Running Head THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD APPLIED TO DIGITAL FORENSICS .docx

Running Head: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD APPLIED TO
DIGITAL FORENSICS 1
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD APPLIED TO DIGITAL
FORENSICS 7
The Scientific Method Applied To Digital Forensics
by student name
Professor D. Barrett
University
Course

Todays date
Abstract
Computer forensics is the process of digital investigation
combining technology, the science of discovery and the
methodical application of legal procedures. Judges and jurors
often do not understand the inner workings of computers and
rely on digital forensics experts to seek evidence and provide
reliable, irrefutable testimony based on their findings. The
scientific method is the process of diligent, disciplined
discovery where a hypothesis is formed without bias, and
analysis and testing is performed with the goal of effectively
proving or disproving a sound hypothesis. When investigative
teams do not follow standard investigative procedures it can
lead to inappropriate and inaccurate evidentiary presentations
that are extremely difficult for non-technical participants to
refute. The practitioners of digital forensics can make strides to
measure and improve the accuracy of their findings using the
scientific method. This paper includes a summary of the
scientific method as applied to the emerging and growing field
of digital forensics and presents details of a specific case where
both the prosecution and defense would have benefitted greatly
from the use of this proven method of discovery and analysis.
Findings can only be deemed reasonably conclusive when the
scientific process is correctly applied to an investigation,
findings are repeatable and verifiable, and where both the
evidence collected and the tools used are subject to the utmost
scrutiny.

The Scientific Method Applied To Digital Forensics
The forensic analyst and investigator must use a unique
combination of technical, investigative, and scientific skills
when approaching a forensic case. Most adults remember the
Scientific Method from their middle school science class as a
set of six steps beginning with stating a problem, gathering
information, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis,
analyzing the data and drawing conclusions that either support
or do not support the hypothesis. Peisert, Bishop, & Marzullo
(2008) note that the term computer forensics has evolved to
mean “scientific tests of techniques used with the detection of
crime” yet note that many academic computer scientists also use
the term to refer to the “process of logging, collecting, auditing
or analyzing data in a post hoc investigation”. The necessity to
maintain chain of custody requires methodical and detailed
procedures, as does the formulation of a legitimate and unbiased
hypothesis and conclusion using the scientific method. Since
many judges and jurors assume that computer forensic evidence
is as “reliable and conclusive” as it is depicted on television,
the legal system is unaware of the volatile nature of computer
forensics investigations and the significance of a scientific
approach to evidence gathering and analysis (Peisert et al.,
2008).
The Scientific Process as Applied to Computer Forensics
Peisert et al. (2008) discuss in detail the need for the use of the
scientific method in forensic investigations, not only for the
process of discovery and analysis of evidence, but for
measuring the accuracy of the forensic tools used in an
investigation. Casey (2010) agrees, and cautions that evidence
must be compared to known samples so that investigators better
understand the scope and context of the evidence that is
discovered or presented and to better understand the output of
forensic tools. Casey (2010) further elaborates that the
scientific method is a powerful tool for forensic investigators
who must be neutral fact finders rather than advocates for one

side of a case or the other.
The process of creating a hypothesis and completing
experiments to prove or disprove them allows an investigator to
gain a concrete understanding of the digital evidence or mere
traces of evidence under analysis. Casey (2010) also notes that
while there is no ethical requirement to do so and may be
impractical, a thorough investigative practice would consider
investigation of alternate scenarios presented by defense.
Forensic examination tools can contain bugs, or behave
differently with various types of data and forensic images.
Casey (2010) recommends that investigators examine evidence
at both the physical and logical layers since both methods can
provide unique perspectives, and the physical layer may not
yield deleted, corrupted or hidden data. Suspects with limited
technical experience can rename image files with different
extensions not used for images, and those with more technical
knowledge can use advanced steganography techniques to
embed data within other data in an attempt to defy detection.
The 2004 case of State of Connecticut v. Julie Amero in
Norwich, Connecticut is one where the scientific method was
clearly missing from both the defense and prosecution.
Eckelberry, Dardick, Folkerts, Shipp, Sites, Stewart, & Stuart
(2007) completed a comprehensive post-trial analysis of the
evidence as provided to the defense and discovered very
different evidentiary results using a structured scientific
approach to their investigation. Amero was a substitute
elementary teacher accused of displaying pornographic images
that appeared on pop-up’s to her students from what ultimately
was proven to be a spyware-infected school computer. The
credibility of the legal system was compromised and the
prosecution made a numerous incorrect assumptions based on
results provided from inadequate forensic tools and poor
investigative techniques (Eckelberry et al., 2007).
The computer that Amero was using in her classroom was a
Windows 98 machine running Internet Explorer 6.0.2800 and a
trial version of Cheyenne AntiVirus that had not received an

update in several years. The content filtering at the school had
expired several months prior to the incident. The prosecution
presented non-factual statements that may easily have been
misconstrued by a non-technical jury and that likely caused a
guilty verdict. The false testimony made by the school IT
specialist indicated that the virus protection was updated
weekly when in fact they were not since computer logs and the
signatures clearly showed that virus updates were no longer
supported by the vendor. The updates may have been performed
but against files that had no new updates for many months. The
IT Manager who testified also incorrectly claimed that adware
was not able to generate pornography and especially not
“endless loop pornography”. This information was received as
a fact by the non-technical jury and incredibly not refuted by
the defense. The detective for the prosecution also stated that
his testimony was based completely on the product
ComputerCop which the vendor admits is incapable of
determining if a website was visited purposefully or
unintentionally. The forensic detective astoundingly admitted
that he did not examine the computer for the presence of adware
(Eckelberry et al., 2007, p. 7-10).
The case against Amero was largely based on testimony
stating that she deliberately visited the offensive pornographic
websites and that the sites visited subsequently showed the links
in red. The post-trial investigative team quickly verified that
the ‘sites visited’ color setting in Internet Explorer on the
suspect machine was set to “96,100,32” which is a greenish-
gray color. One of the web pages that the defendant allegedly
visited had an HTML override to highlight one of the links
presented in red and was not colored based on a deliberate visit
to the site. According to Eckelberry et al. (2007) the page in
question was not discovered in “any of the caches or Internet
history files or the Internet History DAT files. The post-trial
investigative team through meticulous investigation and use of
the scientific method were able to present facts that were
“exculpatory evidence showing that the link was never clicked

on by the defendant” or any other person, and disproved most of
the statements made by the forensics examiner and the
witnesses for the prosecution (Eckelberry et al., 2007, p. 12-
14).
The prosecution testimony stated that there was no
evidence of uncontrollable pop ups found on the suspect
machine, however, the post-trial investigative team discovered
irrefutable evidence that the page in question was loaded
twenty-one times in one second using a computer forensics tool
called X-Ways Trace. Eckleberry et al. (2007) detail many
other instances where testimony was haphazard and discovered
that a Halloween screen saver was the source of the adware that
presented the continuous stream of pornographic sites. The
chain of custody was also compromised in that the disk image
was from a Dell PC but the defense witness saw a Gateway PC
stored at the police station. The officer reportedly seized a
computer but the police report contradicts this and states that
only a drive was taken (Eckelberry et al., 2007, p. 14-17).
The case described and investigated by Eckelberry et al.
(2007) resembles a staged blunder designed as a humorous
sample case for beginning forensic students to discuss. The
case was however very real and even though the defendant was
eventually acquitted she suffered lasting harm from the
notoriety based on the initial conviction of contributing to the
delinquency of minors. If the prosecution or defense had
investigated the evidence using the scientific method and
maintained a credible chain of custody, or at least used clear
critical thinking while performing a thorough forensic
investigation this case may never have gone to trial. It wasted
the time and resources of judge, jury, and countless other
participants in the trial and permanently damaged an innocent
victim (Eckelberry et al., 2007).
Conclusion
The scientific method is a process that allows confidence
in a hypothesis when it can be subjected to repeated identical
tests. The use of the scientific method not only provides a

methodical structure to a forensic investigation, it lends
credibility to a case in the very nature of the steps used to
document and diligently test any given hypothesis. The case
independently investigated post-trial by Eckelberry et al. (2007)
was performed by a team of trained experts who were well
aware of the necessity of the methodical requirements and
necessity of the scientific method of discovery. Their findings
proved that the suspect was in fact a victim of poorly
maintained computers by a local Connecticut school system,
that the forensic expert and witnesses who testified in the case
were untrained and uninformed and used inadequate tools for
the investigation. Cases such as State of Connecticut v. Julie
Amero illustrate the importance of using the scientific method,
and the necessity of proper training in the art and science of
digital forensics.
References
Carrier, B. (2002, October). Open Source Digital Forensics
Tools: The Legal Argument. In @ Stake Inc. Retrieved
September 8, 2011, from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.19.78
99&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Casey, E. (Ed.). (2010). Handbook of Digital Forensics and
Investigation (Kindle ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier, Inc.
Eckelberry, A., Dardick, G., Folkerts, J., Shipp, A., Sites, E.,
Stewart, J., & Stuart, R. (2007, March 21). Technical Review of
the Trial Testimony of State of Connecticut vs. Julie Amero.
Retrieved September 9, 2011, from http://www.sunbelt-
software.com/ihs/alex/julieamerosummary.pdf
Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2010). Guide to
Computer Forensics and Investigations (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
Course Technology, Cengage Learning.
Peisert, S., Bishop, M., & Marzullo, K. (2008, April).
Computer Forensics in Forensis. Retrieved September 8, 2011,
from

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.140.3
949&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Running head: GLOBAL MARKETING 1
GLOBAL MARKETING
5
Global Marketing
Global Marketing
Global marketing refers to tuning the marketing strategies of a
company to the conditions set by other countries. It mainly aims
at putting a company on a worldwide scale, where their products
and services fairly compete with others from the rest of the
world. With the expansion of companies internationally and
widespread use of the internet, failing to put one’s company on
a global scale exposes it to local competition from international
companies and possible collapse (Kotabe & Kristiaan, 2000).
Global marketing has a number of advantages. First, it increases
awareness of a product or service to potential consumers. The
consumers are able to come across such information on the

internet and decide on whether to purchase depending on the
information availed. Second, the effectiveness of a product or
service is improved through global marketing. This is because
with growth there comes learning and hence improvement.
Third, global marketing increases on saving while minimizing
costs. Lastly, global marketing gives a company a strong
competitive advantage.
Global marketing is a gradual process, and most companies
evolve at different speeds. It begins with a company focusing
first on the local market. A company needs to exhaust the home
market before deciding to venture outside. The company then
slowly starts to look at potential markets out of their home
country, mostly dealing in exports. As the company continues to
grow, they begin to market overseas to nearby countries. They
make wide use of the internet. Eventually, the company is able
to go global with representation in a number of countries.
There are two major marketing strategies used worldwide by
countries. The first one is marketing like no borders exist. This
has been made easier with the advance of the internet.
Companies try to develop a marketing approach that is friendly
to all countries, to ease in marketing. Another strategy is having
a strong and consistent brand culture. When a brand is properly
marketed, it becomes known and customers easily relate to it.
Strong brands sell themselves without much input from the
companies.
In order to place your company on the global scale, there are a
number of things to note. First, you need to identify and know
your market. It is important to understand your target market,
their cultural preferences, and their habits. This helps in
knowing how to interact with them. Also, the company needs to
have a marketing plan. This may be different from the local
marketing plan and customized according to the target region.
Third, tailor fit your approach so that it works for the target
audience. Finally, make your communications as local as
possible (De Mooij, 2018).
Despite all the information on global marketing, a majority of

companies still make mistakes when trying worldwide
expansions. The biggest mistake most companies make is not
including the locals on the marketing team. It is important to
include the locals because they clearly understand their culture
and language. Also, most companies tend to introduce a number
of products at a time, hence not giving their clients time to
adapt to the new products. Some companies have little or no
knowledge of global logistics. As a result, they may give the
wrong timings, currencies, and languages. These mistakes can
be avoided with a proper understanding of global marketing and
strategies involved as well as a thorough study and
understanding of various regions.
Starbucks
Starbucks identifies and understands the cultural preferences of
a region before expanding. The company aligns its menu with
the local tastes of a region. For example, in Hong Kong, they
have Dragon Dumplings. The company has managed to create a
strong brand culture by engaging local cultures.
Question
Do you think global marketing has proved to be effective in the
growth of businesses worldwide?
References

De Mooij, Marieke, 2018. GLOBAL MARKETING AND
ADVERTISING: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes. Sage
Publications Inc.
Kotabe, Masaaki, and Kristiaan Helsen, 2000. Global Marketing
Management. New Yoork, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.
Kotler, P. T., & Keller, K. L. (2016). Marketing management
(Custom 15th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, Inc. ISBN:
9780133856460.
1
RUNNING HEAD: The Importance of Marketing Research
2
The Importance of Marketing Research
The Importance of Marketing Research

The importance of marketing research
Marketing research can be described as “the function that links
the consumer, customer, and public to the marketer through
information.” (Kotler & Keller, 2016, p. 99) The information is
used to identify any marketing opportunities and problems,
generate marketing actions, monitor marketing performance,
and improve the overall marketing process. The marketing
research process is characterized by the following steps: (1)
Define the problem and research objectives (2) Develop the
research plan (3) Collect the information (4) Analyze the
information (5) Present the findings (6) Make the decision.
Larger corporations are more subject to having their own
marketing research department. In 2013, spending on marketing
research was $40.2 billion globally. Marketing research can be
conducted by both large and smaller firms. Some of the ways
that companies can conduct this research are listed below:
1. Engaging student or professors to design and carry out
projects
2. Using the internet
3. Checking out rivals
4. Tapping into marketing partner expertise
5. Tapping into employee creativity and wisdom
Marketing research is also being conducted through focus
groups, surveys, questionnaires, and experiments.
Understanding consumers and potential customers is a huge
factor in successfully conducting research to use in further
propelling a product or service. Many sources have found that
having a marketing research department or just the act of
conducting marketing research makes companies 10x more
successful. Some companies are hesitant to conduct market
research in order to avoid “negative feedback” (Staff, 2018)
Marketing research allows the marketers to understand
consumers in the most effective way. Understanding consumers
will ultimately determine the success or failure of the marketing

of the product or service. Marketers that are able to effectively
market to consumers will attract a stronger customer base.
Marketing research allows for companies to market the product
or service in a way that will engage their target market, making
them more likely to invest. Companies that do not engage in
marketing research are not going to be able to attract the right
target market. Having a target market allows for marketers to
focus their market research on areas that are going to attract the
customers that are more willing to purchase the product or
service.
Practical application
SAS, an analytics software and solution company,
describes the process that they take in conducting their market
research. This company, in particular, focuses on the customer
and what they research on a daily basis. SAS is able to tap into
every consumer’s interests by researching their online and in-
store activity. The company is then able to sell the data that
they collect to B2C’s. SAS has shifted to a more personal
approach when trying to reach and engage consumers, by using
personalized messages. For example, if Nike used SAS, they
would be able to send a direct personal message to consumer’s
who are researching athletic clothing. B2C’S that have the
consumer data can “better understand your customer data so that
you can hone the timing and relevance of your message.”
(Sweetwood, 2016) By using this research, the companies that
use SAS are able to reach their potential customers at the right
times, depending on their needs. SAS uses data to better fit the
customer’s purchasing journey: Need, research, decide, adopt,
use, recommend. These factors in the purchasing journey all
pertain to where the consumer stands in making their purchase
decision.
Having this information as a B2C is crucial in whether or not
there will be success in the market approaches. Analytics of
consumer activity is a great way for companies to better
understand the market and their potential customers. Without an

understanding of the needs and wants of consumers, a company
will not be successful. Consumers are more interested in
companies that market to them exactly what they want and need.
Having a better understanding of consumers and how to
approach the marketing of the product or service comes along
by conducting market research. As stated before, without market
research, a company will not be able to reach their target market
or any competing market.
Frito-Lay used social media in choosing what their next chip
flavor would be. They used the social media platform,
Facebook, and also conducted many survey panels. In this they
tapped into their consumers wants in creating their next flavor.
Frito-Lay would post consumer ideas and then took polls on
which the majority of the consumers would like to see. They
had flavors from onion ring to cappuccino. Although I never
tried one of those random flavors, they were very popular while
they lasted. This approach to marketing research engaged
consumers in deciding the next step for Frito-Lay. The approach
was riskier, but the increase in customer base for the company
was significant.
Question on the importance of marketing research
Do you see any shifts in marketing research over the next
decade? And if so, where do you see it going?
Reference
Kotler, P., & Keller, K. L. (2016). Marketing Management.
Boston: Pearson Education .
Staff, E. (2018, September 18). Conducting Market Research.
Retrieved from Entrepreneur :
https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/217388
Sweetwood, A. (2016, August 23). How One Company Used
Data To Rethink The Customer Journey . Retrieved from
Harvard Business Review : https://hbr.org/2016/08/how-one-
company-used-data-to-rethink-the-customer-journey

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chapter
11
Creating
Brand Equity
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Learning Objectives
What is a brand, and how does branding work?
What is brand equity?
How is brand equity built?
How is brand equity measured?
How is brand equity managed?
What is brand architecture?
What is customer equity?
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How Does
Branding Work?American Marketing Association
A brand is “a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a
combination of them, intended to identify the goods or services
of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from

those of competitors”
A brand is thus a product or service whose dimensions
differentiate it in some way from other products or services
designed to satisfy the same need. These differences may be
functional, rational, or tangible—related to product performance
of the brand. They may also be more symbolic, emotional, or
intangible— related to what the brand represents or means in a
more abstract sense.
*
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The role of brandsBrands’ role for consumers
Set and fulfill expectations
Reduce risk
Simplify decision making
Take on personal meaning
Become part of identity
A brand is a promise between the firm and the consumer.
*
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The role of brandsBrands’ role for firms
Simplify product handling
Organize inventory & accounting
Offer legal protection
Create brand loyalty
Secure competitive advantage

To firms, brands represent enormously valuable pieces of legal
property that can influence consumer behavior, be bought and
sold, and provide their owner the security of sustained future
revenues. Companies have paid dearly for brands in mergers or
acquisitions, often justifying the price premium on the basis of
the extra profits expected and the difficulty and expense of
creating similar brands from scratch. Wall Street believes strong
brands result in better earnings and profit performance for
firms, which, in turn, create greater value for shareholders.
*
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The Scope of BrandingBranding
The process of endowing products and services with the power
of a brand
It’s all about creating differences between products. Marketers
need to teach consumers “who” the product is—by giving it a
name and other brand elements to identify it—as well as what
the product does and why consumers should care. Branding
creates mental structures that help consumers organize their
knowledge about products and services in a way that clarifies
their decision making and, in the process, provides value to the
firm.
*
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Defining Brand EquityBrand equity
Added value endowed to products with consumers

Brand equity may be reflected in the way consumers think, feel,
and act with respect to the brand, as well as in the prices,
market share, and profitability it commands.
*
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Defining Brand EquityCustomer-based brand equity
The differential effect brand knowledge has on consumer
response to the marketing of that brand
Differences in consumer response
Brand knowledge
Perceptions, preferences, and behavior
A brand has positive customer-based brand equity when
consumers react more favorably to a product and the way it is
marketed when the brand is identified than when it is not
identified. A brand has negative customer-based brand equity if
consumers react less favorably to marketing activity for the
brand under the same circumstances.
*
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Defining Brand EquityBrand promise
The marketer’s vision of what the brand must be and do for
consumers
Virgin’s brand promise is to enter categories where customers’
needs are not well met, do different things, and do things
differently, all in a way that better meets those needs. With
Virgin America, the company appears to have come up with

another brand winner.
*
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Brand Equity Models
BrandAsset® Valuator
Brandz
Brand Resonance Model
Although marketers agree about basic branding principles, a
number of models of brand equity offer some differing
perspectives. Here we highlight three more established ones.
*
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Brand Equity ModelsBrandAsset® Valuator
Energized differentiation
Relevance
Esteem
Knowledge
Advertising agency Young and Rubicam (Y&R) developed a
model of brand equity called the BrandAsset® Valuator (BAV).
There are four key components—or pillars—of brand equity,
according to BAV (see Figure 11.1). Energized differentiation
measures the degree to which a brand is seen as different from
others as well as its pricing power. Relevance measures the
appropriateness and breadth of a brand’s appeal. Esteem
measures perceptions of quality and loyalty, or how well the
brand is regarded and respected. Knowledge measures how

aware and familiar consumers are with the brand and the depth
of their experience.
Energized differentiation and relevance combine to determine
brand strength—a leading indicator that predicts future growth
value. Esteem and knowledge together create brand stature, a
“report card” of past performance and a lagging indicator of
current operating value.
*
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Figure 11.2
The Universe of Brand Performance
The relationships among these dimensions—a brand’s “pillar
pattern”—reveal much about a brand’s current and future status.
Brand strength and brand stature combine to form the power
grid, depicting stages in the cycle of brand development in
successive quadrants (see Figure 11.2). Strong new brands show
higher levels of energized differentiation and energy than
relevance, whereas both esteem and knowledge are lower still.
Leadership brands show high levels on all pillars, with strength
greater than stature. As strength slips, they become mass market
brands. Finally, declining brands show high knowledge—
evidence of past performance—a lower level of esteem, and
even lower relevance and energized differentiation.
*
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Brand Equity ModelsBrandz
Meaningful, different, & salient associations
Power, premium, & potential outcomes
Marketing research consultants Millward Brown and WPP have
developed the Brandz model of brand strength, at the heart of
which is the BrandDynamics™ model, a system of brand equity
measurements, based on Millward Brown’s Meaningfully
Different Framework, that reveals a brand’s current equity and
opportunities for growth (Figure 11.3).* BrandDynamics
employs a set of simple scores that summarize a brand’s equity
and are relatable directly to real world financial and business
outcomes. BrandDynamics maintain that three different types of
brand associations are crucial for building customer
predisposition to buy a brand—meaningful, different, and
salient brand associations. The success of a brand along those
three dimensions, in turn, is reflected in three important
outcome measures:
Power: a prediction of the brand’s volume share
Premium: a brand’s ability to command a price premium
relative to the category average
Potential: the probability that a brand will grow value share
*
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Brand Equity ModelsBrand Resonance Pyramid
The brand resonance model also views brand building as an
ascending series of steps, from bottom to top: (1) ensuring
customers identify the brand and associate it with a specific
product class or need; (2) firmly establishing the brand meaning
in customers’ minds by strategically linking a host of tangible
and intangible brand associations; (3) eliciting the proper

customer responses in terms of brand-related judgment and
feelings; and (4) converting customers’ brand responses to
intense, active loyalty.
According to this model, enacting the four steps means
establishing a pyramid of six “brand building blocks” as
illustrated in Figure 11.4. The model emphasizes the duality of
brands—the rational route to brand building is on the left side
of the pyramid, and the emotional route is on the right side.
Creating significant brand equity requires reaching the top of
the brand pyramid, which occurs only if the right building
blocks are put into place.
• Brand salience is how often and how easily customers think of
the brand under various purchase or consumption situations—
the depth and breadth of brand awareness.
• Brand performance is how well the product or service meets
customers’ functional needs.
• Brand imagery describes the extrinsic properties of the
product or service, including the ways in which the brand
attempts to meet customers’ psychological or social needs.
• Brand judgments focus on customers’ own personal opinions
and evaluations.
• Brand feelings are customers’ emotional responses and
reactions with respect to the brand.
• Brand resonance describes the relationship customers have
with the brand and the extent to which they feel they’re “in
sync” with it.
*
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Building Brand EquityBrand equity drivers

Brand element or identity choices
Product & accompanying marketing
Other associations
Brand elements are devices, which can be trademarked, that
identify and differentiate the brand. Most strong brands employ
multiple brand elements. Nike has the distinctive “swoosh”
logo, the empowering “Just Do It” slogan, and the “Nike” name
from the Greek winged goddess of victory.
*
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Building Brand EquityBrand element choice criteria
Memorable
Meaningful
Likable
Transferable
Adaptable
Protectable
There are six criteria for choosing brand elements. The first
three—memorable, meaningful, and likable—are brand building.
The latter three—transferable, adaptable, and protectable—are
defensive and help leverage and preserve brand equity against
challenges.
*
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Designing Holistic Marketing ActivitiesBrand contact
Any information-bearing experience (positive or negative) a

customer or prospect has with the brand, its product category,
or its market
Brands are not built by advertising alone. Customers come to
know a brand through a range of contacts and touch points:
personal observation and use, word of mouth, interactions with
company personnel, online or telephone experiences, and
payment transactions. Integrated marketing is about mixing and
matching marketing activities to maximize their individual and
collective effects. Marketers need a variety of different
marketing activities that consistently reinforce the brand
promise.
*
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Leveraging
Secondary Associations
The third and final way to build brand equity is, in effect, to
“borrow” it. That is, create brand equity by linking the brand to
other information in memory that conveys meaning to
consumers (see Figure 11.5). These “secondary” brand
associations can link the brand to sources such as the company
itself (through branding strategies), to countries or other
geographical regions (through identification of product origin),
and to channels of distribution (through channel strategy), as
well as to other brands (through ingredient or co-branding),
characters (through licensing), spokespeople (through
endorsements), sporting or cultural events (through
sponsorship), or some other third-party sources (through awards
or reviews).
*

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INTERNAL BRANDINGActivities and processes that help
inform/inspire employees about brands
Choose the right moment
Bring the brand alive for employees
Link internal & external marketing
Keep it simple
Marketers must now “walk the walk” to deliver the brand
promise. They must adopt an internal perspective to be sure
employees and marketing partners appreciate and understand
basic branding notions and how they can help—or hurt—brand
equity.
When employees care about and believe in the brand, they’re
motivated to work harder and feel greater loyalty to the firm.
Some important principles for internal branding are:
Choose the right moment. Turning points are ideal opportunities
to capture employees’ attention and imagination.
Link internal and external marketing. Internal and external
messages must match.
Bring the brand alive for employees. Internal communications
should be informative and energizing.
Keep it simple. Don’t overwhelm employees with too many
details. Focus on the key brand pillars, ideally in the form of a
brand mantra.
*
11-*

Measuring Brand EquityBrand value chain
The brand value chain is a structured approach to assessing the
sources and outcomes of brand equity and the way marketing
activities create brand value (Figure 11.6). Brand value creation
begins when the firm targets actual or potential customers by
investing in a marketing program to develop the brand,
including marketing communications, trade or intermediary
support, and product research, development, and design. Next,
these customers’ mind-sets will affect buying behavior and the
way consumers respond to all subsequent marketing activity—
pricing, channels, communications, and the product itself—and
the resulting market share and profitability of the brand.
Finally, the investment community will consider this market
performance of the brand to assess shareholder value in general
and the value of a brand in particular.
*
11-*
Measuring Brand EquityBrand audit
Brand-tracking studies
Brand valuation
A brand audit is a focused series of procedures to assess the
health of the brand, uncover its sources of brand equity, and
suggest ways to improve and leverage its equity.
Brand-tracking studies use the brand audit as input to collect
quantitative data from consumers over time, providing
consistent, baseline information about how brands and
marketing programs are performing. Tracking studies help us
understand where, how much, and in what ways brand value is

being created to facilitate day-to-day decision making.
Marketers should distinguish brand equity from brand valuation,
which is the job of estimating the total financial value of the
brand.
*
11-*
Measuring Brand Equity
Table 11.2 displays the world’s most valuable brands in 2012
according to the Interbrand rankings, as described below in
“Marketing Insight: What Is a Brand Worth?”61 In these well-
known companies, brand value is typically more than half the
total company market capitalization.
*
11-*
Figure 11.7
Interbrand Brand Valuation Method
Top brand-management firm Interbrand has developed a model
to formally estimate the dollar value of a brand. It defines brand
value as the net present value of the future earnings that can be
attributed to the brand alone. The firm believes marketing and
financial analyses are equally important in determining the
value of a brand. Its process follows five steps (see Figure 11.7
for a schematic overview).
*

11-*
Managing Brand EquityBrand reinforcement
Requires the brand always be moving forwardBrand
revitalization
Almost any kind starts with the product
As a company’s major enduring asset, a brand needs to be
carefully managed so its value does not depreciate. Brand
leaders of 70 years ago that remain leaders today—companies
such as Wrigley’s, Coca-Cola, Heinz, and Campbell Soup—only
do so by constantly striving to improve their products, services,
and marketing. Marketers can reinforce brand equity by
consistently conveying the brand’s meaning in terms of (1) what
products it represents, what core benefits it supplies, and what
needs it satisfies; and (2) how the brand makes products
superior and which strong, favorable, and unique brand
associations should exist in consumers’ minds.
A number of brands have managed to make impressive
comebacks in recent years.68 After some hard times in the
automotive market, Cadillac, Fiat, and Volkswagen have all
turned their brand fortunes around to varying degrees. Often,
the first thing to do in revitalizing a brand is understand what
the sources of brand equity were to begin with. Are positive
associations losing their strength or uniqueness? Have negative
associations become linked to the brand? Then decide whether
to retain the same positioning or create a new one and, if so,
which new one.
*

11-*
Devising a
Branding Strategy
Can develop new brand elements for new product
Can apply some of existing brand elements
Can use a combination of new & existing brand elements
A firm’s branding strategy—often called its brand
architecture—reflects the number and nature of both common
and distinctive brand elements. Deciding how to brand new
products is especially critical. A firm has three main choices
listed in this slide.
*
11-*
Devising a
Branding StrategyBrand extensionSub-brandParent
brandMaster/family brandLine extensionCategory
extensionBrand lineBrand mixBranded variantsLicensed product
When a firm uses an established brand to introduce a new
product, the product is called a brand extension. When
marketers combine a new brand with an existing brand, the
brand extension can also be called a subbrand, such as Hershey
Kisses candy, Adobe Acrobat software, Toyota Camry
automobiles, and American Express Blue cards. The existing
brand that gives birth to a brand extension or sub-brand is the
parent brand. If the parent brand is already associated with
multiple products through brand extensions, it can also be
called a master brand or family brand.

Brand extensions fall into two general categories. In a line
extension, the parent brand covers a new product within a
product category it currently serves, such as with new flavors,
forms, colors, ingredients, and package sizes. In a category
extension, marketers use the parent brand to enter a different
product category, such as Swiss Army watches.
A brand line consists of all products—original as well as line
and category extensions—sold under a particular brand. A brand
mix (or brand assortment) is the set of all brand lines that a
particular seller makes. Many companies are introducing
branded variants, which are specific brand lines supplied to
specific retailers or distribution channels.
A licensed product is one whose brand name has been licensed
to other manufacturers that actually make the product.
*
11-*
Branding DecisionsAlternative branding strategies
Individual or separate
family brand names
Corporate umbrella or company brand name
Sub-brand name
Assuming a firm decides to brand its products or services, it
must choose which brand names to use. Three general strategies
are popular:
Individual or separate family brand names. Consumer packaged-
goods companies have a long tradition of branding different
products by different names.

Corporate umbrella or company brand name. Many firms, such
as Heinz and GE, use their corporate brand as an umbrella brand
across their entire range of products.
Sub-brand name. Sub-brands combine two or more of the
corporate brand, family brand, or individual product brand
names.
*
11-*
Branding DecisionsHouse of brands
A branded house
Flagship product
The use of individual or separate family brand names has been
referred to as a “house of brands” strategy, whereas the use of
an umbrella corporate or company brand name is a “branded
house” strategy. These two strategies represent two ends of a
continuum. A sub-brand strategy falls somewhere between,
depending on which component of the sub-brand receives more
emphasis.
With a branded house strategy, it is often useful to have a well-
defined flagship product. A flagship product is one that best
represents or embodies the brand as a whole to consumers. It
often is the first product by which the brand gained fame, a
widely accepted best-seller, or a highly admired or award-
winning product.
*

11-*
Brand PortfoliosThe set of all brands and brand lines a
particular firm offers for sale in a particular category or market
segment
Flankers
Low-end entry level
Cash cows
High-end prestige
A brand can be stretched only so far, and all the segments the
firm would like to target may not view the same brand equally
favorably. Marketers often need multiple brands in order to
pursue these multiple segments. The hallmark of an optimal
brand portfolio is the ability of each brand in it to maximize
equity in combination with all the other brands in it. Brands can
also play a number of specific roles as part of a portfolio.
Flanker or fighter brands are positioned with respect to
competitors’ brands so that more important (and more
profitable) flagship brands can retain their desired positioning.
Some brands may be kept around despite dwindling sales
because they manage to maintain their profitability with
virtually no marketing support. Companies can effectively milk
these “cash cow” brands by capitalizing on their reservoir of
brand equity.
The role of a relatively low-priced brand in the portfolio often
may be to attract customers to the brand franchise. Retailers
like to feature these “traffic builders” because they are able to
trade up customers to a higher-priced brand.
The role of a relatively high-priced brand often is to add
prestige and credibility to the entire portfolio.
*

11-*
Brand ExtensionsIntroducing a host of new products under a
firm’s strongest brand names
Improved odds of new-product success
Positive feedback effects
Risk of brand dilution
May harm parent brand
Firm forgoes creating new brand
Most new products are in fact brand extensions—typically 80
percent to 90 percent in any one year. Moreover, many of the
most successful new products, as rated by various sources, are
brand extensions. Two main advantages of brand extensions are
that they can facilitate new-product acceptance and provide
positive feedback to the parent brand and company.
On the downside, line extensions may cause the brand name to
be less strongly identified with any one product. Brand dilution
occurs when consumers no longer associate a brand with a
specific or highly similar set of products and start thinking less
of the brand. The worst possible scenario is for an extension not
only to fail, but to harm the parent brand in the process. One
easily overlooked disadvantage of brand extensions is that the
firm forgoes the chance to create a new brand with its own
unique image and equity.
*
11-*
Brand Extensions

Marketers must judge each potential brand extension by how
effectively it leverages existing brand equity from the parent
brand as well as how effectively, in turn, it contributes to the
parent brand’s equity. Marketers should ask a number of
questions in judging the potential success of an extension. To
help answer these questions, Table 11.3 offers a sample
scorecard with specific weights and dimensions that users can
adjust for each application.
*
11-*
CUSTOMER EQUITYThe sum of lifetime values of all
customersIs affected by customer acquisition, retention, and
cross-selling
We can relate brand equity to one other important marketing
concept: customer equity. The aim of customer relationship
management (CRM) is to produce high customer equity.
As Chapter 5 reviewed, customer lifetime value is affected by
revenue and by the costs of customer acquisition, retention, and
cross-selling.
Acquisition depends on the number of prospects, the acquisition
probability of a prospect, and acquisition spending per prospect.
Retention is influenced by the retention rate and retention
spending level.
Add-on spending is a function of the efficiency of add-on
selling, the number of add-on selling offers given to existing
customers, and the response rate to new offers.

Both brand equity and customer equity matter. There are no
brands without customers and no customers without brands.
Brands serve as the “bait” that retailers and other channel
intermediaries use to attract customers from whom they extract
value. Customers are the tangible profit engine for brands to
monetize their brand value.
*
11-*
A brand is thus a product or service whose dimensions
differentiate it in some way from other products or services
designed to satisfy the same need. These differences may be
functional, rational, or tangible—related to product performance
of the brand. They may also be more symbolic, emotional, or
intangible— related to what the brand represents or means in a
more abstract sense.
*
A brand is a promise between the firm and the consumer.
*
To firms, brands represent enormously valuable pieces of legal
property that can influence consumer behavior, be bought and
sold, and provide their owner the security of sustained future
revenues. Companies have paid dearly for brands in mergers or
acquisitions, often justifying the price premium on the basis of
the extra profits expected and the difficulty and expense of
creating similar brands from scratch. Wall Street believes strong
brands result in better earnings and profit performance for
firms, which, in turn, create greater value for shareholders.
*
It’s all about creating differences between products. Marketers
need to teach consumers “who” the product is—by giving it a

name and other brand elements to identify it—as well as what
the product does and why consumers should care. Branding
creates mental structures that help consumers organize their
knowledge about products and services in a way that clarifies
their decision making and, in the process, provides value to the
firm.
*
Brand equity may be reflected in the way consumers think, feel,
and act with respect to the brand, as well as in the prices,
market share, and profitability it commands.
*
A brand has positive customer-based brand equity when
consumers react more favorably to a product and the way it is
marketed when the brand is identified than when it is not
identified. A brand has negative customer-based brand equity if
consumers react less favorably to marketing activity for the
brand under the same circumstances.
*
Virgin’s brand promise is to enter categories where customers’
needs are not well met, do different things, and do things
differently, all in a way that better meets those needs. With
Virgin America, the company appears to have come up with
another brand winner.
*
Although marketers agree about basic branding principles, a
number of models of brand equity offer some differing
perspectives. Here we highlight three more established ones.
*
Advertising agency Young and Rubicam (Y&R) developed a
model of brand equity called the BrandAsset® Valuator (BAV).
There are four key components—or pillars—of brand equity,
according to BAV (see Figure 11.1). Energized differentiation
measures the degree to which a brand is seen as different from
others as well as its pricing power. Relevance measures the
appropriateness and breadth of a brand’s appeal. Esteem
measures perceptions of quality and loyalty, or how well the

brand is regarded and respected. Knowledge measures how
aware and familiar consumers are with the brand and the depth
of their experience.
Energized differentiation and relevance combine to determine
brand strength—a leading indicator that predicts future growth
value. Esteem and knowledge together create brand stature, a
“report card” of past performance and a lagging indicator of
current operating value.
*
The relationships among these dimensions—a brand’s “pillar
pattern”—reveal much about a brand’s current and future status.
Brand strength and brand stature combine to form the power
grid, depicting stages in the cycle of brand development in
successive quadrants (see Figure 11.2). Strong new brands show
higher levels of energized differentiation and energy than
relevance, whereas both esteem and knowledge are lower still.
Leadership brands show high levels on all pillars, with strength
greater than stature. As strength slips, they become mass market
brands. Finally, declining brands show high knowledge—
evidence of past performance—a lower level of esteem, and
even lower relevance and energized differentiation.
*
Marketing research consultants Millward Brown and WPP have
developed the Brandz model of brand strength, at the heart of
which is the BrandDynamics™ model, a system of brand equity
measurements, based on Millward Brown’s Meaningfully
Different Framework, that reveals a brand’s current equity and
opportunities for growth (Figure 11.3).* BrandDynamics
employs a set of simple scores that summarize a brand’s equity
and are relatable directly to real world financial and business
outcomes. BrandDynamics maintain that three different types of
brand associations are crucial for building customer
predisposition to buy a brand—meaningful, different, and
salient brand associations. The success of a brand along those
three dimensions, in turn, is reflected in three important

outcome measures:
Power: a prediction of the brand’s volume share
Premium: a brand’s ability to command a price premium
relative to the category average
Potential: the probability that a brand will grow value share
*
The brand resonance model also views brand building as an
ascending series of steps, from bottom to top: (1) ensuring
customers identify the brand and associate it with a specific
product class or need; (2) firmly establishing the brand meaning
in customers’ minds by strategically linking a host of tangible
and intangible brand associations; (3) eliciting the proper
customer responses in terms of brand-related judgment and
feelings; and (4) converting customers’ brand responses to
intense, active loyalty.
According to this model, enacting the four steps means
establishing a pyramid of six “brand building blocks” as
illustrated in Figure 11.4. The model emphasizes the duality of
brands—the rational route to brand building is on the left side
of the pyramid, and the emotional route is on the right side.
Creating significant brand equity requires reaching the top of
the brand pyramid, which occurs only if the right building
blocks are put into place.
• Brand salience is how often and how easily customers think of
the brand under various purchase or consumption situations—
the depth and breadth of brand awareness.
• Brand performance is how well the product or service meets
customers’ functional needs.
• Brand imagery describes the extrinsic properties of the
product or service, including the ways in which the brand
attempts to meet customers’ psychological or social needs.
• Brand judgments focus on customers’ own personal opinions
and evaluations.

• Brand feelings are customers’ emotional responses and
reactions with respect to the brand.
• Brand resonance describes the relationship customers have
with the brand and the extent to which they feel they’re “in
sync” with it.
*
Brand elements are devices, which can be trademarked, that
identify and differentiate the brand. Most strong brands employ
multiple brand elements. Nike has the distinctive “swoosh”
logo, the empowering “Just Do It” slogan, and the “Nike” name
from the Greek winged goddess of victory.
*
There are six criteria for choosing brand elements. The first
three—memorable, meaningful, and likable—are brand building.
The latter three—transferable, adaptable, and protectable—are
defensive and help leverage and preserve brand equity against
challenges.
*
Brands are not built by advertising alone. Customers come to
know a brand through a range of contacts and touch points:
personal observation and use, word of mouth, interactions with
company personnel, online or telephone experiences, and
payment transactions. Integrated marketing is about mixing and
matching marketing activities to maximize their individual and
collective effects. Marketers need a variety of different
marketing activities that consistently reinforce the brand
promise.
*
The third and final way to build brand equity is, in effect, to
“borrow” it. That is, create brand equity by linking the brand to
other information in memory that conveys meaning to
consumers (see Figure 11.5). These “secondary” brand
associations can link the brand to sources such as the company
itself (through branding strategies), to countries or other
geographical regions (through identification of product origin),
and to channels of distribution (through channel strategy), as

well as to other brands (through ingredient or co-branding),
characters (through licensing), spokespeople (through
endorsements), sporting or cultural events (through
sponsorship), or some other third-party sources (through awards
or reviews).
*
Marketers must now “walk the walk” to deliver the brand
promise. They must adopt an internal perspective to be sure
employees and marketing partners appreciate and understand
basic branding notions and how they can help—or hurt—brand
equity.
When employees care about and believe in the brand, they’re
motivated to work harder and feel greater loyalty to the firm.
Some important principles for internal branding are:
Choose the right moment. Turning points are ideal opportunities
to capture employees’ attention and imagination.
Link internal and external marketing. Internal and external
messages must match.
Bring the brand alive for employees. Internal communications
should be informative and energizing.
Keep it simple. Don’t overwhelm employees with too many
details. Focus on the key brand pillars, ideally in the form of a
brand mantra.
*
The brand value chain is a structured approach to assessing the
sources and outcomes of brand equity and the way marketing
activities create brand value (Figure 11.6). Brand value creation
begins when the firm targets actual or potential customers by
investing in a marketing program to develop the brand,
including marketing communications, trade or intermediary
support, and product research, development, and design. Next,
these customers’ mind-sets will affect buying behavior and the
way consumers respond to all subsequent marketing activity—
pricing, channels, communications, and the product itself—and

the resulting market share and profitability of the brand.
Finally, the investment community will consider this market
performance of the brand to assess shareholder value in general
and the value of a brand in particular.
*
A brand audit is a focused series of procedures to assess the
health of the brand, uncover its sources of brand equity, and
suggest ways to improve and leverage its equity.
Brand-tracking studies use the brand audit as input to collect
quantitative data from consumers over time, providing
consistent, baseline information about how brands and
marketing programs are performing. Tracking studies help us
understand where, how much, and in what ways brand value is
being created to facilitate day-to-day decision making.
Marketers should distinguish brand equity from brand valuation,
which is the job of estimating the total financial value of the
brand.
*
Table 11.2 displays the world’s most valuable brands in 2012
according to the Interbrand rankings, as described below in
“Marketing Insight: What Is a Brand Worth?”61 In these well-
known companies, brand value is typically more than half the
total company market capitalization.
*
Top brand-management firm Interbrand has developed a model
to formally estimate the dollar value of a brand. It defines brand
value as the net present value of the future earnings that can be
attributed to the brand alone. The firm believes marketing and
financial analyses are equally important in determining the
value of a brand. Its process follows five steps (see Figure 11.7
for a schematic overview).
*
As a company’s major enduring asset, a brand needs to be
carefully managed so its value does not depreciate. Brand

leaders of 70 years ago that remain leaders today—companies
such as Wrigley’s, Coca-Cola, Heinz, and Campbell Soup—only
do so by constantly striving to improve their products, services,
and marketing. Marketers can reinforce brand equity by
consistently conveying the brand’s meaning in terms of (1) what
products it represents, what core benefits it supplies, and what
needs it satisfies; and (2) how the brand makes products
superior and which strong, favorable, and unique brand
associations should exist in consumers’ minds.
A number of brands have managed to make impressive
comebacks in recent years.68 After some hard times in the
automotive market, Cadillac, Fiat, and Volkswagen have all
turned their brand fortunes around to varying degrees. Often,
the first thing to do in revitalizing a brand is understand what
the sources of brand equity were to begin with. Are positive
associations losing their strength or uniqueness? Have negative
associations become linked to the brand? Then decide whether
to retain the same positioning or create a new one and, if so,
which new one.
*
A firm’s branding strategy—often called its brand
architecture—reflects the number and nature of both common
and distinctive brand elements. Deciding how to brand new
products is especially critical. A firm has three main choices
listed in this slide.
*
When a firm uses an established brand to introduce a new
product, the product is called a brand extension. When
marketers combine a new brand with an existing brand, the
brand extension can also be called a subbrand, such as Hershey
Kisses candy, Adobe Acrobat software, Toyota Camry
automobiles, and American Express Blue cards. The existing
brand that gives birth to a brand extension or sub-brand is the
parent brand. If the parent brand is already associated with
multiple products through brand extensions, it can also be

called a master brand or family brand.
Brand extensions fall into two general categories. In a line
extension, the parent brand covers a new product within a
product category it currently serves, such as with new flavors,
forms, colors, ingredients, and package sizes. In a category
extension, marketers use the parent brand to enter a different
product category, such as Swiss Army watches.
A brand line consists of all products—original as well as line
and category extensions—sold under a particular brand. A brand
mix (or brand assortment) is the set of all brand lines that a
particular seller makes. Many companies are introducing
branded variants, which are specific brand lines supplied to
specific retailers or distribution channels.
A licensed product is one whose brand name has been licensed
to other manufacturers that actually make the product.
*
Assuming a firm decides to brand its products or services, it
must choose which brand names to use. Three general strategies
are popular:
Individual or separate family brand names. Consumer packaged-
goods companies have a long tradition of branding different
products by different names.
Corporate umbrella or company brand name. Many firms, such
as Heinz and GE, use their corporate brand as an umbrella brand
across their entire range of products.
Sub-brand name. Sub-brands combine two or more of the
corporate brand, family brand, or individual product brand
names.
*
The use of individual or separate family brand names has been

referred to as a “house of brands” strategy, whereas the use of
an umbrella corporate or company brand name is a “branded
house” strategy. These two strategies represent two ends of a
continuum. A sub-brand strategy falls somewhere between,
depending on which component of the sub-brand receives more
emphasis.
With a branded house strategy, it is often useful to have a well-
defined flagship product. A flagship product is one that best
represents or embodies the brand as a whole to consumers. It
often is the first product by which the brand gained fame, a
widely accepted best-seller, or a highly admired or award-
winning product.
*
A brand can be stretched only so far, and all the segments the
firm would like to target may not view the same brand equally
favorably. Marketers often need multiple brands in order to
pursue these multiple segments. The hallmark of an optimal
brand portfolio is the ability of each brand in it to maximize
equity in combination with all the other brands in it. Brands can
also play a number of specific roles as part of a portfolio.
Flanker or fighter brands are positioned with respect to
competitors’ brands so that more important (and more
profitable) flagship brands can retain their desired positioning.
Some brands may be kept around despite dwindling sales
because they manage to maintain their profitability with
virtually no marketing support. Companies can effectively milk
these “cash cow” brands by capitalizing on their reservoir of
brand equity.
The role of a relatively low-priced brand in the portfolio often
may be to attract customers to the brand franchise. Retailers
like to feature these “traffic builders” because they are able to
trade up customers to a higher-priced brand.

The role of a relatively high-priced brand often is to add
prestige and credibility to the entire portfolio.
*
Most new products are in fact brand extensions—typically 80
percent to 90 percent in any one year. Moreover, many of the
most successful new products, as rated by various sources, are
brand extensions. Two main advantages of brand extensions are
that they can facilitate new-product acceptance and provide
positive feedback to the parent brand and company.
On the downside, line extensions may cause the brand name to
be less strongly identified with any one product. Brand dilution
occurs when consumers no longer associate a brand with a
specific or highly similar set of products and start thinking less
of the brand. The worst possible scenario is for an extension not
only to fail, but to harm the parent brand in the process. One
easily overlooked disadvantage of brand extensions is that the
firm forgoes the chance to create a new brand with its own
unique image and equity.
*
Marketers must judge each potential brand extension by how
effectively it leverages existing brand equity from the parent
brand as well as how effectively, in turn, it contributes to the
parent brand’s equity. Marketers should ask a number of
questions in judging the potential success of an extension. To
help answer these questions, Table 11.3 offers a sample
scorecard with specific weights and dimensions that users can
adjust for each application.
*
We can relate brand equity to one other important marketing
concept: customer equity. The aim of customer relationship
management (CRM) is to produce high customer equity.
As Chapter 5 reviewed, customer lifetime value is affected by
revenue and by the costs of customer acquisition, retention, and

cross-selling.
Acquisition depends on the number of prospects, the acquisition
probability of a prospect, and acquisition spending per prospect.
Retention is influenced by the retention rate and retention
spending level.
Add-on spending is a function of the efficiency of add-on
selling, the number of add-on selling offers given to existing
customers, and the response rate to new offers.
Both brand equity and customer equity matter. There are no
brands without customers and no customers without brands.
Brands serve as the “bait” that retailers and other channel
intermediaries use to attract customers from whom they extract
value. Customers are the tangible profit engine for brands to
monetize their brand value.
*
10-*
Chapter
10
Crafting the
Brand Positioning
10-*

Learning Objectives
How can a firm develop and establish an effective positioning
in the market?
How do marketers identify and analyze competition?
How are brands successfully differentiated?
How do firms communicate their positioning?
What are some alternative approaches to positioning?
What are the differences in positioning and branding for a small
business?
10-*
Developing a Brand PositioningPositioning
The act of designing a company’s offering and image to occupy
a distinctive place in the minds of the target market
Value proposition
The goal is to locate the brand in the minds of consumers to
maximize the potential benefit to the firm. A good brand
positioning helps guide marketing strategy by clarifying the
brand’s essence, identifying the goals it helps the consumer
achieve, and showing how it does so in a unique way. One result
of positioning is the successful creation of a customer-focused
value proposition, a cogent reason why the target market should
buy a product or service. As introduced in Chapter 1, a value
proposition captures the way a product or service’s key benefits
provide value to customers by satisfying their needs.
*
10-*

Value proposition
Table 10.1 shows how three companies—Hertz, Volvo, and
Domino’s—have defined their value proposition through the
years with their target customers.
*
10-*
Competitive Frame
of ReferenceCompetitive frame of reference
Defines which other brands a brand competes with and which
should thus be the focus of competitive analysis
Identifying and analyzing competitors
Decisions about the competitive frame of reference are closely
linked to target market decisions. Deciding to target a certain
type of consumer can define the nature of competition because
certain firms have decided to target that segment in the past (or
plan to do so in the future) or because consumers in that
segment may already look to certain products or brands in their
purchase decisions.
A good starting point in defining a competitive frame of
reference for brand positioning is category membership—the
products or sets of products with which a brand competes and
that function as close substitutes. The range of a company’s
actual and potential competitors, however, can be much broader
than the obvious. Using the market approach, we define
competitors as companies that satisfy the same customer need.
Chapter 2 described how to conduct a SWOT analysis that

includes a
competitive analysis. A company needs to gather information
about each competitor’s real and perceived strengths
and weaknesses. Once a company has identified its main
competitors and their strategies, it must ask: What is each
competitor seeking in the marketplace? What drives each
competitor’s behavior?
*
10-*
Competitive Frame
of Reference
Table 10.2 shows the results of a company survey that asked
customers to rate its three competitors, A, B, and C, on five
attributes. Competitor A turns out to be well known and
respected for producing high-quality products sold by a good
sales force, but poor at providing product availability and
technical assistance. Competitor B is good across the board and
excellent in product availability and sales force. Competitor C
rates poor to fair on most attributes. This result suggests that in
its positioning, the company could attack Competitor A on
product availability and technical assistance and Competitor C
on almost anything, but it should not attack B, which has no
glaring weaknesses. As part of this competitive analysis for
positioning, the firm should also ascertain the strategies and
objectives of its primary competitors.
*

10-*
Points-of-Difference
and Points-of-ParityPoints-of-difference (PODs)
Attributes/benefits that consumers strongly associate with a
brand, positively evaluate, and believe they could not find to
the same extent with a competitive brand
Associations that make up points-of-difference can be based on
virtually any type of attribute or benefit. Strong brands often
have multiple points-of-difference.
*
10-*
POD criteria
and Points-of-Parity
Desirable
Deliverable
Differentiating
Three criteria determine whether a brand association can truly
function as a point-of-difference: desirability, deliverability,
and differentiability. Desirable to consumer. Consumers must
see the brand association as personally relevant to them.
Deliverable by the company. The company must have the
internal resources and commitment to feasibly and profitably
create and maintain the brand association in the minds of
consumers. The product design and marketing offering must
support the desired association. Differentiating from

competitors. Finally, consumers must see the brand association
as distinctive and superior to relevant competitors.
*
10-*
and Points-of-ParityPoints-of-parity (POPs)
Attribute/benefit associations that are not necessarily unique to
the brand but may in fact be shared with other brands
Regardless of the source of perceived weaknesses, if, in the
eyes of consumers, a brand can “break even” in those areas
where it appears to be at a disadvantage and achieve advantages
in other areas, it should be in a strong—and perhaps
unbeatable—competitive position. Consider the introduction of
Miller Lite beer—the first major light beer in North America.
*
10-*
POP forms
and Points-of-Parity
Category
Correlational
Competitive
POP associations come in three basic forms: category,

correlational, and competitive. Category points-of-parity are
attributes or benefits that consumers view as essential to a
legitimate and credible offering within a certain product or
service category. In other words, they represent necessary—but
not sufficient— conditions for brand choice. Correlational
points-of-parity are potentially negative associations that arise
from the existence of positive associations for the brand.
Competitive points-of-parity are associations designed to
overcome perceived weaknesses of the brand in light of
competitors’ points-of-difference.
*
10-*
Pop vs. podMultiple Frames of Reference
Straddle Positioning
It is not uncommon for a brand to identify more than one actual
or potential competitive frame of reference, if competition
widens or the firm plans to expand into new categories. For
example, Starbucks could define very distinct sets of
competitors, suggesting different possible POPs and PODs as a
result: some potential POPs and PODs for Starbucks are shared
across competitors; others are unique to a particular competitor.
Occasionally, a company will be able to straddle two frames of
reference with one set of points-of-difference and points-of-
parity. In these cases, the points-of-difference for one category
become points-of-parity for the other and vice versa. Straddle
positions allow brands to expand their market coverage and
potential customer base.
*

10-*
and Points-of-ParityChoosing specific POPs and PODs
Competitive advantage
Means of differentiation
Perceptual map
Emotional branding
Michael Porter urged companies to build a sustainable
competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is a company’s
ability to perform in one or more ways that competitors cannot
or will not match. But few competitive advantages are
inherently sustainable. At best, they may be leverageable. A
leverageable advantage is one that a company can use as a
springboard to new advantages, much as Microsoft has
leveraged its operating system to Microsoft Office and then to
networking applications. In general, a company that hopes to
endure must be in the business of continuously inventing new
advantages that can serve as the basis of points-of-difference.
Any product or service benefit that is sufficiently desirable,
deliverable, and differentiating can serve as a point-of-
difference for a brand. The obvious, and often the most
compelling, means of differentiation for consumers are benefits
related to performance (Chapters 13 and 14). For choosing
specific benefits as POPs and PODs to position a brand,
perceptual maps may be useful. Perceptual maps are visual
representations of consumer perceptions and preferences. They
provide quantitative pictures of market situations and the way
consumers view different products, services, and brands along
various dimensions. By overlaying consumer preferences with

brand perceptions, marketers can reveal “holes” or “openings”
that suggest unmet consumer needs and marketing opportunities.
Many marketing experts believe a brand positioning should have
both rational and emotional components. In other words, it
should contain points-of-difference and points-of-parity that
appeal to both the head and the heart. A person’s emotional
response to a brand and its marketing will depend on many
factors. An increasingly important one is the brand’s
authenticity.
*
10-*
and Points-of-ParityBrand mantras
Communicate
Simplify
Inspire
To further focus brand positioning and guide the way their
marketers help consumers think about the brand, firms can
define a brand mantra. A brand mantra is a three- to five-word
articulation of the heart and soul of the brand and is closely
related to other branding concepts like “brand essence” and
“core brand promise.”
Here are the three key criteria for a brand mantra:
Communicate. A good brand mantra should clarify what is
unique about the brand. It may also need to Define the category
(or categories) of business for the brand and set brand
boundaries.
Simplify. An effective brand mantra should be memorable. For

that, it should be short, crisp, and vivid in meaning.
Inspire. Ideally, the brand mantra should also stake out ground
that is personally meaningful and relevant to as many
employees as possible.
*
10-*
Establishing a Brand PositioningCommunicating category
membership
Announcing category benefits
Comparing to exemplars
Relying on product descriptor
Often a good positioning will have several PODs and POPs. Of
those, often two or three really define the competitive
battlefield and should be analyzed and developed carefully. A
good positioning should also follow the “90–10” rule and be
highly applicable to 90 percent (or at least 80 percent) of the
products in the brand. Attempting to position to all 100 percent
of a brand’s product often yields an unsatisfactory “lowest
common denominator” result. The remaining 10 percent or 20
percent of products should be reviewed to ensure they have the
proper branding strategy and to see how they could be changed
to better reflect the brand positioning.
When a product is new, marketers must inform consumers of the
brand’s category membership. Sometimes consumers may know
the category membership but not be convinced the brand is a
valid member of the category. Brands are sometimes affiliated
with categories in which they do not hold membership. There
are three main ways to convey a brand’s category
membership:Announcing category benefits—To reassure

consumers that a brand will deliver on the fundamental reason
for using a category, marketers frequently use benefits to
announce category membership.Comparing to exemplars—Well-
known, noteworthy brands in a category can also help a brand
specify its category
Membership.
3. Relying on the product descriptor—The product descriptor
that follows the brand name is often a concise means of
conveying category origin.
*
10-*
Brand-positioning
bull’s-eye
Once they have fashioned the brand positioning strategy,
marketers should communicate it to everyone in the
organization so it guides their words and actions. One helpful
schematic with which to do so is a brand-positioning bull’s-eye.
“Marketing Memo: Constructing a Brand Positioning Bull’s-
eye” outlines one way marketers can formally express brand
positioning without skipping any steps.
*
10-*
Communicating
POPs and PODsNegatively correlated attributes/benefits

Low price vs. high quality
Taste vs. low calories
Powerful vs. safe
Ubiquitous vs. exclusive
Varied vs. simple
One common challenge in positioning is that many of the
benefits that make up points-of-parity and points-of-difference
are negatively correlated. ConAgra must convince consumers
that Healthy Choice frozen foods both taste good and are good
for you. Unfortunately, consumers typically want to maximize
both the negatively correlated attributes or benefits. Much of
the art and science of marketing consists of dealing with trade-
offs, and positioning is no different. The best approach clearly
is to develop a product or service that performs well on both
dimensions.
*
10-*
MONITORING COMPETITIONVariables in assessing potential
competitors
Share of market
Share of mind
Share of heart
it is important to regularly research the desirability,
deliverability, and differentiability of the brand’s POPs and
PODs in the marketplace to understand how the brand
positioning might need to evolve or, in relatively rare cases, be
completely replaced. In assessing potential threats from
competitors, three high-level variables are useful:

1. Share of market—The competitor’s share of the target
market.
2. Share of mind—The percentage of customers who named the
competitor in responding to the statement “Name the first
company that comes to mind in this industry.”
3. Share of heart—The percentage of customers who named the
competitor in responding to the statement “Name the company
from which you would prefer to buy the product.”
*
10-*
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES
TO POSITIONINGBrand narratives and storytelling
Setting
Cast
Narrative arc
LanguageCultural branding
Rather than outlining specific attributes or benefits, some
marketing experts describe positioning a brand as telling a
narrative or story. Companies like the richness and imagination
they can derive from thinking of the story behind a product or
service. Based on literary convention and brand experience, the
following framework is offered for a brand story:
Setting. The time, place, and context
Cast. The brand as a character, including its role in the life of
the audience, its relationships and responsibilities, and its
history or creation myth
Narrative arc. The way the narrative logic unfolds over time,
including actions, desired experiences, defining events, and the

moment of epiphany
Language. The authenticating voice, metaphors, symbols,
themes, and leitmotifs
Douglas Holt believes that for companies to build iconic,
leadership brands, they must assemble cultural knowledge,
strategize according to cultural branding principles, and hire
and train cultural experts. Experts who see consumers actively
cocreating brand meaning and positioning even refer to this as
“Brand Wikification,” given that wikis are written by
contributors from all walks of life and points of view.
*
10-*
Positioning/Branding
for A Small BusinessFind compelling product performance
advantageFocus on building one or two strong brands based on
one or two key associationsEncourage product trial in any way
possibleDevelop cohesive digital strategy to make the brand
“bigger and better”Create buzz and a loyal brand
communityEmploy a well-integrated set of brand
elementsLeverage as many secondary associations as
possibleCreatively conduct low-cost marketing research
Building brands is a challenge for a small business with limited
resources and budgets. Nevertheless, numerous success stories
exist of entrepreneurs who have built their brands up essentially
from scratch to become powerhouse brands. When resources are
limited, focus and consistency in marketing programs become
critically important. Creativity is also paramount—finding new
ways to market new ideas about products to consumers. Here

are some specific branding guidelines for small businesses.
*
10-*
12-*
Chapter
12
Addressing Competition and Driving Growth
12-*
Learning Objectives
Why is it important for companies to grow the core of their
business?
How can market leaders expand the total market and defend
market share?
How should market challengers attack market leaders?
How can market followers or nichers compete effectively?
What marketing strategies are appropriate at each stage of the
product life cycle?
How should marketers adjust their strategies and tactics during
slow economic growth?

12-*
Growth strategiesBuilding your market shareDeveloping
committed customers and stakeholdersBuilding a powerful
brandInnovating new products, services, and
experiencesInternational expansionAcquisitions, mergers, and
alliancesBuilding an outstanding reputation for social
responsibilityPartnering with government and NGOs
An important function of marketing is to drive growth in sales
and revenue for a company. Marketing is especially adept at
doing so for a new product with many competitive advantages
and much potential. Chapter 2 introduced how companies can
grow through expansion with new products and new markets,
the detailed
focus of Chapters 8 and 15. Along those lines, Phil and Milton
Kotler stress the following strategies.
*
12-*
Growing the Core
Make the core of the brand as distinctive as possible
Drive distribution through both existing and new channels
Offer the core product in new formats or versions
Although many different growth strategies are available to
firms, some of the best opportunities come from growing the
core—focusing on their most successful existing products and
markets. UK marketing guru David Taylor advocates three main
strategies, citing these examples:

1. Make the core of the brand as distinctive as possible. Galaxy
chocolate has successfully competed with Cadbury by
positioning itself as “your partner in chocolate indulgence” and
featuring smoother product shapes, more refined taste, and
sleeker packaging.
2. Drive distribution through both existing and new channels.
Costa Coffee, the number-one coffee shop in the United
Kingdom, has found new distribution routes using drive-through
outlets, vending machines at service stations, and in-school
coffee shops.
3. Offer the core product in new formats or versions. WD40
offers a Smart Straw version of its popular multipurpose
lubricant with a built-in straw that pops up for use.
*
12-*
Competitive Strategies
for Market LeadersExpanding total market demand
Protecting market share
Increasing market share
Suppose a market is occupied by the firms shown in Figure
12.1. Forty percent is in the hands of a market leader, another
30 percent belongs to a market challenger, and 20 percent is
claimed by a market follower willing to maintain its share and
not rock the boat. Market nichers, serving small segments larger
firms don’t reach, hold the remaining 10 percent. Sometimes
growth depends on adopting the right competitive strategies.
To stay number one, the firm must first find ways to expand
total market demand. Second, it must protect its current share

through good defensive and offensive actions. Third, it should
increase market share, even if market size remains constant.
*
12-*
Expanding total market demandNew customersMore usage
In general, the market leader should look for new customers or
more usage from existing customers. As Chapter 2 suggested, a
company can search for new users among three groups: those
who might use it but do not (market-penetration strategy), those
who have never used it (new-market segment strategy), or those
who live elsewhere (geographical-expansion strategy). In
targeting new customers, the firm should not lose sight of
existing ones. Marketers can try to increase the amount, level,
or frequency of consumption. They can sometimes boost the
amount through packaging or product redesign. In general,
increasing frequency of consumption requires either (1)
identifying additional opportunities to use the brand in the same
basic way or (2) identifying completely new and different ways
to use the brand.
*
12-*
Protecting market shareProactive marketing
Responsive anticipation
Creative anticipation

While trying to expand total market size, the dominant firm
must actively defend its current business. The most constructive
response is continuous innovation. The front-runner should lead
the industry in developing new products and customer services,
distribution effectiveness, and cost cutting. Comprehensive
solutions increase competitive strength and value to customers
so they feel appreciative or even privileged to be a customer as
opposed to feeling trapped or taken advantage of.
A company needs two proactive skills: (1) responsive
anticipation to see the writing on the wall, as when IBM
changed from a hardware producer to a service business, and (2)
creative anticipation to devise innovative solutions. Note that
responsive anticipation is performed before a given change,
while reactive response happens after the change takes place.
*
12-*
Protecting market shareDefensive marketing
The aim of defensive strategy is to reduce the probability of
attack, divert attacks to less threatened areas, and lessen their
intensity. A leader would like to do anything it legally and
ethically can to reduce competitors’ ability to launch a new
product, secure distribution, and gain consumer awareness, trial,
and repeat.
A dominant firm can use the six defense strategies summarized
in Figure 12.2. Position defense. Position defense means
occupying the most desirable position in consumers’ minds,
making the brand almost impregnable. Flank defense. The
market leader should erect outposts to protect a weak front or

support a possible counterattack. Preemptive defense. A more
aggressive maneuver is to attack first, perhaps with guerrilla
action across the market—hitting one competitor here, another
there—and keeping everyone off balance. Another is to achieve
broad market envelopment that signals competitors not to
attack. Counteroffensive defense. In a counteroffensive, the
market leader can meet the attacker frontally and hit its flank or
launch a pincer movement so the attacker will have to pull back
to defend itself. Another form of counteroffensive is the
exercise of economic or political clout. Mobile defense. In
mobile defense, the leader stretches its domain over new
territories through market broadening and market
diversification. Contraction defense. Sometimes large
companies can no longer defend all their territory. In planned
contraction (also called strategic withdrawal), they give up
weaker markets and reassign resources to stronger ones.
*
12-*
Increasing market shareThe cost of buying higher market share
through acquisition may far exceed its revenue value
Possibility of provoking antitrust action
Pursuing wrong marketing activities
Economic cost
Increased market share effect on quality
Gaining increased share does not automatically produce higher
profits, however—especially for labor intensive service
companies that may not experience many economies of scale.
Frustrated competitors are likely to cry “monopoly” and seek
legal action if a dominant firm makes further inroads. Pushing
for higher share is less justifiable when there are unattractive

market segments, buyers who want multiple sources of supply,
high exit barriers, and few scale or experience economies. Some
market leaders have even increased profitability by selectively
decreasing market share in weaker areas. Companies that
attempt to increase market share by cutting prices more deeply
than competitors typically don’t achieve significant gains
because rivals meet the price cuts or offer other values so
buyers don’t switch. Too many customers can put a strain on the
firm’s resources, hurting product value and service delivery.
*
12-*
Figure 12.3
Optimal Market Share
Figure 12.3 shows that profitability might fall with market share
gains after some level. In the illustration, the firm’s optimal
market share is 50 percent.
*
12-*
MARKET-CHALLENGER STRATEGIESDefining the strategic
objective and opponent(s)
A market challenger can attack: The market leader Underfunded
firms its own size Small local and regional firms The status quo
A market challenger must first define its strategic objective,

which is usually to increase market share. It then must decide
whom to attack.
*
12-*
MARKET-CHALLENGER STRATEGIESChoosing a general
attack strategy
Given clear opponents and objectives, what attack options are
available? As Figure 12.4 shows, we can distinguish five:
frontal, flank, encirclement, bypass, and guerilla attacks. In a
pure frontal attack, the attacker matches its opponent’s product,
advertising, price, and distribution. The principle of force says
the side with the greater resources will win. A flanking strategy
is another name for identifying shifts that cause gaps to develop
in the market, then rushing to fill the gaps. Flanking is
particularly attractive to a challenger with fewer resources and
can be more likely to succeed than frontal attacks. Encirclement
attempts to capture a wide slice of territory by launching a
grand offensive on several fronts. It makes sense when the
challenger commands superior resources. Bypassing the enemy
altogether to attack easier markets instead offers three lines of
approach: diversifying into unrelated products, diversifying into
new geographical markets, and leapfrogging into new
technologies. Guerrilla attacks consist of small, intermittent
attacks, conventional and unconventional, including selective
price cuts, intense promotional blitzes, and occasional legal
action, to harass the opponent and eventually secure permanent
footholds. A guerrilla campaign can be expensive, though less
so than a frontal, encirclement, or flank attack, but it typically
must be backed by a stronger attack to beat the opponent.
*

12-*
Market-Follower Strategies
Cloner
Imitator
Adapter
Although it may not overtake the leader, the follower can
achieve high profits because it did not bear any of the
innovation expense. Many companies prefer to follow rather
than challenge the market leader. Each follower tries to bring
distinctive advantages to its target market—location, services,
financing—while defensively keeping its manufacturing costs
low and its product quality and services high. It must also enter
new markets as they open up. Followers must define a growth
path, but one that doesn’t invite competitive retaliation. We
distinguish three broad strategies:Cloner—The cloner emulates
the leader’s products, name, and packaging with slight
variations.
2. Imitator—The imitator copies some things from the leader
but differentiates on packaging, advertising, pricing, or
location. The leader doesn’t mind as long as the imitator doesn’t
attack aggressively.
3. Adapter—The adapter takes the leader’s products and adapts
or improves them. The adapter may choose to sell to different
markets, but often it grows into a future challenger, as many
Japanese firms have done after improving products developed
elsewhere.
*

12-*
MARKET-NICHER STRATEGIESTo be a leader in a small
market
Firms with low shares of the total market can become highly
profitable through smart niching
Smaller firms normally avoid competing with larger firms by
targeting small markets of little or no interest to the larger
firms. Over time, those markets can sometimes end up being
sizable in their own right, as Huy Fong Foods has found.
*
12-*
Niche Specialist Roles
End-user specialist
Vertical-level specialist
Customer-size specialist
Geographic specialist
Job-shop specialist
Channel specialist
Because niches can weaken, the firm must continually create
new ones. “Marketing Memo: Niche Specialist Roles” outlines
some options. The firm should “stick to its niching,” but not
necessarily to its niche. That is why multiple niching can be
preferable to single niching. With strength in two or more
niches, the company increases its chances for survival.
*

12-*
PRODUCT LIFE-CYCLE MARKETING STRATEGIESA
company’s positioning and differentiation strategy must change
as its product, market, and competitors change over the PLC
Most product life cycles are portrayed as bell-shaped curves,
typically divided into four stages: introduction, growth,
maturity, and decline55 (see Figure 12.5).
1. Introduction—A period of slow sales growth as the product is
introduced in the market. Profits are nonexistent because of the
heavy expenses of product introduction.
2. Growth—A period of rapid market acceptance and substantial
profit improvement.
3. Maturity—A slowdown in sales growth because the product
has achieved acceptance by most potential
buyers. Profits stabilize or decline because of increased
competition.
4. Decline—Sales show a downward drift and profits erode.
*
12-*
Figure 12.6
Common Product Life-Cycle Patterns
Not all products exhibit a bell-shaped PLC.56 Three common
alternate patterns are shown in Figure 12.6. Figure 12.6(a)
shows a growth-slump-maturity pattern, characteristic of small
kitchen appliances like bread makers and toaster ovens. Sales

grow rapidly when the product is first introduced and then fall
to a “petrified” level sustained by late adopters buying the
product for the first time and early adopters replacing it. The
cycle-recycle pattern in Figure 12.6 (b) often describes the sales
of new drugs. The pharmaceutical company aggressively
promotes its new drug, producing the first cycle. Later, sales
start declining, and another promotion push produces a second
cycle (usually of smaller magnitude and duration). Another
common pattern is the scalloped PLC in Figure 12.6 (c). Here,
sales pass through a succession of life cycles based on the
discovery of new product characteristics, uses, or users. Sales
of nylon showed a classic scalloped pattern because of the many
new uses—parachutes, hosiery, shirts, carpeting, boat sails,
automobile tires—discovered over time.
*
12-*
Figure 12.7
Style, Fashion, And Fad Life Cycles
We need to distinguish three special categories of product life
cycles: styles, fashions, and fads (Figure 12.7).
A style is a basic and distinctive mode of expression appearing
in a field of human endeavor. A fashion is a currently accepted
or popular style in a given field. Fashions pass through four
stages: distinctiveness, emulation, mass fashion, and decline.
Fads are fashions that come quickly into public view, are
adopted with great zeal, peak early, and decline very fast.
*

12-*
Marketing Strategies: Introduction StagePioneering advantages
Recall of brand name
Establishes product class attributes
Captures more uses in middle of marketPioneering drawbacks
Imitators can surpass innovators
Once leadership is lost, it’s rarely regained
Companies that plan to introduce a new product must decide
when to do so. To be first can be rewarding, but risky and
expensive. To come in later makes sense if the firm can bring
superior technology, quality, or brand strength to create a
market advantage.
*
12-*
Figure 12.8
Long-Range Product Market Expansion Strategy
Companies should not try to move too fast; they must carefully
design and execute their product-launch marketing. The pioneer
should visualize the product markets it could enter, knowing it
cannot enter all of them at once. Suppose market-segmentation
analysis reveals the segments shown in Figure 12.8. The pioneer
should analyze the profit potential of each singly and of all
together and decide on a market expansion path. Thus, the
pioneer in Figure 12.8 plans first to enter product market P1M1,
then move into a second market (P1M2), then surprise the

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