identity 83 Identity Fusion 84 Common Identity and Common Bond Groups 84 Relational and Collective Identity 84 Self-verification vs. Group-verification 85 Team-Member Exchange 85 Group-serving Attributions 87 Group Potency and Collective Efficacy 87 Team Efficacy and Performance 87 Group Mood and Emotion 88 Group Affect and Performance 90 Emotional Contagion 90 Behavioral Entrainment 91 Emotional Nonconformity 92
  • 11. A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 7 10/31/16 8:03 PM Emotional Intelligence 92 Leadership and Group Emotion 92 Group Cohesion 94 Cohesion and Team Behavior 94 Cohesion and Performance 94 Building Cohesion in Groups 95 Fear of Social Exclusion 96 Group Trust 96 Trust vs. Respect 96 Trust & Monitoring 97 Trust Congruence 98 Propensity to Trust 98 Types of Trust 98 Repairing Broken Trust 100 Psychological Safety 100 Group Socialization & Turnover 101 Group Socialization 102 Phases of Group Socialization 102 Old-timers’ Reactions to Newcomers 105 Deviant Opinions 106 Newcomer Innovation 106 Turnover and Reorganizations 107 Chapter Capstone 108 Part 2 team Performance 109 Chapter 5 PErFOrMaNCE aND PrODUCtIVItY 111
  • 12. An Integrated Model of Team Performance 112 Team Context 112 Organizational Context 113 Team Design 113 Team Culture 113 Essential Conditions for Successful Team Performance 114 Expertise 115 Engagement 118 Execution 126 Performance Criteria 128 Productivity 128 viii Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 8 10/31/16 8:03 PM Cohesion 129 Learning 130 Integration 130 Team Performance Equation 131 Chapter Capstone 132 Chapter 6 tEaM COMMUNICatION aND COLLECtIVE INtELLIGENCE 133 Collaboration 134 Uneven Communication 134 Knowledge Specialization 135 Knowledge Sharing and Knowledge Hiding 135 Transforming Knowledge into
  • 13. Solution s 136 Experienced Community of Practice 136 Adaptive Capacity 137 Monitoring and Talking to the Room 137 Team Mental Models 137 Reflective vs. Reflexive Mental Models 138 Representational Gaps 138 Accuracy 139 Correspondence 140 Transactive Memory Systems 141 Centralized vs. Decentralized TMS 142 Differentiated vs. Integrated TMS 142 Tacit Coordination 143 Routine vs. Nonroutine Tasks 143 Resilience to Team Member Loss 144 Reaction to Free-Riding 144 Developing a TMS 144 Common Information Effect 148
  • 14. Hidden Profile 151 Ineffective Strategies 153 Effective Interventions 154 Team Learning 158 Environment 158 Newcomers and Rotators 158 Vicarious vs. In Vivo Experience 159 Threat, Change, and Failure 159 Contents ix A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 9 10/31/16 8:03 PM After-Action Review (AAR) 159 Routinization vs. Innovation Trade-Offs 159 Chapter Capstone 162 Chapter 7 tEaM DECISION MaKING 163 Team Decision Making 164 Individual Decision-Making Biases 164
  • 15. Framing Bias 165 Overconfidence 165 Confirmation Bias 167 Decision Fatigue 168 Individual Versus Group Decision Making 168 Demonstrable versus Non-Demonstrable Tasks 168 Groups Out-Perform Individuals 168 Group to Individual Transfer 169 Minorities versus Majorities 170 Group Decision Rules 170 Refusal to Make Decisions 172 Groupthink 172 Learning from History 174 Reducing Groupthink 174 Escalation of Commitment 178 Project Determinants 180 Psychological Determinants 180 Social Determinants 181 Structural Determinants 181 Minimizing Escalation of Commitment to a Losing Course of Action 182
  • 16. Abilene Paradox 183 How to Avoid the Abilene Paradox 184 Group Polarization 185 The Need to be Right 187 The Need to be Liked 187 Conformity Pressure 188 Unethical Decision Making 190 Rational Expectations Model 190 False Consensus 191 Vicarious Licensing 191 Desensitization 191 Chapter Capstone 195 x Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 10 10/31/16 8:03 PM Chapter 8 MaNaGING tEaM CONFLICt 196 Relationship, Task & Process Conflict 197
  • 17. Relationship Conflict 197 Task Conflict 199 Process Conflict 199 Impact on Performance 200 Personality & Conflict 202 Team Identification 202 Power & Conflict 202 Organizational Climate and Conflict 203 Global Culture and Conflict 203 Types of Conflict 204 Proportional and Perceptual Conflict 204 Conflict States vs. Conflict Processes 205 Conflict Contagion 205 Distributive vs. Procedural Conflict 205 Equity, Equality and Need 205 Minority and Majority Conflict 207 Work–Family Conflict 209 Organizational Culture Conflict 209 Conflict Management 209 Conflict Modes 209 Contingency Theory of Task Conflict and Performance in Teams 211 Investment Model of Conflict 212
  • 18. Wageman and Donnenfeld’s Conflict Intervention Model 214 Interests, Rights, and Power Model of Disputing 216 Chapter Capstone 217 Chapter 9 CrEatIVItY aND INNOVatION IN tEaMS 219 Nature vs. Nurture 220 Creativity Versus Innovation 221 Convergent versus Divergent Thinking 221 Radical versus Incremental Innovation 223 Creative Realism 224 Fluency, Flexibility, and Originality 226 Exploration versus Exploitation 227 Brainstorming Versus Brainwriting 228 Brainstorming 228 Brainstorming versus Nominal Group 229 Contents xi A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 11 10/31/16 8:03 PM
  • 19. Brainwriting 230 Speedstorming 231 Electronic Brainstorming 232 Threats to Team Creativity 233 Social Loafing 233 Conformity 234 Production Blocking 234 Performance Matching 235 What Goes on During a Typical Group Brainstorming Session? 236 Best Practices for Enhancing Team Creativity 236 Motivational Methods 236 Cognitive Methods 238 Facilitator-Led Methods 241 Leader and Organizational Methods 244 Chapter Capstone 247 Part 3 teams in Organizations 249 Chapter 10 SUBGrOUPS aND MULtI-tEaMS 251 Intergroup Relations 252
  • 20. In-Groups and Out-Groups 252 Social Comparison 252 Team Rivalry 253 In-group Bias 254 Transgression Credit 254 Subgroups 254 Size 255 Identity, Resource, and Knowledge Subgroups 255 Number of Groups 256 Impact on Performance 256 Faultlines 257 Status 259 Deference 261 Intragroup Deviance 261 Team Boundaries 261 Underbounded versus Overbounded Teams 261 Founding Teams 262 Informing, Parading, and Probing Teams 262 X-Teams 263 xii Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 12 10/31/16 8:03 PM
  • 21. Teams in Matrix Organizations 264 Cross-functional Teams 264 Multi-team Systems 264 Integration Between Teams 265 Integration Across Multiple Teams and Components of a Business Unit 266 Teamwork in Reorganizations & Mergers 267 Reorganizations 267 Mergers 267 Improving Interteam Relationships 269 Perspective Taking 269 Superordinate Identity 269 Contact 270 Apology 272 Assistance and Help 273 Affirmation 273 Chapter Capstone 274
  • 22. Chapter 11 tEaM NEtWOrKING aND SOCIaL CaPItaL 275 Taskwork and Teamwork 276 Taskwork vs. Teamwork 276 Taskwork and Teamwork Network Structures 276 Factors that Affect Networks 277 External Leadership 277 General vs. Differential 278 External Roles of Team Members 278 Organizational Networks 280 Sharing Knowledge 280 Insider vs. Outsider Knowledge Valuation 280 Human Capital and Social Capital 282 Boundary Spanning 284 Boundary Loosening Versus Boundary Tightening 285 Cliques Versus Entrepreneur Networks 285 Team Social Capital 287 Friendship, Trust, and Advice Ties 288 Leadership Ties 290 Increasing your Social Capital 292 Analyze your Social Network 293
  • 23. Identify Structural Holes 293 Expand the Size of the Network 294 Contents xiii A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 13 10/31/16 8:03 PM Diversify Networks 295 Build Hierarchical Networks 296 Recognize Gender Scripts in Networks 297 Reputation Management 297 Chapter Capstone 298 Chapter 12 VIrtUaL tEaMWOrK 299 Place–Time Model of Social Interaction 300 Face-to-Face Communication 301 Same Time, Different Place 303 Different Time, Same Place 305 Different Place, Different Time 306 Information Technology and Social Behavior 309
  • 24. Reduced Status Differences: The Weak Get Strong Effect 309 Equalization of Participation 310 Increased Time to Make Decisions 310 Information Suppression 311 Risk Taking 311 Disinhibition and the Negativity Effect 312 Task Performance and Decision Quality 312 Trust and Rapport 313 Virtual, Hybrid, and Traditional Teams 313 Prevalence 313 Advantages 314 Identification 315 Leadership 315 Attention and Problem-Solving 316 Conflict 316 Geographic Faultlines 316 Enhancing Virtual Teamwork 317 Team Formation 317 Technology 317 Shared Mental Models 318 Boundary Objects 319 Initial Face-to-Face Experience 320 Objective Self-Awareness 321
  • 25. Integrity 321 xiv Contents A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 14 10/31/16 8:03 PM Cave and Commons Flexibility 321 Coaching the Virtual Team 322 Chapter Capstone 322 Chapter 13 MULtICULtUraL tEaMS 323 Challenges of Cross-Cultural Teamwork 324 Multinational Teams 324 Stereotypes versus Prototypes 324 Cultural Values 325 Defining Culture 325 Iceberg Model 325 Hofstede’s Model 325 Dignity, Face and Honor Cultures 331 Tight versus Loose Cultures 333
  • 26. Cultural Intelligence 333 CQ Model 333 Cultural Metacognition 335 Fusion Teamwork 336 Multicultural Engagement 336 Work Ways 337 Multicultural Teamwork 337 Creative Innovation 337 Relationship Orientation 338 Networks 338 Egalitarian Values 338 Status Perceptions 339 Emotional Display 339 Multicultural Collaboration 340 Ethnocentrism 340 Cultural Relativism 340 Managing Multicultural Teams 341 Change and Adaptation 341 Transactive Memory Systems 342 Language Barriers 342
  • 27. Cultural Change 342 Integration 343 Assimilation 343 Contents xv A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 15 10/31/16 8:03 PM Separation 343 Marginalization 344 Chapter Capstone 344 Appendix 1 Rewarding Teamwork 345 Appendix 2 Managing Meetings 361 Appendix 3 Creating Effective Study Groups 371 References 374 Name and Author Index 434 Subject Index 449 xvi Contents
  • 28. A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 16 10/31/16 8:03 PM PREFACE Making the Team has two audiences: leaders and team members. For leaders, the book provides direction about how teams can be designed to function optimally; for team members, the book focuses on the skills necessary to be productive. Since the publication of the first five editions, many advances have occurred in team and group research. Every chapter has new information, new research, updated examples, and more. Specifically, I have made the following major changes to the sixth edition of Making the Team: 1. Revised chapter structure: The order of the chapters is slightly changed to reflect the revised three-part structure of the book: Building the Team,
  • 29. Team Performance, and Teams in Organizations. The book still contains 13 chapters (suitable for semes- ter or quarter-length courses). Rewarding Teamwork is now an appendix. And Vir- tual Teams and Multicultural Teams are each separate chapters. 2. Internal structure of chapters: Most of the chapters have new subheads that reflect new theories, research, and topics. 3. New, updated research: True to the book’s defining characteristic—providing managers with the most up-to-date research in a digestible fashion—I have included the latest research about teamwork and group behavior, thus keeping the book true to its strong research focus and theory-driven approach. 4. Surveys of managers and executives: The updated research also reports on the survey of executives that we have conducted at Kellogg for the past 17 years. The survey in the first edition reported the responses of 149 managers and executives;
  • 30. the sixth edition has a database of more than 1,200 team managers. 5. New research studies: More than 220 new research studies have been cited. 6. More case studies: I have included more examples and illustrations of effective (as well as ineffective) teamwork. More than 160 new case studies and examples of actual company teams have been added. And, each chapter has a new, updated opening example. 7. Illustrations and examples: Many of the concepts and techniques in the chapters are supplemented with illustrations and examples from real teams, both contem- porary and historical. I do not use these examples to prove a theory; rather, I use them to illustrate how many of the concepts in the book are borne out in real-world situations. New exercises, cases, and supplemental material: The
  • 31. supplemental material and teaching support materials have been greatly improved so as to complement the text. This allows students to have a more integrated experience inside and outside of the classroom. The book strongly advocates experientially based teaching, and the instruc- tor now has even more options for making the concepts come alive in the classroom. All of the supplements are available on Pearson’s Instructor’s Resource Center; instruc- tors should contact a Pearson sales representative to be assigned a user name and password. I have also developed a MOOC (massive online open course) that anybody, anywhere in the world can enroll in for no charge: High Performance Collaboration: Leader- ship, Teamwork, and Negotiation (on coursera). In addition, I have developed Teamwork xvii A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 17 10/31/16 8:03 PM
  • 32. xviii Preface 101, which contains four 15-minute videos about teamwork, accessible by: http://www .kellogg.northwestern.edu/news_articles/2014/12202014- teamwork-101.aspx, or simply Google “teamwork 101 Kellogg.” The revision was sparked not only by advances—as well as calamities—in the corporate world, but even more, by the great scientific research about teamwork that my colleagues have relentlessly contributed to the field of management science in the years since the first edition was published. One of the reasons why I love this field is that there are so many wonderful people with whom to collaborate. The following people have had a major impact on my think- ing and have brought joy and meaning to the word collaboration: Cameron Anderson, Linda Babcock, Max Bazerman, Terry Boles, Jeanne Brett, Susan Brodt, John Carroll,
  • 33. Hoon-Seok Choi, Taya Cohen, Jennifer Crocker, Susan Crotty, Jeanne Egmon, Hal Ersner-Hershfield, Gary Allen Fine, Craig Fox, Adam Galinsky, Wendi Gardner, Dedre Gentner, Robert Gibbons, Kevin Gibson, James Gillespie, Rich Gonzalez, Deborah Gru- enfeld, Brian Gunia, Erika Hall, Reid Hastie, Andy Hoffman, Elizabeth Seeley Howard, Molly Kern, Peter Kim, Shirli Kopelman, Rod Kramer, Laura Kray, Terri Kurtzburg, Sujin Lee, Geoffrey Leonardelli, John Levine, Allan Lind, George Loewenstein, Jeff Loewen- stein, Bob Lount, Denise Lewin Loyd, Brian Lucas, Beta Mannix, Kathleen McGinn, Vicki Medvec, Tanya Menon, Dave Messick, Terry Mitchell, Don Moore, Michael Mor- ris, Keith Murnighan, Janice Nadler, Maggie Neale, Erika Petersen, Kathy Phillips, Jason Pierce, Robin Pinkley, Jo-Ellen Pozner, Mark Rittenberg, Ashleigh Rosette, Ken Savitsky, David Schonthal, Vanessa Seiden, Catherine Shea, Marwan Sinaceur, Ned Smith, Har- ris Sondak, Tom Tyler, Leaf Van Boven, Kimberly Wade- Benzoni, Cindy Wang, Juinwen Wang, Laurie Weingart, Judith White, and Elizabeth Ruth
  • 34. Wilson. The revision of this book would not have been possible without the dedication, organization, and creativity of Ellen Hampton, Larissa Tripp, and Joel Erickson, who created the layout, organized the information, edited the hundreds of drafts, mastered the figures, organized the permissions for the exhibits in each chapter, and researched many of the case studies for this book. In the book, I talk quite a bit about the “power of the situation” and how strongly the environment shapes behavior. The Kellogg School of Management is one of the most supportive, dynamic environments that I have ever had the pleasure to be a part of. My colleagues across the Kellogg School are uniquely warm, constructive, and gener- ous. Directing the KTAG (Kellogg Team and Group) Center has been a pleasure beyond compare. I am very grateful for the generous grants I have received through the years from the National Science Foundation’s Decision, Risk and
  • 35. Management Program, the Kellogg Team and Group Center, and its sister, the Dispute Resolution Research Center. This book is very much a team effort of the people I have mentioned here; their talents are diverse, broad, and extraordinarily impressive. I am deeply indebted to my colleagues and students, and I am grateful that they have touched my life. I would like to thank Paul Capobianco for the photograph of the University of Wisconsin Men’s Heavy Weight Varsity rowing team: Cox: Brandt Roen, 8: Sam Weeks, 7: Sebastian Amberger, 6: James Lueken, 5: Christoph Bub, 4: Jonah van der Weide, 3: George Perrett, 2: Nick Montalvo, Bow: Jacob Hurlbutt. A01_THOM4204_06_SE_FM.indd 18 10/31/16 8:03 PM http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/news_articles/2014/12202 014-teamwork-101.aspx http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/news_articles/2014/12202 014-teamwork-101.aspx
  • 36. P A R T Building the TeamI M01A_THOM4204_06_SE_P01.indd 1 10/24/16 9:28 PM M01A_THOM4204_06_SE_P01.indd 2 10/24/16 9:28 PM This page intentionally left blank 3 The ad was posted to Facebook: Diggers needed for an exotic expedition. Experience needed in paleontology or anthropology. Willing to fly to South
  • 37. Africa within the month. And “the person must be skinny and preferably small, they must not be claustrophobic, they must be fit, they should have some caving experience. Climbing experience would be a bonus.1” Dr. Lee Berger, a university paleoanthropologist, selected six slender women from 57 applicants for a major excavation. The team squeezed themselves through a long vertical chute which narrowed to a gap just 18 inches wide and inched their way to a landing zone at the bottom of the cave. The team of women crouched in the fossil chamber plotting, digging, and bagging densely packed bones in 6-hour shifts in near total darkness, connected to the surface by the nearly two miles of power cables that local climbers had threaded from the surface to the fossil chamber. Dozens of scientists watched excitedly on video from a tent outside the cave and waited to catalog samples. Dr. Berger invited 30 scientists from 15 countries to Johannesburg for a 6-week frenzy of fossil
  • 38. research and the putting together of skeletons from the assembled parts. Teams were divided by specific body part—one group for feet, one for legs, one for skulls, and so forth, while Berger and his advisers rushed between groups. The discovery of 1,550 fossil fragments was ultimately regarded as a breakthrough discovery in the field.2 2Smith, D. (2015, September 10). Small spelunkers required: The ad that led to the discovery of Homo naledi. The Guardian. guardian.com; Young, E. (2015, September 10). 6 tiny cavers, 15 odd skeletons, and 1 amaz- ing new species of ancient human. The Atlantic. theatlantic.com; Schreeve, J. (2015, September 10). This face changes the human story. But how? National Geographic. nationalgeographic.com 1From ad posted to Facebook by Lee Berger, © October 7, 2013 Dr.Lee Berger. Types of Teams1 C
  • 39. H A P T E R M01B_THOM4204_06_SE_C01.indd 3 10/24/16 4:37 PM http://nationalgeographic.com http://theatlantic.com http://guardian.com 4 Part1 • BuildingtheTeam A shared goal and an interdependent group of people are the defining characteristics of teams. Whereas most businesspeople are not digging up fossils in caves, they do engage in missions that involve significant economic and social
  • 40. stakes. Virtually everyone who has worked in an organization has been a member of a team at one time or another. Good teams are not a matter of luck; they result from hard work, careful planning, and commitment from the sponsoring organization. Designing effec- tive teams is a skill that requires a thorough understanding of groups to ensure that the team works as designed. Although there are no guarantees, understanding what makes teams work will naturally lead to better and more effective teams. This book introduces a systematic approach that allows leaders, managers, executives, trainers, and professionals to build and maintain excellent teams in their organizations. Our systematic approach is based on scientific principles of learning and change. Implementing change requires that managers audit their own behavior to see where mistakes are being made, consider and implement new techniques and practices, and then examine their effects. Unfortunately, accomplishing these
  • 41. tasks in a typical orga- nization is not easy. This chapter sets the stage for effective learning by defining what a team is—it’s not always clear! We distinguish three types of teams in organizations based on their task focus. We also distinguish four types of teams in terms of their authority. We expose the most common myths about teamwork and share some observations from team leaders. We provide the results of our survey assessment on how teams are used in organizations and the problems with which managers are most concerned. TEAMS VS. GROUPS A group is a collection of people. A team is an interdependent group of people working for a shared goal. A work team is a collection of individuals who share responsibility for specific outcomes for their organizations. Not everyone who works together or is in proximity belongs to a team. A team is a group of people who are interdependent with respect to information, resources, and skills and who seek to
  • 42. combine their efforts to achieve a common goal. Teams have five key defining characteristics.3 First, teams exist to achieve a shared goal. Simply put, teams have work to do. Teams produce outcomes for which members have collective responsibility and reap some form of collective reward. Second, team members are interdependent … Research-Technology Management • January—February 2012 | 51 The physical design of high-tech workplaces is a key chal- lenge facing senior management today. In a world in which collaboration is increasingly seen as the engine of innova- tion, the physical layout of high-tech workplaces must facilitate the face-to-face (F2F) communication among R&D team members that breeds productive collaboration. Al- though the physical design of the workplace is but one vari- able in a complex constellation of factors that affect team F2F
  • 43. communication, it is an important one for, as Elsbach and Pratt (2008) recently noted, “everything from the effi cient manufacture of computer chips to the research and develop- ment of new fl avors of potato chips is affected by the design and arrangement of machinery, work spaces, environmental controls, and equipment” (182). Further, despite the increas- ing use of distributed teams connected through electronically mediated communication such as email, texting, instant messaging, videoconferencing, phone, and fax, recent studies have underlined the importance of F2F communication for successfully accomplishing complex team tasks ( Elsbach and Pratt 2008 ; Allen and Henn 2007 ). F2F communication is important to all team tasks, but es- pecially to the high-tech work of R&D teams. R&D projects involve non-routine tasks with a high degree of uncertainty; past studies have shown that F2F communication is more effective than other types of communication media for trans- ferring the complex, context-specifi c information required to accomplish tasks related to advancing knowledge and de- veloping new technologies ( Tushman 1979 ; Santoro and Saparito 2003 ). James Stryker earned his PhD in management from Rutgers University and is
  • 44. an assistant professor of management in the department of business at Holy Names University, Oakland, California. He is also a licensed architect and holds a Master of Architecture degree from Yale University. Professor Stryker’s princi- pal research interests are in the areas of team communication and the design of the physical workplace, organizational leadership, team decision making, and group dynamics. In addition to his academic career, he has over 20 years experience in the programming, design, and construction of high-tech R&D facilities. His work experience includes serving as director of facilities for a Fortune 100 pharmaceutical company and senior project manager for two nationally ranked architectural and engineering design fi rms. [email protected] Michael Santoro earned his PhD in management from Rutgers University and is an associate professor of management in the College of Business and Economics at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
  • 45. Professor Santo- ro’s principal research interests are in the areas of strategic alliances and the external sourcing of knowledge and technological innovation. He has nearly 30 publications in edited volumes and leading peer-reviewed journals and serves on the editorial review board of IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. He is a recipient of the prestigious Carl R. and Ingeborg Beidleman Research Award, the Class of 1961 Professorship, and the James T. Kane Faculty Fellowship. Prior to his academic career, he spent 21 years with Automatic Data Processing, Inc. (ADP), holding a number of middle and senior management positions. [email protected] DOI: 10.5437/08956308X5501013 FEATURE ARTICLE Facilitating Face-to-Face Communication in High-Tech Teams Face-to-face communication is a necessary component of team
  • 46. collaboration; the physical design of the space, including the visibility of workstations and the availability of community spaces, can affect the level of face-to-face communication. James B. Stryker and Michael D. Santoro OVERVIEW: Despite the increasing use of electronically mediated methods for team communications, research continues to underline the importance of face-to-face (F2F) communication for the successful accomplishment of complex, high-tech team tasks. Although a crucial aspect of F2F communication is the physical proximity of team members, studies that have explored the relationship between the design of the physical workplace and F2F communication have produced confl icting fi ndings. This paper reports the results of a fi eld study conducted at two R&D sites of a large U.S. high technology and life sciences company; the results suggest that the typical space planning solution of simply moving people from closed offi ces to open cubicles does not in and of itself increase F2F communication. Rather, the level of F2F communication depends on the location of team members’ workstations within the overall confi guration of the space and the amount of space provided
  • 47. to support collaboration opportunities, including both formal and informal spaces. Based on the results of the study, we offer suggestions for the layout and design of R&D workstations to foster productive F2F encounters. KEYWORDS: R&D teams , Collaboration , Workplace design , Face-to-face communication 52 | Research-Technology Management Facilitating Face-to- Face Communication However, unlike electronic mediums of communication, F2F communication requires an actual physical place for peo- ple to meet to exchange information. In this context, it is clear that careful consideration must be given to the physical design of R&D facilities in order to facilitate productive F2F interac- tions and to ensure that capital investments in new and up- graded facilities deliver their full value. This is a signifi cant consideration for senior management. On average, the value of facilities and real estate accounts for 25 percent of all Fortune 500 company assets, and organizational occupancy costs rank second in fi rm costs, behind only worker compensation and benefi ts ( Berry 1996 ). A facility designed to encourage
  • 48. interac- tions among colleagues can help deliver on that investment. With that in mind, we set out to study how the layout and design of physical workspaces, including such factors as worker proximity (usually referred to as “headcount den- sity” in the literature), workstation openness and visibility, and proximity to shared spaces (referred to in the literature as “collaboration opportunity”) may shape patterns of F2F communication. Background: Physical Structure Research Early physical structure research focused on two issues: the proximity of organizational members and the dynamics and consequences of relocating organizational members from the traditional closed offi ce to open workstations. Concerning proximity of communication partners, the fi ndings have been clear: the probability of F2F communication between two people is inversely related to the distance separating them. Specifi cally, Allen (1977) has shown that the probabil- ity of F2F communication between two people is greatest when they are located within 10 meters of each other and declines to an asymptotic level after about 25 meters of sepa- ration. However, although the probability of F2F communi- cation declines with distance from communication partner,
  • 49. proximity does not guarantee that F2F communication will actually take place. Moenaert and Caeldries (1996) found no reported increase in the quantity of F2F communication with colleagues after a relocation and consolidation of R&D per- sonnel, while Hatch (1985) found a negative correlation be- tween the proximity of organizational members and the quantity of time spent in F2F work activities. Concerning open versus closed offi ces and workstations, architects and interior designers predicted that more open workstation designs would promote communication ( Davis 1984 ), but actual fi eld studies provided confl icting fi nd- ings. Allen (1977) found that “among the members of the The probability of F2F communication between two people is inversely related to the distance separating them. experimental department [for engineers who spoke with one another at a frequency of once a week or more] communica- tion increased signifi cantly both in terms of the number of communications per person and in number of individuals with whom the average engineer communicated” when an
  • 50. open workstation format was implemented (279). However, Sundstrom, Burt, and Kamp (1980) found that after a move from closed offi ce to open workstations “practically no rela- tionship was found at all between architectural accessibility and social interaction among co-workers” (113). More recent studies have looked at the overall layout and design of the workplace. For example, studies by Spiliopoulou and Penn (1999) and Boutellier et. al. (2008) found that people occupying workstations adjacent to highly traveled corridors or public spaces reported signifi cantly more F2F communication compared to workers occupying worksta- tions more distant from main routes of circulation. Key Variables in Workplace Design To address the mixed results and confl icting fi ndings of previ- ous research, this study addresses the research question of how physical workplace design can facilitate F2F communi- cation, focusing on the two variables that are most often considered when designing the workplace to facilitate com- munication—open versus closed workstations and head- count density, where headcount density refers to the number of organizational members within a given proximity to each other.
  • 51. To examine the impact of physical design, usually concep- tualized as an opposition between closed offi ces and open workspaces, we adopted a slightly different perspective, dis- tinguishing between high-visibility and low-visibility work- stations. This variable was introduced to allow exploration of the notion that visibility within the overall layout of the workspace drives team F2F communication, rather than the physical characteristics of closed offi ces versus open, low- walled workstations. Further, when considering the impor- tance of headcount density to foster F2F communication, it was not clear that previous research always distinguished be- tween team and non-team communication. We therefore examined the relationship between the numbers of workers located in close proximity to one another while carefully controlling for team membership. Finally, this study introduces and explores a new variable not previously considered within the context of physical structure research: the effect of collaboration opportunity on F2F communication, where collaboration opportunity is de- fi ned as the number of formal and informal meeting places for F2F communication available within the workplace ( Stryker 2004 ).
  • 52. Headcount Density. Headcount density, or the number of organizational members located within close proximity to one another, is among the most studied variables in work- place design. Based on Allen’s (1977) research, close proxim- ity is defi ned as members located within 10 meters. Similar to research fi ndings with regard to workstation barriers and en- closures, the fi ndings concerning the relationship between Facilitating Face-to-Face Communication January—February 2012 | 53 headcount density and F2F communication have been con- tradictory ( Hatch 1985 ; Moenaert and Caeldries 1996 ). In reviewing the research literature on headcount density, we noted that previous studies did not always distinguish be- tween team and non-team F2F communication. Previous re- search (e.g., Tushman 1979 ) has shown that R&D team members have a high need to communicate F2F due to the complexity and non-routine nature of their research tasks. Therefore, in this study, we specifi cally focused on the rela- tionship between team membership and headcount density to further tease out this issue and ascertain its possible effect
  • 53. on F2F communication. Workstation Visibility. Elsbach and Pratt’s recent re- view (2008) of the literature on workplace design notes that the relationship between barriers and enclosures and F2F communication is one of the most studied workplace design features. The traditional argument has been that the in- creased visibility afforded workers by open workstation de- sign promotes serendipitous meetings and therefore encourages F2F communication. However, as noted above, research examining these variables has produced confl icting fi ndings. This inconsistency may stem from a key variable in the physical design of the workspace that has been overlooked: the visibility of the offi ce or workstation within the overall layout of the facility’s design. In preparing for this study, we visited two research sites to observe the interactions of R&D team members. Over time, it became evident that the type of workstation—open cubicle workstation versus closed of- fi ce—was only one factor affecting F2F communication. An- other key element was the location of the workstation and its position in relation to main routes of circulation. For exam- ple, at one of the research sites, some closed offi ces with glass walls were located directly along the main building corridor,
  • 54. providing high visibility to their occupants and to those pass- ing by, thereby facilitating F2F communication. Other offi ces were located away from this main corridor, behind the indi- vidual research laboratory; these locations provided their oc- cupants a relatively low level of visibility and therefore less opportunity to interact. Similarly, at the other research site, some workstations were clearly visible from the main corri- dor and the open public atrium, while others were across a hallway and much less visible from public spaces, providing less opportunity for F2F interaction and communication. From these preliminary fi eld observations we surmised that it was not just the openness of the workstation that may affect team member visibility and provide more opportunity for F2F communication, but rather the combination of work- station openness and the overall layout of the building that creates opportunities for F2F communication. This combina- tion of openness and location, therefore, became a key focus of this study. Collaboration Opportunity. Finally, in this study we explore a new physical design variable, collaboration oppor- tunity ( Stryker 2004 ). In a classic study of residents of an apartment complex, Festinger, Schacter, and Back (1950) found that the design of an apartment complex promoted
  • 55. We surmised that it was not just the openness of the workstation that may provide more opportunity for F2F communication but the combination of workstation openness and the overall layout of the building. social interaction through the placement of common use fa- cilities such as stairways, elevators, and laundry rooms along corridors and public paths of circulation. These common use facilities acted as “centers of gravity” ( Allen and Henn 2007 ), attracting people and thereby increasing the opportunity for and likelihood of interaction. Applying this concept to the R&D work environment, we explored the idea that the design of the workplace could fa- cilitate communication by providing specifi c shared space destinations that act as centers of gravity, drawing organiza- tional team members and thus increasing the likelihood of
  • 56. F2F interaction and communication and thereby presenting increased opportunities for collaboration. Collaboration op- portunity is defi ned as specifi c places within the physical lay- out that encourage people to gather and includes formal spaces such as conference rooms and meeting rooms as well as informal meeting places such as coffee areas, copy rooms, stairways, elevator lobbies, and bathrooms. Research Setting and Study Participants To explore our research question, “How can the physical workplace be designed to facilitate F2F communication?”, this study considered the design and layout of R&D laborato- ries at two different sites of a major life sciences company. The research director at Site 1 had recently been the lead scientist in the design of a new R&D laboratory at that site, and he was interested in fi nding out if the design of the facil- ity actually promoted team communication. He recom- mended that the research director at Site 2 and his team join the study in order to add participants, since the two locations have substantially similar populations. Statistical analyses found no signifi cant differences in demographic data be- tween sites 1 and 2 with respect to participant age, tenure with the fi rm, level of education, gender, sociability index, or managerial level.
  • 57. Moreover, although both sites are new-product R&D sites that engage in similar types of activities, the physical layout of the facilities at these two campuses are very different and offer strongly contrasting physical designs. Site 1 is a recently completed R&D laboratory at the company’s corporate head- quarters; it is a three-story facility housing state-of-the-art laboratories, offi ces, and open workstations oriented around an open, sky-lit atrium. Open workstations and four 54 | Research-Technology Management Facilitating Face-to- Face Communication glass-walled offi ces surround the atrium on each fl oor. Other features of the design include a coffee bar, three glass-walled meeting rooms, and an informal break area located at the end of the atrium. The research laboratories at Site 2 are housed on the sec- ond fl oor of a combined offi ce, laboratory, and warehouse facility constructed in the 1920s. The laboratory fl oor has a series of labs and offi ces in the center of the fl oor surrounded by a loop corridor. The offi ces are separated from the labs by a glass wall. On the other side of the main loop corridor are
  • 58. another series of laboratories with the lab offi ces located along the exterior wall of the building. The break area for lab employees is located on the third fl oor, as are the toilets; a large cafeteria and common meeting rooms are located on the eighth fl oor of the building. In summary, the two research sites were selected because, although they are both R&D sites within the same company and the researchers employed at these sites have similar backgrounds, experiences, and tasks to accomplish, the two sites provide contrasting physical workspace designs and very different headcount density and collaboration opportu- nity factors. Data Collection Observational data was gathered during numerous trips to both sites, during which the researchers walked the facilities, observed researcher interactions at various times of the day, and in general became familiar with the facility operations. To gather data regarding F2F interactions, volunteers from among the staff at each site were asked to complete a 43-item questionnaire that asked for information about both demo- graphic and social structure control variables. Items on the questionnaire were designed to assess such factors as leader-
  • 59. ship styles, individual sociability, and team rewards, as well as to gather data regarding position (managerial vs. non- managerial) and such demographic factors as age, education, and tenure with the fi rm. Participants also identifi ed the location of their worksta- tions on an architectural fl oor plan of the site; this allowed the research team to gather additional information about headcount density, workstation visibility, and collaboration opportunity. • Headcount Density. For the purposes of this study, headcount density was defi ned as the number of persons who occupy a workstation within a 10-meter radius of the target individual’s primary workstation. A 10-meter radius was selected since prior research ( Allen 1977 ) has shown that the highest probability for F2F communica- tion occurs within 10 meters of a person’s workstation. • Workstation Visibility . At Site 1, open workstations and closed offi ces located adjacent to the atrium are highly visible to all occupants of all three laboratory fl oors, whether from the open stair in the center of the atrium, the atrium corridor, or the break areas at the end
  • 60. of the atrium. These were therefore identifi ed as high- visibility workstations. Workstations located across the inner corridor, adjacent to the laboratories, are less visi- ble, especially from the break areas and the bridges cross- ing the atrium; these were therefore identifi ed as low-visibility workstations. At Site 2, offi ces located in the center of the fl oor directly along the main circulation corridor were identifi ed as high-visibility workstations. Other offi ces located along the exterior walls of the building and separated from the main corridor by the laboratory were identifi ed as low- visibility workstations. • Collaboration Opportunity. Collaboration opportu- nity was defi ned as the number of formal or informal contact places located within a 25-meter radius of the target individual’s workstation. That radius was chosen because, as noted above, Allen (1977) has shown that the probability of F2F communication diminishes to an asymptotic level after approximately 25 meters. Contact places counted included formally designated meeting spaces such as conference rooms and meeting rooms as well as informal gathering places such as coffee bars, re-
  • 61. strooms, copy rooms, mailboxes, supply closets, vending machines, elevators, and stairways. After completing the initial questionnaire, participants were sent a web-based questionnaire 2–3 times each week on randomly selected days for 8 weeks. The web-based ques- tionnaire asked participants to a) identify whom they had met in F2F communication that day, b) indicate whether that person was a team member or non-team member, and c) identify where that communication took place (their work- station, the other person’s workstation, formal conference room or meeting room, informal meeting room or break area, passing in the corridor, or other). Although the quality of F2F communication is at least as important as its quantity, we counted all F2F communica- tions in this study. This decision was motivated by two key considerations. First, early research in this area ( Zajonc 1968 ) has shown that all types of workplace F2F communication promote personal attraction and team cohesion by encourag- ing feelings of familiarity, similarity, and shared affect, and recent research on R&D teams ( Beal et al. 2003 ) has demon- strated that cohesive teams performed team tasks more
  • 62. effi ciently—especially the team tasks that require close coor- dination and communication, like R&D tasks. Second, senior R&D managers at the research sites were interested in deter- mining the extent to which the physical design of the labo- ratory work place facilitated all types of F2F communication. Results Results revealed signifi cant differences in levels of F2F com- munications based on location and headcount density; whether employees worked in open workstations versus closed offi ces seemed to have less effect ( Table 1 ). Occupants of high-visibility workstations and occupants in high headcount-density layouts reported signifi cantly more team F2F communication than low-visibility, low headcount- density workstation layouts. Further, occupants with high Facilitating Face-to-Face Communication January—February 2012 | 55 collaboration opportunity reported signifi cantly more team F2F communication than those in low collaboration-oppor- tunity workstations. We found no signifi cant difference in the level of F2F communication between high-visibility open
  • 63. workstations and high-visibility closed offi ces, suggesting that visibility was the overriding factor that infl uenced team communication, rather than the type of workstation. How- ever, for low-visibility workstations, we found signifi cantly more team F2F communication in open workstations com- pared to closed offi ces. Specifi cally, respondents occupying high-visibility work- stations reported 59 percent more F2F team communication than those in low-visibility workstations (Table 1). In high- visibility work locations, there was no signifi cant difference in F2F communication between open, low-walled workstations and closed offi ces. In low-visibility situations, respondents in open, low-walled workstations reported 51 percent more team F2F communication than occupants of closed offi ces. Respondents in high headcount-density workstation lay- outs (average 16 persons within a 10-meter radius) reported 84 percent more F2F team communication than workers in low headcount-density layouts (average 4 persons within 10 meters). Respondents occupying workstations with high collabora- tion opportunity (average 22 formal or informal meeting places within 25 meters) reported 102 percent more F2F
  • 64. team communication than those located in workstations with low collaboration opportunity (average 4 formal or in- formal meeting places). Discussion Many studies (e.g., Tushman 1979 ; Santoro and Saparito 2003 ) have shown that facilitating team F2F communica- tions, particularly among knowledge workers such as high- tech R&D staff, plays a critical role in accomplishing complex team tasks such as advancing knowledge and new technolo- gies. The results of this study highlight some key factors that bring much-needed clarity to the question of just how to ac- complish that goal. Previous studies did not consider workstation location and visibility in the overall context of the layout of the facility. This study found that workstation visibility—not whether a person was in a closed offi ce or an open cubicle—was a key factor in facilitating F2F communication; in high-visibility locations, there was no signifi cant difference in F2F communication for open versus closed workspaces. In lower- visibility work locations, however, the question of open ver- sus closed workspaces becomes more signifi cant; R&D workers in low-visibility locations reported signifi cantly
  • 65. more team F2F communication when they worked in open, low walled workstations compared with closed offi ces. This study also found that team F2F communication was signifi cantly greater when team members were located in high-density work areas (average 16 persons within 10 me- ters) with a large number of informal meeting places located nearby (average 22 formal and informal meeting places within 25 meters). These fi ndings suggest that common-use features in the workplace may have a similar “center of grav- ity” effect as was observed in common-use facilities in a resi- dential apartment complex ( Festinger, Schacter, and Back 1950 ). Just as common-use areas in residential apartment complexes draw residents together, common-use areas in the workplace appear to attract and encourage team F2F interaction. What these fi ndings suggest is that to facilitate team F2F communication, workstations should be designed to be as highly visible as possible, placed adjacent to main routes of circulation, open atria, or other similar centers of gravity. Clearly, not all workstations can be located along main cor- ridors or in other high-visibility locations. Our data suggest that open workstations with low partitions and no doors can help offset the disadvantages of lower-visibility areas, since
  • 66. they help facilitate increased team F2F communication in these areas. This fi nding may be of particular interest to R&D managers located in older facilities in need of renovation. In considering facility renovations, converting some of the tra- ditional, closed offi ces to open, low-walled workstations and providing increased informal meeting places offer one way to increase team F2F communication and collaboration. TABLE 1 . F2F Team Communication Results Differences in F2F Communication N=2095 F2F communication events over eight-week test period 1 High-visibility workstations compared to low-visibility workstations a +59% a 2 Open workstations compared to closed offi ces in high- visibility locations No signifi cant difference 3 Open workstations compared to closed offi ces in low- visibility locations +51% a 4 High headcount density compared to low headcount density(16 persons within 10 meters versus 4 persons) +84% a
  • 67. 5 High collaboration opportunity compared to low collaboration opportunity(22 places for formal or informal meetings within 25 meters versus 4) +102% a Results signifi cant @ p< 0.05 a To test for a potential self-selection bias for workstation visibility, we looked at age, level of education, gender, level of managerial responsibility, level of sociability, and tenure with the company and found no signifi cant differences between occupants of high-visibility workstations compared with low-visibility workstations. In high-visibility locations, there was no signifi cant difference in F2F communication for open versus closed workspaces. 56 | Research-Technology Management Facilitating Face-to-
  • 68. Face Communication We acknowledge that the generalizability of these results may be somewhat … Your Company Name Your Company Name Budget Proposal for [enter years here] BUSN278 [Term] Professor[name] DeVry University
  • 69. Table of Contents Section Title Subsection Title Page Number1.0Executive Summary 2.0Sales Forecast 2.1Sales Forecast 2.2Methods and Assumptions 3.0Capital Expenditure Budget 4.0Investment Analysis
  • 70. 4.1Cash Flows 4.2NPV Analysis 4.3Rate of Return Calculations 4.4Payback Period Calculations 5.0Pro Forma Financial Statements 5.1Pro Forma Income Statement 5.2Pro Forma Balance Sheet 5.3Pro Forma Cash Budget 6.0Works Cited
  • 71. 7.0Appendices 7.1Appendix 1: [description] 7.2Appendix 2: [description] (Please put page numbers in the last column of the table of contents above, because they apply to your finished assignment. Do this after your project is complete. Remove this text and all text that is in italics in this template when finished with your project.) (Also, please submit your Excel spreadsheet that shows your supporting calculations.) 1.0 Executive Summary
  • 72. The first paragraph of this executive summary should give a brief description of the business to which this budget applies. Very briefly describe the products and services of this company, the geography or demographics of the customers it serves, and why people purchase the main product of this business. Much or all of this information will be found in the business profile provided to you. Please use your own words, and please do not simply copy and paste the explanation in the course materials. Make assumptions if necessary. Also, provide a second paragraph that describes how the budget supports the company’s strategy. Finally, provide a third paragraph in which you summarize the key points from your budget, including the planning horizon; the amount of up-front investment; the NPV, payback, and IRR of the project; and key figures from your income statement, cash budget, and balance sheet. Remember, this is not a thesis or introduction of what you will talk about—it contains the major, specific content of each section. The second and third paragraphs should be written after you have completed all other sections of this template.
  • 73. As you complete sections of this template, please remove all italicized text in all sections of this template and replace it with your own text or you will lose points! 2.0 Sales Forecast Briefly introduce the sales forecast section. 2.1 Sales Forecast Here you should include a simple table showing the years and the total sales for each year, along with a brief explanation of why sales are expected to rise, fall, change, or stay the same in certain years. Provide a brief explanation of the sales forecast, indicating why you expect sales to rise or fall during the planning horizon. Your explanation should be consistent with the trends and changes in sales found in your table. Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Sales
  • 74. 2.2 Methods and Assumptions Here you should describe how you arrived at your sales forecast in section 2.1. You should provide any detailed calculations that led you to the sales forecast values. You should also summarize any research or figures that led you to make this sales forecast. 3.0 Capital Expenditure Budget Here you should provide a screenshot of your capital expenditure budget, also listing the sources of data and assumptions that led to each line item in table format. Briefly describe the total investment and, if necessary, why major items are necessary to achieve the company’s strategy. 4.0 Investment Analysis
  • 75. Briefly describe the NVP, IRR, accounting rate of return, and payback period for this analysis. Indicate the discount rate you used and how you arrived at it.4.1 Cash flows Provide an Excel spreadsheet screenshot that shows how you arrived at the net cash flows for each period in your planning horizon, and describe its highlights. 4.2 NPV Analysis Provide a screenshot of your Excel NPV analysis here, and describe its highlights. 4.3 Rate of Return Provide a screenshot of your IRR and accounting rate of return calculations here, and explain the highlights.4.4 Payback Period Provide a screenshot of your Excel calculation of the payback period for this venture. 5.0 Pro forma Financial Statements Briefly introduce this section here.5.1 Pro Forma Income Statement Describe key figures and assumptions from the income statement, such as important profit or sales figures and their
  • 76. causes. Also, provide a screenshot of your pro forma income statement. 5.2 Pro Forma Balance Sheets Provide a screenshot of your balance sheets and describe key figures they contain. 5.3 Pro Forma Cash Budget Provide a screenshot of the cash budget and describe the impact of the budget on cash balances. 6.0 Works Cited List any sources you cited in the body of your report. 7.0 Appendices NOTE: Start this section at the top of a new page. This section of the budget proposal is where you’ll attach all of the supporting materials that you’ve referenced in the preparation of your plan and that is too detailed or extensive to be included in the body of the report. Use this page to separate the appendices from the text in the body of your report. Make certain that you update the table of contents to include the title of each exhibit in the appendix and its page number.7.1
  • 77. Appendix 1: [put a description here]7.2 Appendix 1: [put a description here]7.3 Appendix 1: [put a description here] Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 BUSN278 Course Project Overview This is an individual project where you’ll be acting as a consultant to an en- trepreneur who wants to start a new business. As the consultant, you’ll create a 5 year budget that supports the entrepreneur’s vision and strategy and needs for equipment labor and other startup costs. You can choose from one of three types of new business
  • 78. startups -- a landscap- ing company, a restaurant, or an electronics store that sells portable computing devices. Each business has its own Business Profile detailed in the below sec- tions. The purpose of the Business Profile is to guide you in understanding the scope of the business, the entrepreneur’s startup costs, and financial assump- tions. The project requires you to create a written budget proposal, a supporting Ex- cel Workbook showing your calculations, as well as a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the key elements of the budget proposal, which you assume will be presented to a management team. This is an individual project. Each week you will complete a section of the project in draft form. In Week 7, you will submit the Final version of the project’s Budget Proposal, Budget Workbook. In Week 8 you will present and
  • 79. defend your budget. Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx1 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Deliverables Schedule / Points Business Profile: Papa Geo’s Restaurant Vision The vision of the entrepreneur is to create a single-location, sit- down Italian
  • 80. restaurant called Papa Geo’s. The goal is to generate an income of $40,000 per year, starting sometime in the second year of operation, as wells as profit that is at least 2% of sales. Strategy a) Market Focus/Analysis The restaurant targets middle to lower-middle class families with children as well as adults and seniors, located in Orlando, Florida. The area within 15 minutes of the store has 10,000 families, mostly from lower to middle class neighborhoods. Average family size is 4 people per household. There is no di- rect competition; however, there are fast food restaurants like McDonald’s, Taco Bell and Wendy’s in the geographical target market. The lower-to middle class population is growing at about 6% per year over the next five years in this area. Week Deliverable Points
  • 81. Draft Sections 1 Section 1.0 Executive Summary 10 2 Section 2.0: Sales forecast 10 3 Section 3.0 : Capital Expenditure Budget 10 4 Section 4.0 Investment Analysis 10 5 Sections 5.1 and 5.2: Pro Forma Income Statement and Balance Sheet 10 6 Section 5.3 Pro Forma Cash Flow statements 10 Final Deliverables 7 Final Budget Proposal 150 8 Final Presentation w/ PowerPoint 60
  • 82. Total project points 270 Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx2 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 b) Product The product is Italian food served buffet style, in an all-you- can-eat format, with a salad bar, pizza, several different types of pasta with three or four types of sauces, soup, desserts and self-serve soda bar. The restaurant
  • 83. is also to have a 500 square foot games area which has game machines that children would be interested in using. c) Basis of Competition Customers come to come to this restaurant because of the good Italian food at a low price – where you can get a meal for $7 including drinks. Customers also eat at Papa Geo’s due to the cleanliness of the facility, the speed of getting their seat and food, as well as the vending machines which keep the children busy while adults enjoy their meal. Startup Requirements* Given Costs The cost of registering a Limited Liability Company in Florida, filing fees listed at the bottom of the application form located at http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/ cr2e047.pdf Renovation of the facility expected to cost $15000
  • 84. Business Insurance, estimated at $1000 per year Health and other benefits are 20% of the salaries of the manager and assistant manager Costs you should estimate through research, experience or other methods • Soda Fountain Bar • 2 Pizza Ovens • Salad and Pizza/Dessert Bar • Approximately 100 square foot commercial refrigerator • 2 cash registers • 6 Video Game vending machines • Average of 6 staff members at any given time • Management Office with desk, lower-priced laptop computer • Staff lunchroom equipment such as microwave, sink, cupboards and re- frigerator Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or
  • 85. used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx3 10 http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 • 20 four-seater tables with chairs • Busing cart for transporting dirty dishes from the dining area to the dishwashing area • 140 sets of dishes, cutlery and drinking cups • Commercial Dishwasher • Miscellaneous cooking and food handling equipment like trays, lifters,
  • 86. spoons, pots etcetera • The cost of an average of 7 employees on the payroll. • All operating costs, such as advertising, rent for a 3500 square foot facil- ity with male and female washrooms, already installed, utilities, main- tenance, and annual depreciation. *if you have questions about startup requirements, or think other startup costs are necessary for the business are missing, then make an assumption and state it in the relevant section of the report. Given Financial Assumptions* • The owner will be granted a loan for the initial startup, repayable over 10 years at current interest rates for small business loans • The owner will use personal funds to operate the business until it gener- ates enough cash flow to fund itself.
  • 87. • Essentially, all sales are made by credit card. All credit card sales are a paid to the restaurant daily by the credit card company • 2.5% of sales is paid to a credit card company in fees • Food suppliers give 30 days of trade credit • Inventories are expected to be approximately 10% of the following month’s sales • The average meal costs $4.00 in materials and labor. • The average family spends $4.00 on vending machine tokens • Equipment is depreciated on a straight-line basis over 5 years • Managers have health benefits, other workers do not. The company will operate from 10:00 am to 9 pm, 7 days a week. • The entrepreneur will manage the store and draw a salary. Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and
  • 88. retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx4 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 • Every shift has one person on the cash register, one keeping the food bars stocked with food, and one on busing and table cleaning, a manager and assistant manager. *If you believe any other assumptions are necessary, then please state them in your budget proposal Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or
  • 89. used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx5 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Business Profile: The Cutting Edge Landscaping Vision The vision of the entrepreneur is to create a 5-team landscaping business that caters to upscale neighborhoods in Miami, Florida. The company is to be called “The Cutting Edge”. The goal of the entrepreneur is to generate income of at least $42,000 per year as his personal salary, as well as profits of 4% after tax sometime no later than the second year of operation. The
  • 90. entrepreneur in- tends to buy a route of 100 homes from a lawn service company whose owner is retiring. Strategy a) Market Focus/Analysis The landscaping business targets upscale neighborhoods with home associations which demand lawns to be manicured and well-cared for. Customers tend to be upper middle, to upper-class individuals with household income levels of $110,000 or more. The geographic focus is Miami and its surrounding area. The area is expected to showing slow economic growth of about 1% per year over the next five years. b) Product The product is lawn maintenance and landscaping services as well as minor irri- gation equipment repair. The primary source of income is expected to be in the form of lawn-cutting, debris-blowing, and edge trimming
  • 91. services. Howev- er, the company will also do reseeding, landscaping and foliage/tree planting, tree trimming and light irrigation system repair when necessary to keep their customer’s lawns watered and healthy. c) Basis of Competition Customers hire the Cutting Edge due to its reliability in showing up when they are supposed to, quality lawn service, as well as their ability to keep lawn sprinkler systems in good repair, sparing the homeowner of the inconvenience of calling a sprinkler repair for minor repairs such as broken or clogged sprin- kler heads, or other minor sprinkler system repairs. Startup Requirements* Given Costs The cost of registering a Limited Liability Company in Florida, filing fees listed at the bottom of the application form located at http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/
  • 92. cr2e047.pdf Business Insurance, estimated at $1000 per year No health benefits except for the owner of the business Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx6 10 http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Workman’s compensation fees The cost of the initial route of 100 homes, at a cost of $120,000
  • 93. Costs you should estimate through research, experience or other methods • Team equipment for lawn cutting, which includes equipment for a two- person team: • A pickup truck • A trailer • A large riding lawnmower • A smaller riding lawnmower • A push lawn-mower • Two gas-powered lawn-trimmers • Two gas-powered lawn edgers • Safety equipment for eyes and ear protection • Tools for minor equipment repair on the job • A drink cooler • 2 gas powered blowers • 2 tree/hedge trimmers • 2 long ladder • Buck Saws for cutting branches • The cost of 10 workers, two per team • All operating costs such as advertising, phone, as well a small 400 square
  • 94. foot office complete with utilities, internet a laptop computer and ac- counting software like QuickBooks, as well as office supplies, as well as annual depreciation on equipment. *if you have questions about startup requirements, or think other startup costs are necessary for the business are missing, then make an assumption and state it in the relevant section of the report. This list is not necessarily complete. Given Financial Assumptions* • The owner will be granted a loan for the initial startup, repayable over 10 years at current interest rates for small business loans • The owner will use personal funds to operate the business until it gener- ates enough cash flow to fund itself. Copyright ®© 2018
  • 95. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx7 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 • Essentially, 60% sales are made by credit card and 40% are made by check. All credit card sales are a paid to the restaurant daily by the credit card company. • 2.5% of sales is paid to a credit card company in fees • The average lawn service costs $150 per month. Irrigation repairs are
  • 96. minimal at an average of $50 per customer per year, landscaping and other services are about $200 per customer per year. • Equipment is depreciated on a straight-line basis over 5 years • The owner has health benefits, other workers do not. • Each lawn takes about 1.5 hours to cut and manicure, as well as any other repairs or extra services like tree or shrub trimming. • The entrepreneur will manage the company and draw a salary, but will not service lawns or perform other services. *If you believe any other assumptions are necessary, then please state them in your budget proposal Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
  • 97. Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx8 10 Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Business Profile: Wireless World - Wireless Device Retail Store Vision The vision of the entrepreneur is to create a single-location retail operation that sells portable wireless devices called Wireless World. The company sells phones, wireless eBook readers, high-end notebook and netbook computers, iPads, and other wireless computing devices. Strategy a) Market Focus/Analysis This store targets tech-savvy individuals who are mostly
  • 98. students from wealthy families or working adults between the ages of 22 and 49 years of age. These individuals either purchase the products because they love wireless gadgets, think the gadgets will improve their productivity, or think the wireless gadgets are fashionable and consistent with their lifestyle. The store is located in a high-end shopping center called Millennia Mall alongside Neiman Marcus, Macy’s and other high-end stores. b) Product Products are cutting edge wireless devices from brand name companies, as well as specialty companies that have unique products that are not readily available at other stores. c) Basis of Competition Customers shop at the store partly for the high-end shopping experience, knowledgeable staff, and superior customer service and return policies, and
  • 99. because of the broad selection of well-known, brand-name products, as well as lesser known companies with highly unique and innovative wireless devices. They also shop at the store because it is stocked with cutting edge products that are new to the market. Startup Requirements* Given Costs The cost of registering a Limited Liability Company in Florida, filing fees listed at the bottom of the application form located at http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Renovation of the facility expected to cost $25000 Business Insurance, estimated at $1000 per year Health and other benefits are 20% of the salaries of the manager and assistant manager Initial Investment in Inventory is $20,000 Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
  • 100. Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx9 10 http://form.sunbiz.org/pdf/cr2e047.pdf Course Project Description BUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Updated for March 2018 Costs you should estimate through research, experience or other methods • The cost of an average of 7 employees on the payroll. All operating costs, such as advertising, rent for a 3500 square foot facility with male and fe- male washrooms, already installed, utilities, maintenance, and annual de- preciation. *if you have questions about startup requirements, or think
  • 101. other startup costs are necessary for the business are missing, then make an assumption and state it in the relevant section of the report. Given Financial Assumptions* • The owner will be granted a loan for the initial startup, repayable over 10 years at current interest rates for small business loans • The owner will use personal funds to operate the business until it generates enough cash flow to fund itself. • Essentially, all sales are made by credit card. All credit card sales are a paid to the store daily by the credit card company • 2.5% of sales is paid to a credit card company in fees • Merchandise suppliers give 30 days of trade credit • Inventories are expected to be approximately 10% of the following month’s sales • Managers have health benefits, other workers do not. • The company will operate from 10:00 am to 9 pm, 6 days a week.
  • 102. • The entrepreneur will manage the store and draw a salary. *If you believe any other assumptions are necessary, then please state them in your budget proposal Copyright ®© 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior consent of Page of BUSN278 Course Project Description.docx10 10 Export SummaryThis document was exported from Numbers. Each table was converted to an Excel worksheet. All other objects on each Numbers sheet were placed on separate worksheets. Please be aware that formula calculations may differ in Excel.Numbers Sheet NameNumbers Table NameExcel
  • 103. Worksheet NameInstructionsTable 1Instructions2.1 & 2.2 Sales ForecastTable 12.1 & 2.2 Sales Forecast3.0 Capital Expenditure BudgetTable 13.0 Capital Expenditure Budget4.1 CashflowsTable 14.1 Cashflows4.2 NPV AnalysisTable 14.2 NPV Analysis4.3 Rate of Return CalculationsTable 14.3 Rate of Return Calculations4.4 Payback Period CalculationsTable 14.4 Payback Period Calculations5.0 Pro Forma FinancialsTable 15.0 Pro Forma Financials InstructionsBUSN278 Budgeting and Forecasting Template InstructionsUse this spreadsheet structure to lay out the various sections of your project.The purpose of this spreadsheet is to make it easy for your professor to locate the various sections of your project. Please don't alter the worksheet tabs or titles.After you finish your calculations in this spreadsheet, you will have tocreate a written report in which you take screenshots from this spreadsheetand put them in the Budget Proposal Template, along with necessary explanations. Detailed instructions for how to write the reportare found in the Budget Proposal Template, a Word document. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 2.1 & 2.2 Sales ForecastPut your sales forecasting calculations here. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P
  • 104. 3.0 Capital Expenditure Budget &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.1 CashflowsPut your detailed cash inflows and cash outflows here, also showing net cash flow. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.2 NPV AnalysisCreate an NPV analysis here. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.3 Rate of Return CalculationsShow your rate of return calculations in this worksheet. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 4.4 Payback Period CalculationsShow your payback period calculations here. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P 5.0 Pro Forma FinancialsPut your pro forma income statement, balance sheet, and cash budget here, along with any other supporting calculations or schedules. &"Helvetica Neue,Regular"&12&K000000&P