1. I
CERTIFICATE
By this document, I accept and undertake that all information in this document is
received and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical behavior. I
also declare that I have fully received and applied all the non-original material and
results of this work as required by these rules and conducts.
Full Name: Jumanazar Ozzyyev
Signature:
2. II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A research study requires many people to be supported directly or indirectly. I would
like to use this opportunity to convey my gratitude to all the people who support and
bless me throughout my research work. First and foremost, I would like to thank my
supervisor Prof. Lütfullah Gündüz, for his constant support, encouragement and
guidance throughout my research program and also it is a big pleasure for me.
Also, I would like to thank to assistant and researcher Onur Kalkan for the
suggestions and interest he provided in my research work. While researchers are
discussing this, we always understand with senior managers. It is an inspiration for me
to make a definite definition of their hard work, patience, time management and many
other skills to them I feel extremely proud and thank the almighty for making me their
student. I could not ask for a better guide than them.
By this moment, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and thanks to my friend
and course mate Artuğ Enes Altıntaş for his encouragement, patience and for sharing
good and bad times.
Above all, very special thanks to my family; I cannot express in words my gratitude to
my Father, Mother and Sister for their continuous support, motivation, prayers and
blessings.
3. III
ABSTRACT
Brick masonry is a most used construction material from many ages ago. Because
Clay Brick is very practical and cheap, on the other hand the manufacturing process
is also easier than other materials. Our thesis includes information about Brick
Masonry it’s advantages and disadvantages. Manufacturing process from beginning
until end. Also, we can find informations about properties, places we use Clay
Masonry Brick. In addition, we discuss about the place of Clay Brick masonry in
Turkey. All informations declared below are accordance with academic rules and
ethical conduct.
4. IV
LIST OF FIGURES
Simple Brick Example……………………………………………………………….……………3
Historical Brick Construction…………………………………………………………………...5
Coliseum Rome…………………………………………………………………………………….5
Great Pyramid Egypt……………………………………………………………………………..6
Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar Turkmenistan Merw……………………………………………6
Taj Mahal India……………………………………………………………………………………7
Sherdar Medressa Uzbekistan Semerkand……………………………………………………..7
Soil preparation……………………………………………………………………………………8
Standard Pug Mill……………………………………………………………………………….10
Sample Hand Molding table……………………………………………………………………13
Natural Brick Drying process………………………………………………………………….16
Brick Production Process………………………………………………………………………19
Standard Tunnel Kiln……………………………………………………………………………20
Standard Hoffman’s Kiln……………………………………………………………………….22
sample Basement Brick………………………………………………………………………….26
Masonry Wall construction……………………………………………………………………..28
Isolation Regions of Turkey…………………………………………………………………….31
Solid Brick Wall………………………………………………………………………………….39
Cavity Brick Wall………………………………………………………………………………..51
Photo from Competition of ‘’Brick in Architecture’’……………………………………….54
Photo from Competition of ‘’Brick in Architecture’’……………………………………….54
Brick Architecture in Selchuklu………………………………………………………………..55
Brick Architecture in Ottoman…………………………………………………………………56
Modern Brick Architecture……………………………………………………………………..57
5. V
Brick Houses in TURKMENISTAN……………………………………………………………64
LIST OF TABLES
Those are, mostly used brick type for internal partitions…………………………………..24
Thermal Insulation Bricks………………………………………………………………………33
Acoustic Isolation bricks……….........…………………………………………………………………..35
Classification of Solid Bricks due to Compression Strength and Type…………………...40
Dimensions of Solid Bricks……………………………………………………………………..40
Horizontal Hollow Brick Nominal Dimensions …………………………….……………………42
Limit values of nominal dimensions of horizontally perforated bricks and these values
differences that can be considered between (mm)…………………………………………..43
Gross dry unit volume by class of horizontally perforated bricks…………………………43
Compression Strength of horizontally perforated bricks…………………………………...44
‹AB› Class Vertical Hollow Brick Nominal Dimensions …………………………………..46
‹W› Class Vertical Hollow Brick Nominal Dimensions…………………………………….46
Limit values of nominal dimensions of vertically perforated bricks and these values
differences that can be considered between (mm)…………………………………………..47
Types of vertically perforated (W) class bricks due to gross dry unit volume and
compression strength……………………………………………………………………………47
Minimum hollow line number of Vertical perforated (W) class brick due to nominal
dimension…………………………………………………………………………………………48
Turkey's Brick Import Quantities………………………………………………………………59
Brick Import Graph……………………………………………………………………………...60
Turkey's Brick Export Quantities………………………………………………………………60
Brick Export due to years……………………………………………………………………….61
6. VI
CONTENTS
Certificate…………………………………………………………………………….I
Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………………….II
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..III
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………….IV
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………….V
1) INTRODUCTION
1.1) Background and motivation……………………………………...1
1.2) Organization of Thesis…………………………………………...1
2) GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT BRICK MASONRY
2.1) What is Brick Masonry?.................................................................................3
2.2) Brick history………………………………………………………………...4
3) MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF BRICK MASONRY
3.1) Raw Material preparation…………………………………………………...8
3.1.1) Unsoiling……………………………………………………………8
3.1.2) Digging …………………………………………………………...9
3.1.3) Cleaning …………………………………………………………..9
3.1.4) Weathering………………………………………………………...9
3.1.5) Blending …………………………………………………………..9
3.1.6) Tempering………………………………………………………..10
3.2) Molding…………………………………………………………………….11
3.2.1) Hand Molding……………………………………………………..12
3.2.2) Machine Molding………………………………………………….13
3.3) Drying Process……………………………………………………………..14
3.3.1) Natural Drying……………………………………………………15
3.3.2) Artificial Drying………………………………………………….16
a) Hot Floor Drier..………………………………………………….16
b) Tunnel Drier………………………………………………………16
7. VII
3.4) Burning of Bricks…………………………………………………………..17
3.4.1) Clamp Burning…………………………………………………….17
3.4.2) Kiln Burning………………………………………………………18
a) Intermittent Kilns……………………………………………….18
b) Tunnel Kilns...…………………………………………………..19
c) Continuous Kilns………………………………………………..20
d) Hoffman’s Kilns………………………………………………...20
4) TYPES OF BRICKS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
4.1) Places used…………………………………………………………………22
4.1.1) Internal partition Wall Bricks…………………………………….23
4.1.2) External Wall Bricks……….…………………………………….25
4.1.3) Basement Bricks…………………………………………………25
4.1.4) Masonry wall brick………………………………………………26
4.2) Isolation characteristics…………………………………………………….30
4.2.1) Thermal Insulation Bricks……………………………………….31
4.2.2) Acoustic Insulation Bricks.………………………………………34
4.2.3) Composite Isolation Bricks......…………………………………..36
4.3) Geometric form……………………………………………………………39
4.3.1) Solid Bricks……………………………………………………..39
4.3.2) Horizontal Hollowed Bricks……………………………………40
4.3.3) Vertical Hollowed Bricks………………………………………46
4.3.4) Cavity Brick Masonry…………………………………………..51
4.4) Bearing properties…………………………………………………………53
4.4.1) Non-bearing……………………………………………………..53
4.4.2) Load-bearing tile………………………………………………..53
4.5) For Architectural Purpose………………………………………………...54
5) BRICK MASONRY IN TURKEY……………………………………………..59
6) SUMMARY AND MY VIEW………………………………………………….61
7) REFERENCES………………………………………………………………….65
9. - 1 -
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Motivation
Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. Masonry is an
inevitable component of housing. Among different types of masonries, brick
masonry is one of the most widely used in our country and elsewhere because
of low cost, easy availability of raw materials, good strength, easy construction
with less supervision, good sound and heat insulation properties, and availability
of manpower. Brick masonry is a composite material of systematic arrangement
of brick units and mortar joints. The behavior of masonry is dependent on
the properties of its constituents such as brick units and mortar separately and
together as a united mass. Burnt clay bricks are widely used around the globe but
in recent years many other varieties of bricks have been developed.
The performance of brick masonry depends on its compressive strength as
well as on the bond strength at brick mortar joint. Beginning rate absorption emissions
are often neglected by design codes, but they are important determination of the
strength of brick mortar. [26]
1.2 Organization of Thesis
We divided our Research into 7 main sections which have under sections.
Section-1: Introduction part of our Thesis which includes brief information about our
Thesis.
Section-2: In second section, it’s possible to have details about Brick Masonry and it’s,
History.
Section-3: This section is about Manufacturing process of Brick masonry and includes
detailed information about steps from beginning until end.
10. - 2 -
Section-4: There are many Brick types due to their properties, geometric shapes and
classification, Bricks are used in many places and for different aims such Isolation,
Exterior walls, Interior walls, Basement etc. There are many Brick types, for example:
Load Bearing, Non-Bearing, Isolation Bricks, Vertical hollowed, Horizontal hollowed
and many others.
Section-5: Brick Masonry production is developing in Turkey, in this section we
discussed topic ‘’Brick in Turkey’’ with details.
Section-6: Conclusion and summary part of our Thesis.
Section-7: References. [26]
11. - 3 -
2.1 What is Brick Masonry?
Brick masonry has been used over years, providing one of the best and most versatile
materials in the construction industry. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit
composed of clay, but it is now used to denote any rectangular units laid in mortar. A
brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials. Bricks
are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region
and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks
are fired and non-fired bricks.
Fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes
referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000 BC. Air-dried bricks,
also known as mudbricks, have a history older than fired bricks, and have an additional
ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw. [24]
Figure – 2.1: Simple Brick Example
12. - 4 -
2.2 HISTORY OF BRICK MASONRY
Clay brick masonry is one of the oldest and most durable construction techniques
used by mankind. Masonry consists of manually built stable stacks of small elements,
with or without mortar. It was a fundamental building material in the Mesopotamian,
Egyptian and Roman periods. During the Roman period, the use of clay brick increased
and became specialized in order to maximize its benefits. The Islamic version reached
the Iberian Peninsula after crossing northern Africa. By the early thirteenth century AD
brick was found in the rest of Europe, where its use largely conditioned construction
progress between the Renaissance and the seventeenth century and where, as a relatively
inexpensive material, it pervaded all layers of society. The eighteenth century brought
techniques for its large-scale production and shipment across long distances. In the
nineteenth and well into the twentieth century it became the standard material for
industry and trade. Thereafter brick output gradually rose with the introduction of a wide
variety of products and techniques able to support more innovative usage Clay brick
masonry continued to be used during medieval and modern times. Despite several
modifications of the clay brick uses, shape and manufacture along thousands of years of
constant evolution, the simplicity that made its success remained. Numerous buildings
built with clay bricks prevailed until the 21st century, which testifies to the strength of
this material along centuries of rain storms, snow, thaw freezing cycles, high
temperatures and human induced deterioration. Moreover, brick could be easily,
inexpensively and rapidly handled and produced with a simple manufacturing process. It
is based on fired clay, a raw material available in large quantities all over the Earth. Its
wide use proved that clay brick was an effective construction material that could provide
both resistance to prevalent climatic conditions and insulation from cold and heat. It is
known that the properties of ancient clay brick masonry rely essentially on the properties
of the brick units, which depend on the quality of the raw materials used, together with
the manufacturing process technology. The analysis of clay brick production and final
properties are therefore fundamental. Generally, it is crucial to obtain information on the
main physical, chemical and mechanical properties of clay bricks as well as the
characteristics of the raw materials used and their manufacturing process. [13]
14. - 6 -
Figure -2.4: Great Pyramid Egypt
Figure -2.5: Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar Turkmenistan Merw
15. - 7 -
Figure -2.6: Taj Mahal India
Figure -2.7: Sherdar Medressa Uzbekistan Semerkand
16. - 8 -
Photos are proof for the beginning of usage of brick from many ages ago. It is a oldest
construction material. And it is very useful we can see from photos that Brick Masonry
used for many aims like: Architectural etc…
BRICK MANUFACTORING PROCESS
3.1 Raw Material Preperation
Clay is one of the most abundant natural mineral materials on earth. For brick
manufacturing, clay must possess some specific properties and characteristics. Such
clays must have plasticity, which permits them to be shaped or molded when mixed
with water; they must have sufficient wet and air-dried strength to maintain their
shape after forming. Also, when subjected to appropriate temperatures, the clay
particles must fuse together.[3]
Figure-3.1: Soil preparation
3.1.1 Unsoiling
This process consists of peeling the top layer of the soil at a depth of about 150 to
250 mm to be rejected and discarded, as the topsoil may contain some contaminants,
including waste materials. All the top soil from vegetation was cleared of bushes, etc.
17. - 9 -
3.1.2 Digging
Gravels, vegetation cover, pebbles, etc. After cleaning the impure material, including
the impurity, before it is worn out, the brick soil is then removed manually or by
means of electric excavators. The fossil is spread over the flattened ground, which is
slightly deeper than the ground soil. Stack height brick soil can vary from 0.6 m to
1.2 m.[3]
3.1.3 Cleaning and Powdering
The Brick Earth is cleared of stones, pebbles, lime, roots and other vegetable matter.
Moreover, the disintegration of the digested soil is thus reduced in the form of dust. If
the clay is filled with hard and pellets, it is put into powder form between cast iron or
stone, and the rollers are set close enough together. The rollers are mechanically
rotatable. [3]
3.1.4 Weathering
The process of softening or mellowing of dug out clay by adding little water and
exposing it to the atmosphere is known as weathering. After breaking the clods, the
excavated soil is mixed with a little water and is left in heaps to weather for a period
varying from few weeks to one full rainy period. This process of weathering
improves the plasticity and strength of the brick earth. During the entire period of
weathering, the soil is kept slightly wet by spraying water from time to time and by
turning over the heap. [3]
3.1.5 Blending
During the weathering period, the excavated earth is tested for suitability. For small
scale work, only field tests are sufficient, but for large scale manufacture, scientific
tests are conducted to find out the deficient constituents. After the weathering is over,
the earth is thoroughly broken and mixed with sandy soil or other deficient
constituents. The whole mass is mixed up thoroughly with spades, and reasonable
amount of water is added if needed. [3]
18. - 10 -
3.1.6 Tempering or Pugging
The brick earth is then tempered by being thoroughly broken up, watered, kneaded
well under the feet of men or cattle (or by mechanical means) till it becomes quite a
homogenous mass. The process of kneading the brick-earth by adding water to get a
homogenous mass and required plasticity is known as tempering or pugging. For
large scale manufacturing work, this is done in pug wills. A pug mill, shown in
figure: consists of the following: [3]
Figure-3.2: Standard Pug Mill
1. Conical iron tube of shape. (The height of tube varies from 1,2 m to 1,8 m;
The diameters at the bottom and top may be 0,75 to 0,8 m and 1,2 to 1,3 m
respectively; the tube is sunk 0,6 m below the ground level.)
2. A vertical cast iron shaft fixed centrally inside the tub.
3. Horizontal arms are fixed to the vertical shaft at suitable vertical interval.
19. - 11 -
4. Knives or cutting blades: Each horizontal arm contains a number of knives
or cutting blades fixed vertically.
5. Long wooden arm: the central vertical cast iron shaft is rotated by bullocks
yoked at the end of a long wooden horizontal arm, the other end of which is
fixed to the top of the shaft. Alternatively, the C.I. shaft can be rotated
mechanically by using steam, diesel or electric power.
6. Timber base: The mill is sunk 0.6 m deep below the ground level and fixed
on a pair of square timber logs of size 0.2 mx0.2 m in section.
The pug mill has provisions made both at the top and bottom to feed and collect the
clay. Blended brick-earth along with required quantity of water is fed to the pug mill
from the top. When the shaft is rotated, the cutting knives or blades fixed to the
horizontal arms at various levels, cut through the clay, break up all the clods and kneads
it thoroughly. The plugged is taken out through opening provided at the bottom of the
mil. The capacity of a single pug mill is sufficient to yield earth for producing about
10000 to 15000 bricks daily. [3]
3.2 MOLDING OF BRICKS
The process of preparing the brick of required shape and size from the tempered or
pugged clay is known molding which is done in timber or steel molds.
There are two methods of molding: [3]
1) Hand molding 2) Machine molding
20. - 12 -
3.2.1 Hand molding
In hand molding, bricks are molded manually. It is adopted where sufficient man
power is availably cheaply. Hand molding is done either on the ground or on the table,
respectively known as ground molding and table molding.
i) Ground molding: this is adopted when sufficient ground area is available. The
ground area where molding is done first prepared by leveling, sweeping and
plastering smooth. The area is sprinkled over with sand. In order to prevent
clay from attacking to the inside faces of the mold, either sand is sprinkled on
the inner sides of the mold or the mold is dripped in water each time before
molding. If sand is used for this purpose, the molded bricks are known as
sand molded bricks. However, if the mold is dipped in water before each
molding bricks are known slop molded bricks. After this, the brick molder
takes a lump of tempered clay, fills in the it in the mold and presses it to fill
all the corners of the mold. The surplus soil is scrapped off and the top
surface is levelled with the help of a wooden strike or metal plate strike with a
with a wired frame. The mold is then swiftly lifted up leaving the molding
brick on the ground to dry. Next, the molder places the mold again on the
ground, adjacent to the molded brick, and molds another brick. this process
continues molding the bricks in a manner so that the molded bricks lie on the
ground in a systematic pattern. A brick molder can mold about 600 to 800
bricks per day of 8-10 hours. Bricks are laid to drying shades to dry.
ii) Table molding: table molding is also similar to ground molding but stock
boards and pallet boards are made use of. The molding process is carried out
on a molding table of about 1m x 2m size. The molder has to work in a
standing position during molding process. The clay, mold, water pots, stock
board, strikes and pullets are placed on this table. Molder molds the bricks on
boards known as stocks boards or simply stocks. The stock board is fixed on
the table. The mold is placed to fit the stock board, sand is sprinkled inside
21. - 13 -
the mold and on the stock board, and molding clay is dashed into the mold
and pressed hard. [3]
Figure-3.3: Sample Hand Molding table
3.2.2 Machine Molding
When a large number of bricks are to be manufactured at a given site in short
duration, molding of bricks can be done with the help of machines which can be
operated either manually and mechanically. Machine molded bricks are heavy, strong
and durable and have smooth surfaces. However, frog cannot be provided on machine
molded bricks.
There are two methods of machine molding of bricks depending upon the type of
machine: [3]
Plastic Clay Method
A plastic clay machine contains a rectangular opening of size equal to the length and
width of the brick. Tempered or pugged clay in plastic state is forced through this
rectangular opening. As it comes out through the opening in the form of a clay bar, it is
22. - 14 -
cut into strips by wires fixed in the cutting frame. The adjustment is made in such a way
that strips of thickness equal to that of the brick are obtained. Such bricks are also
known as wire cut bricks. [3]
Dry Clay Method
This Method is adopted in a dry clay machine in which powdered clay with small
quantity of water required to form a stiff plastic paste is put into the mould and pressed
by the machine to get hard and perfectly shaped brick. the brick so formed is known as a
pressed brick which can be directly send for burning, without drying. However, these
bricks are burnt carefully, under controlled conditions, as they are likely to get cracked
easily.
Both wire cut and pressed bricks have same rectangular shape and sharp edges and
corners. [3]
3.3 DRYING PROCESS OF BRICKS
Wet bricks, obtained immediately after molding known as green bricks which may
contain water content ranging from 10% to 30% depending upon the type of molding
clay and the method of molding. Before burning, these bricks need to be dried to achieve
the following objectives:
i) To remove water content so that both the time of burning as well as fuel
consumption is reduced.
ii) To minimize cracking and distortion of bricks during burning.
iii) To increase the strength of the raw bricks so that they can be handled safely
without breaking or deforming.
23. - 15 -
Drying of bricks always results in shrinkage and cracking, through the amount and
extent the shrinkage depends upon the type of clay and plasticity characteristics. The
shrinkage may vary from 5% to 10% from stiff plastic clays to soft clays. Due to the
size of molded brick is kept slightly more the final required size. The following
precautions should be observed during the drying process so that cracking, shrinkage
and distortion of brick is minimized:
1. Drying should not be carried out under direct sun light. It should preferably be done
under a shade.
2. Drying should be carried a slow and confirm rate.
3. Bricks should be arranged in stacks so that there is uniform circulation of air round
the brick.
4. The hack or drying ground should be raised and sanded to allow rain water to flow
off.
5. The stacked bricks should be well protected from getting spotted or spoilt in
absorbing rainwater due to out of season showers. This can be done by matting to
top and sides.
6. The molded bricks should be allowed to dry an approximate moisture content of 5
to 7percent.
7. During the conveyance, the moulded bricks shall be loaded and unloaded one at a
time. [3]
(drying of bricks may be done in two ways)
3.3.1 Natural drying
This method is most commonly used method. For drying bricks are arranged in a
row. The bricks are arranged at some distance so that they receive proper air
circulation needed for drying. The hack or drying ground should be raised and
sanded to allow any rain water to flow off. Generally, the stack is of a breath equal
to two bricks laid longitudinally with a small space left between the bricks. The
alternate tiers are long along and across the stack, all on edges, and about ten tiers
24. - 16 -
of bricks on edge with intervals between them may be built up. A gap of about 1 m
should be left between adjacent stacks so as to facilitate free movement of workers.
The length and height of each stack is generally kept the same. Every stack should
contain bricks in multiples of a thousand. The bricks should be so stacked that their
counting become easy. Depending upon the weather condition and the molding
type of molding clay, drying period may vary four to eight days.
Figure-3.4: Natural Brick Drying process
3.3.2 Artificial drying
The bricks also can be dried artificially by the use of driers, which may be in two
types. [3]
a) Hot floor drier b) Tunnel drier
In artificial drying, molded bricks are allowed to pass through special drier of the
above two types. A hot floor drier is heated either by a furnace placed at one end or by
exhaust steam or by hot flue gases from the engine used to supply power. [3]
25. - 17 -
3.4 BURNING OF BRICKS
Burning of air dried bricks is very important part of brick production. Because
imparts i) strength ii) hardness iii) durability iv) denseness v) pleasing red color. Most of
the free or un-combined moisture gets evaporated during the process of air-drying, but
the water of crystallization is removed during burning. At a temperature of 650°C,
called temperature of dull red heat, the organic matter contained in the bricks is
oxidized and also the water of crystallization is driven away. If the heating of bricks is
stopped at this temperature of 650°C, the bricks on cooling will absorb moisture from
air and get rehydrated. At higher temperature, different constituents of brick react
chemically and the properties of brick completely changed. The brick become hard and
strong and absorb very small amount of water. As the temperature further increases, say
1100°C, particles of Alumina and Sand, the two major constituents of brick earth, bind
themselves together, resulting in increase in strength and density of bricks. Also, a small
amount of fusible glass is formed which binds the particles of clay together. Further
heating to obtain temperature higher than 1100°C, is not desirable, because fusible glass
will be formed in a large quantity causing distortion of brick due to nitrification of the
brick. Beyond a certain limit nitrification results in the general softening of the clay and
the brick begins to loose its shape. Burning of brick is achieved by following two ways:
[3]
3.4.1 Clamp Burning
The clamps are temporary structures and are used for manufacture of bricks on a small
scale to meet local demand. The kilns are permanent structures used for manufacture of
bricks on a large scale.
Shows the plan and section of a typical clamp. The construction consists of
preparation of trapezoidal shaped floor, having an upward slope of about 15°C.
The short sided end is slightly in excavation while the wider side end is raised a
little above the ground. Both the sides are made parallel to each other. The short
26. - 18 -
side consists of brick wall in mud mortar while the long side is made of wall of
raw bricks.
Alternative layers of fuel and dried bricks are laid on the same slope as the slope of
the floor. The fuel may generally consist of dried grass, cowd-ung, rice husk etc.
though wood or charcoal may also be used. A 75 cm thick layer of fuel is first laid
on the slopping floor. On it, four or five courses of air dried bricks is laid on the fuel
bed, arranged on edge so to provide space for circulation of hot gases. A second
layer of fuel followed by another four to five courses of bricks are laid. Thus the
clamp is loaded with alternate layers of fuel layer is reduced gradually as the height
increases. The height of loaded clamp may vary between 3 m to 5 m. After
accomplishing, the clamp is carried out quickly. After completing the loading, the
clamp is plastered over with mud and cow dung so as to check the loss of heat. It is
then left to burn itself. The burning process is completed in about one to two months,
depending upon the size of the clamp, number of brick layers and the type of the fuel
used. The clamp will take equal time for cooling. Burning of one clamp can yield
about 1 lakh bricks. However, there is no control on burning. Hence a large quantity
of burned bricks turned out of clamp is of a poor quality. [3]
3.4.2 Kiln Burning
A kiln is a permanent structure used to burn bricks on large scale. Kilns can be
of two types: [2]
a) Intermittent kilns
Intermittent kiln is the one in which burning of brick is not continuous. Such a kiln is
loaded, fired, cooled and unloaded. After loading the kiln, it is ignited to burn the bricks,
allowed to cool down after burning is complete and then unloaded. Thus, the production
of burned bricks is not continuous. Such a kiln may be either rectangular, circular or
27. - 19 -
oval shaped in plan, and may be under ground or over ground. We can give tunnel kiln
for this type. [12]
b) Tunnel kiln
Such a kiln is in the form of rectangular structure, about 4m x 6m with thick outside
walls and has no roof. Doors are provided to the ends for loading and unloading of
bricks. The most commonly used intermittent kiln of up-draught.
Figure-3.6 Standard Tunnel Kiln
The kiln consists of several openings in long walls, opposite to one another. Trenches
0.4m deep and 0.35m wide are dug across the floor, with 1m spaces, known as rouses,
between them. Air dried bricks are stacked on edge on these rouses with a little space
between them through which fire can find its way to and every brick. bricks are laid in
height equal to 7 bricks. The 8th, 9th and 10th courses are corbelled to span over the
trench and form the flues to contain the fuel. Thus the roof is formed. The remaining
height is filled with unburned bricks on edge with narrower spaces between them
28. - 20 -
towards the top. The top course is finished with flat bricks. About 0.1m thick earth is
spread over top most layer of bricks to prevent the escape of heat. Arch openings
opposite flues are left in side walls for introducing fuel wood. The flues are filled with
brush wood which takes up a fire easily while the interior portions are filled with fuel of
bigger side. The end doors are built up with dry bricks and covered with mud or clay. [3]
c) Continuous kilns
In continuous kilns, the operations like loading, burning, cooling and unloading are
continuous. There are many types of continuous kilns, but we will discuss here the
following type of kiln.
d) Hoffman’s kiln
It is an over ground continuous kiln which has a permanent roof due to which it can
function even during the rainy season. It is circular in plan and is divided into a number
of chambers (usually 12 in number) each provided with door at the outside face for
loading and unloading and flue with damper for controlling inflow of air and another
flue on the inside connected to the central chimney. The door could be closed with dry
brick wall having sand packing. The flue could be closed or opened as desired by
operating a metal plate known as damper. Fuel in the form of cold dust is fed through
the holes provided in the kiln top. In this kiln, all the operations like loading, drying,
heating, burning, cooling and unloading take place simultaneously. [3]
29. - 21 -
Figure-3.7 Standard Hoffman’s Kiln
Figure-3.5: Brick Production Process
30. - 22 -
TYPES OF BRICKS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
There are different types of bricks available on the market used for various kinds of
purposes. Bricks come in all shapes and sizes and are made from many different types of
materials in various ways of manufacture. Each type has its own advantages and
disadvantages, so when starting a home improvement project or attempting to do repairs,
it can be daunting to figure out exactly the right type of brick to use. All forms of brick
were originally handmade, dating back as far as 7,500 B.C. Handmade building
materials were common up until the Industrial Revolution, when the process turned to
mechanization. The most common types used today are made from clay, and they can be
manufactured in a variety of different ways. As technology changed, brick manufacturing
made use of newer methods. Pressed mud bricks are a type made from clay that is mixed
with water, and with hydraulic machinery they are pressed into a steel mold to give a
uniform shape. The clay is often mixed with a percentage of sand, which reduces the
amount the final product will shrink. After being pressed into the mold, the clay brick is then
fired in a kiln at temperatures well above 1,000°. These bricks can be categorized under
various headings and subheadings on different basis. The various classifications of types
of bricks are briefly discussed below. [1]
4.1 PLACES USED
As we know in buildings walls are one of the main part and there are wall types as i)
internal partition; ii) external partition. For each of them we use different kind of
special bricks. [1]
31. - 23 -
4.1.1 Internal partition
This type of block bricks used for walls which divides rooms inside the building, living
room, kitchen, bathroom, toilet, etc. For internal partition we should choose special
brick type which produced especially for this partition. These type of bricks known as
non-bearing brick. That is why the holes are horizontal and longitudinal. As an example,
we can give. [11]
33. - 25 -
4.1.2 External wall
Quality and properties of external wall bricks are more important than interior ones,
because external walls are more affected than interior. There are many different types of
external wall bricks. We can use ‘’8,5’’ for external wall construction by putting
isolation materials between two of them. ‘’13.5’’ is mostly used brick type for external
non-bearing wall types. Hollows must be vertical when constructed. As it is used on
outer walls, it is preferred to use masonry bricks because of pressure resistance and high
sound insulation in factory and warehouse constructions. [12]
4.1.3 Basement Bricks
Although not commonly used for this purpose, brick masonry can be used for
foundation or basement walls, but it should be covered with a waterproof or damp proof
coating to prevent groundwater penetration and rising damp. This coating should extend
above finished grade. It is also important to use a through-wall flashing at the base of the
wall above grade so that water penetrating the walls above grade will not enter the top of
the foundation walls. Preferably, this flashing should lap over the top of the waterproof
or damp proof coating.
The surface of the walls should be covered with a waterproof membrane or a damp
proof coating to help prevent ground water from penetrating the masonry walls. This
technical note stated that "where soil conditions do not permit a buildup of water, damp
proofing the exterior face may be all that is required." These damp proofing procedures
included applying one or two coats of cement mortar paring. Where water buildup is a
problem, the note recommended applying a continuous bituminous membrane consisting
34. - 26 -
of three or more alternating layers of hot bitumen and cotton fabric or felt. Extra
protection against abrasion or puncture could be provided with a coat of mortar over the
waterproofing. A gravel fill should be used against the damp proofing or bituminous
membranes to permit free drainage of water to the drain tile. [12]
Figure-4.1: sample Basement Brick
Masonry wall: Masonry wall is construction in which uniform units ("bricks"), small
enough to be placed with one hand, are laid in courses with mortar joints to form walls.
Bricks are kiln baked from various clay and shale mixtures. The chemical and physical
characteristics of the ingredients vary considerably. These characteristics and the kiln
temperatures combine to produce brick in a variety of colors and harnesses. In some
regions, individual pits yield clay or shale which, when ground and moistened, can be
formed and baked into durable brick. In other regions, clay or shale from several pits
must be mixed. Is a brick variety which is generally produced in a vertical hole and can
be used as a carrier in structures without a supporting column, which is more robust than
other types of bricks. This brick type, which is preferred especially for buildings without
columns, is often preferred in the construction of the intermediate partitions of the
factory walls and on the garden walls. 19x29x13.5 cm sized bricks 3400 gr and used to
build 19 cm wide walls.
35. - 27 -
The masonry bricks used in masonry buildings without property columns also make it possible
to construct highly durable buildings. The reason for this is that they have a high strength due to
the verticality of the holes of the stacking varieties. The reason for this is that they have a high
strength due to the verticality of the holes of the stacking varieties. The masonry brick is still
attached with less mortar because the holes are vertical. Of course, this brick type is used in
buildings without columns is also a case is wrong. In the colonial buildings, stacking varieties are
used in the cargo parts of the building. Other block bricks are not preferred in load-bearing
areas, they are only used to create interfaces.
The cost of a wall to be built using masonry brick varies depending on the price of the brick
and how much it will be masoned.
36. - 28 -
Masonry Wall Construction
Figure-4.2: Masonry Wall construction
37. - 29 -
Steps
1. The floor will be cleaned.
2. Bricks are brought to the workplace.
3. The floor is wetting.
4. Bricks are wetting.
5. The mortar spreads to the floor where the corners of the wall will sit.
6. Corner bricks are placed according to the lattice rules.
7. A rope is drawn between the two heads. It is important to note that the rope is as
close as possible to the top edge of the bricks and is taut.
8. If necessary, smoothness (horizontal) control is done with water leveling.
9. Between the two bricks that are stretched, the other bricks are filled in
accordance with the knitting rules. Be careful not to leave empty joints. When
the intermediate bricks are placed, attention is paid to not touching to the rope
and not leaving too much behind 1 mm between brick and rope. It is enough to
leave space.
10. After the first row is formed, the corner bricks are placed at the beginning of the
second row according to the rules.
11. The bricks placed at the two sides are subjected to the stand-up control of the
appropriate places.
12. Thereafter, the second row is formed by pulling the rope like the first row.
13. Care must be taken to ensure that each new level of steepness control is done in
such a way as to provide anchoring with all the bricks below it.
14. Whether or not the brick rows are at the same height and thickness is controlled
by graduated gauge or meter. [8]
38. - 30 -
4.2 ISOLATION CHARACTERISTICS
- At first glance, iso brick with vertical perforated block brick appearance gives very
good results in sound and heat insulation. The air gaps created by the holes reduce the
sound and heat permeability to some extent, just as in the block brick. Additive
materials mixed in iso brick dough burn at the result of baking of brick at 1000° C,
creating thousands of small pores (voids) filled with air inside the brick dough. These
pores are the main element that strengthens heat and sound insulation. Iso bricks and
block bricks are sometimes also made of mortar pockets to strengthen the insulation
and to facilitate the masonry. Generally, sizes are 39 x 19 x 13,5 cm,24 x 14,5 x 23,8 cm, 24
x 24 x 23,8 cm.
- In addition to high temperature and sound insulation, iso bricks, which are included
in the standard of thermal insulation in buildings, are extremely economical in terms
of mortar and weight in walls made with these bricks. In addition to these bricks,
bricks with very low thermal conductivity values are also produced within the scope
of recent AR & GE activities. In particular, the fact that the A1 class is non-
combustible materials is the reason why it stands out among the alternatives. [9]
39. - 31 -
4.2.1 Thermal isolation
Reduction of heat transfer (transfer of thermal energy between objects at
different temperatures in thermal contact or radiation effect range). Thermal
insulation can be achieved with specially engineering methods or processes, as well
as with suitable object shapes and materials. [11]
Figure-4.3 Isolation Regions of Turkey
- For Turkey there are 4 isolation regions which depends on the places and cities, we
can see it from the map above.
- 1st region: UD ≤ 0,70 W/m²K
- 2nd region: UD ≤ 0,60 W/m²K
- 3rd region: UD ≤ 0,50 W/m²K
- 4th region: UD ≤ 0,40 W/m
41. - 33 -
- As can be seen from the tables above, the material can be used in the first three
regions, according to TS 825 standards. Total Wall Thermal Permeability Floor
Numbers (UD) values have been resolved. As can be understood from these
solutions, insulation on iso duo with insulation on thick, with the same as some
bricks, some brick types of insulation, has a thickness of up to 3 cm it decreases. As
can be understood from this, bricks actually less insulation on the application it is
made. In addition, when the total wall thicknesses are taken into consideration, the
thickness of the brick is reduced to 16.5 cm while other wall materials vary between
23 and 27 cm. In this case, other wall materials it is also possible to obtain thinner
walls with the same insulation as the bricks. [12]
Table-4.2.1: Thermal Insulation Bricks[4]
Brick types Unit
weight
(kg)
Weight
per 𝒎 𝟐
(𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟐
)
Total wall
weight
(𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟐
)
Ud
(W/𝒎 𝟐
𝑲)
Ud:0.50(W/𝒎𝟐
𝑲)
19*8.5*19 brick (600 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)( 5 cm XPS) 1.8 25 104 0.47
19*13.5*19 brick (600 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)( 5 cm EPS) 2.9 25 140 0.49
24*11.5*23.5 Iso brick (700 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)( 5 cm EPS) 4.5 16 136 0.46
24*14.5*23.5 Iso brick (700 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)( 4 cm EPS) 5.7 16 159 0.49
24*17.5*23.5 Iso brick (700 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)( 3 cm XPS) 6.9 16 183 0.49
29*19*23.5 Iso brick (700 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)( 3 cm XPS) 9.1 14 196 0.48
42. - 34 -
4.2.2 Acoustic isolation
- The sound insulation or sound transmission loss of a wall is that property which
enables it to resist the passage of noise or sound from one side to the other. This
should not be confused with sound absorption which is that property of a material
which permits sound waves to be absorbed, thus reducing the noise level within a
given space and eliminating echoes or reverberations. Acoustic insulation is also
important at least as heat insulation.
Measurement of sound
- The sound insulation of a building assembly is expressed as a reduction factor in
decibels (dB). The decibel is approximately the smallest change in energy the human
ear can detect, and the decibel scale is used for measuring ratios of sound intensities.
The reference sound intensity used to measure absolute noise levels is that
corresponding to the faintest sound a human ear can hear (0 dB). However, a
difference of 3 or less dB is not especially significant, because the human ear cannot
detect a change in sounds of less than 3 dB Figure 1 shows the intensity level of
common sounds on the decibel scale. These data are reproduced from "How Loud is
Loud? Noise, Acoustics and Health", by Lee E. Farr, M.D., published in the February
1970 issue of Architectural & Engineering News.
43. - 35 -
Table-4.2.2: AcousticIsolationbricks[4]
Frequency (Hz)
Sound Insertion loss (dB)
Vertical Hollow 19 cm
Brick Wall
Horizontal Hollow 19 cm
Brick Wall
Density 500
(𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑)
Density 500
(𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑)
100 22.6 27.4
125 28.9 38.2
160 28.6 33.6
200 34.2 31.5
250 34.0 36.2
315 36.5 39.4
400 38.3 38.9
500 37.0 42.5
630 38.2 42.1
800 40.9 44.8
1000 40.1 45.5
1250 42.3 47.1
1600 40.1 47.1
2000 41.9 46.3
2500 41.0 45.6
3150 40.8 47.4
4000 42.0 47.7
5000 44.0 48.0
𝑹 𝒘 40 43
- In the table above there are some types of bricks which are used mostly for acoustic
isolation.
44. - 36 -
4.2.3 Composite Isolation brick types
- Bims Eps Composite Asmolen has many benefits; It provides high sound and heat
insulation on the tables used. As the tables are 50% lighter than Bims hangers, they
provide more durable buildings against earthquakes due to the fact that the tables do
not create any extra weight. The floors are serial and practical, they are not broken
when concrete is poured and therefore there are no inconveniences like the use of Eps
Asmolen.
- There are some types of composite bricks, let’s have information about them
Composite Thermal Insulation Bricks / 19 Thermal
Technical properties
TS EN 771-1 standard (TS EN 771-1)
Category: 2-LD
Dimensions (cm): (19 * 19 * 12.5)
Wall thickness: 19 cm
Consumption (pieces / m²): 38 pieces
Weight (kg): 3,5 kg
Compressive strength: 1,5 N / mm²
Thermal conductivity: (h): 0,10 W / mK
Volumetric weight: 650 kg / m³
190x190x125 mm thermal brick. It is a composite heat insulation brick with horizontally
perforated horizontal and vertical mortar joints, which is used as a non-supporting, inner
and outer walls. Has been improved compared to other paper materials due to the eps
material used for composite construction. The most important advantage is that it
eliminates the cost of wrapping. [12]
45. - 37 -
Composite Thermal Insulation Bricks (Vertical Perforated) / MAXI 15
Technical properties
TS EN 771-1 standard (TS EN 771-1)
Category: 2-LD
Dimensions (cm): (25 * 15 * 23,5)
Wall thickness: 15 cm
Consumption (pieces / m²): 16,5 pcs
Weight (kg): 5 kg
Pressure resistance: 4 N / mm²
Thermal conductivity: (h): 0,114 W / mK
Volumetric weight: 600 kg / m³
Scope of application: It is suitable for non-carrier inner and outer walls. It is
designed for use in exterior and interior partitions in buildings and other structures
entering the field of civil engineering. It is also suitable for 1st and 2nd heat zones
from 4 different heat zones in our country. [12]
Composite Thermal Insulation Bricks (Vertical Perforated) / EKO20
Technical properties
TS EN 771-1 standard (TS EN 771-1)
Category: 2-LD
Dimensions (cm): (25 * 20 * 14)
Wall thickness: 20 cm
Consumption (pieces / m²): 28 pcs
Weight (kg): 5 kg
Pressure resistance: 2.5 N / mm²
Thermal conductivity: (h): 0,15 W / mK
Volumetric weight: 700 kg / m³
Scope of application: It is suitable for non-carrier inner and outer walls. It is designed
for use in exterior and interior partitions in buildings and other structures entering the
field of civil engineering. TS EN 998 - 2 1/0 Clay Fix light weave mortar is knitted
46. - 38 -
together and the cost of mortar is included. In addition, our country is suitable for use in
the 1st heat zone from 4 different heat zones.
Composite Thermal Insulation Bricks (Vertical Perforated) / MAXI 20
Technical properties
TS EN 771-1 standard (TS EN 771-1)
Category: 2-LD
Dimensions (cm): (25 * 20 * 23,5)
Wall thickness: 20 cm
Consumption (pieces / m²): 16 pcs
Weight (kg): 7 kg
Pressure resistance: 4 N / mm²
Thermal conductivity: (h): 0,0118 W / mK
Volumetric weight: 600 kg / m³
Scope of application: It is suitable for interior and exterior walls. It is designed for use
in exterior and interior partitions in buildings and other structures entering the field of
civil engineering. TS EN 998 - 2 1/0 Clay Fix is knitted together with lightweight
mortar. It is also suitable for 2nd heat region if it is used with normal plaster from 4
different heat zones in our country and 3rd heat region if it is used with heat insulation
plaster. [12]
Composite Thermal Insulation Bricks (Vertical Perforated) / EKO25
Technical properties
TS EN 771-1 standard (TS EN 771-1)
Category: 2-LD
Dimensions (cm): (25 * 25 * 14)
Wall thickness: 25 cm
Consumption (pieces / m²): 28 pcs
Weight (kg): 6.5 kg
Pressure resistance: 2.5 N / mm²
Thermal conductivity: (h): 0,15 W / mK
Volumetric weight: 700 kg / m³
Scope of application:It is suitable for non-carrier inner and outer walls. It is designed
for use in exterior and interior partitions in buildings and other structures entering the
47. - 39 -
field of civil engineering. It is also suitable for use in the 2nd heat zone from 4 different
heat zones in our country. [12]
4.3 GEOMETRIC FORM
4.3.1 Solid Bricks
- Solid bricks are produced without holes or with a hole of less than 15% lower surface
area. The Geometric Shape of this kind of brick also rectangular like others, sizes can be
changed as needed. The surfaces are produced as polished or unpolished rectangle
prisms.
Figure-4.4 Solid Brick Wall
- Press bricks are used for works with architectural characteristics, especially for
aesthetic reasons, with their beautiful appearance.
However, press bricks in general used for them aims written below;
1) Load bearing wall construction
2) Interior wall construction
3) In construction of Masonry walls
48. - 40 -
4) As a coater in exterior walls
5) In garden wall making
6) In landscaping studies
7) Used in making brick carpentry etc.
Table-4.3.1: Classification of Solid Bricks due to Compression
Strength and Type[4]
Class Average bulk
density
kg/dm3
Average
Compression
Strength
N/mm2
Compression
Strength
N/mm2
Solid Brick Good strength 5.0 (50) 4.0 (40)
Less strength 3.0 (30) 2.5 (25)
Table4.3.1.a: Dimensions of Solid Bricks
Dimensions Tolerances
Length 190 +6
-13
Wide 90 +4
-5
Height 50 +3
-2
4.3.2 Horizontal Hollowed Brick
- Horizontal Perforated Bricks can be used alone in the interior partitions of buildings.
Horizontal perforated bricks that come out from the foreground with lightness do not
bring additional load. Horizontal Perforated Bricks can be used for inner-outer mantle
or sandwich wall applications with additional thermal insulation materials on the
outside of the building.
49. - 41 -
TS EN 771-1 BRICKS
NOTE: This extreme grouping is based on the brick dimensions being manufactured in
Turkey advisory. The most important properties for bricks are their nominal dimensions,
volume masses, strength values, tolerance values are given in schedules. This grouping
is made as guideline for manufacturer, user and specification maker. [4]
50. - 42 -
TS EN 771-1 BRICKS
Table-4.3.2: Horizontal Hollow Brick Nominal Dimensions [4]
No Symbols
Nominal
dimensions(mm)
Normal dimensions Length (l) Wide (b) Height (h)
1 NT 190 90 50
2 1,7 NT 190 90 85
3 2,2 NT 190 115 85
4 3,4 NT 240 145 85
5 3,6 NT 190 190 85
6 4,4 NT 240 190 85
7 5,5 NT 240 145 135
8 5,7 NT 190 190 135
9 6,6 NT 240 175 135
10 7,1 NT 240 190 135
11 7,2 NT 190 240 135
12 7,8 NT 190 190 185
13 8,7 NT 290 190 135
14 8,9 NT 240 240 135
15 9,3 NT 240 250 135
16 9,7 NT 240 190 185
17 11.0 NT 290 175 185
18 11.7 NT 390 190 135
19 12,2 NT 240 240 185
20 12,7 NT 240 250 185
21 14,8 NT 240 290 185
22 10,0 NT 290 240 185
23 18,2 NT 290 290 185
24 18,7 NT 240 290 235
25 19,1 NT 290 240 235
26 19,9 NT 290 250 235
27 23,1 NT 290 290 235
28 24,5 NT 390 290 185
29 25,7 NT 390 240 235
30 31,1 NT 390 290 235
31 32,3 NT 490 240 235
32 39,1 NT 490 290 235
33 41,8 NT 390 390 235
34 39,7 NT 200 200 85
35 9,4 NT 200 200 200
36 6,3 NT 200 200 135
37 9,8 NT 250 250 135
38 14,6 NT 200 250 200
39 18,3 NT 250 250 250
*NT (Normal Tuğla)
51. - 43 -
Table-4.3.2.a: Limit values of nominal dimensions of horizontally perforated bricks
and these values differences that can be considered between (mm) [4]
Nominal
dimensions
(mm)
Limit values Considerable maximum
difference
(mm)
Biggest
(mm)
Smallest
(mm)
50 52 48 3
85 88 82 5
90 93 86 6
115 118 110 6
135 138 130 7
145 148 139 7
175 178 168 8
185 188 178 8
190 193 181 8
235 239 225 9
240 244 229 9
250 254 245 9
290 294 279 10
390 395 379 11
490 496 480 12
Gross dry unit volume:
Table-4.3.2.b: - Gross dry unit volume by class of horizontally perforated bricks[4]
Class of Brick Gross dry unit volume value (𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝟑
)
Maximum Minimum
1.0 1000 901
0.9 900 801
0.8 800 701
0.7 700 601
0.6 600 501
52. - 44 -
Compression Strength:
Table-4.3.2.c: Compression Strength of horizontally perforated bricks. [4]
Brick Class Compression Strength 𝑵/𝒎𝒎 𝟐
(𝒌𝒈𝒇/𝒄𝒎 𝟐
)
Arithmetic average
minimum
Minimum value
(7.5) 7.5 (75) 6.0 (60)
(5.0) 5.0 (50) 4.0 (40)
(2.5) 2.5 (25) 2.0 (20)
SOME SAMPLES FOR HORIZONTAL HOLLOWED BRICK TYPES
Horizontal hollowed 8.5cm
Type: Category II-LD
Size: 19*19*8.5 cm
Apron Height: 8.5cm – 19cm
Waste: (25-34) per meter
Weight: 2 kg
Bending Strength: 2.5 KN/𝑚𝑚2
Heat transfer: 0.32 W/mK
Volume weight: 650 Kg/𝑚3
53. - 45 -
Horizontal hollowed 13.5cm
Type: Category II-LD
Weight: 2 kg
Size: 19*19*8.5 cm
Bending Strength: 2.5 KN/𝑚𝑚2
Apron Height: 8.5cm – 19cm
Heat transfer: 0.32 W/mK
Waste: (25-34) per meter
Volume weight: 650 Kg/𝑚3
Horizontal hollowed 24cm
Type: Category II-LD
Size: 24*24*13,5 cm
Apron Height: 24cm - 13,5 cm.
Waste: 10 per 𝑚2
Weight: 7.1 kg
Bending Strength: 2.5 KN/𝑚𝑚2
Heat transfer: 0.32 W/mK
Volume weight: 600 Kg/𝑚3
54. - 46 -
4.3.3 Vertical Hollowed Bricks
TABLE-4.3.3 ‹AB› Class Vertical Hollow Brick Nominal
Dimensions [4]
No Symbols
Nominal
dimensions(mm)
Normal dimensions Length (l) Wide (b) Height (h)
1 2.7NT 190 90 135
2 5,7 NT 190 190 135
3 7,2 NT 190 240 135
4 7.6 NT 240 115 235
5 7.8 NT 190 190 185
6 8.7 NT 290 190 135
7 9.6 NT 240 145 235
8 11.5 NT 240 175 235
9 11.7 NT 390 190 135
10 11.9 NT 290 190 185
11 12.5 NT 190 240 235
12 12.5 NT 240 190 235
13 15.0 NT 290 240 185
14 15.1 NT 290 190 235
15 15.8 NT 240 250 235
16 16.5 NT 240 240 235
17 19.2 NT 290 300 235
18 19.8 NT 240 365 235
19 24.0 NT 240 240 235
20 25.7 NT 390 240 235
21 32.3 NT 490 290 235
*NT (Normal Tuğla)
TABLE-4.3.3.a ‹W› Class Vertical Hollow Brick Nominal Dimensions[4]
No Symbols
Nominal
dimensions(mm)
Normal dimensions Length (l) Wide (b) Height (h)
1 7.6 NT 240 115 235
2 9.6 NT 240 145 235
3 11.5 NT 240 175 235
4 15.1 NT 290 190 235
5 15.8 NT 240 240 235
6 16.5 NT 240 250 235
7 19.1 NT 290 240 235
8 19.8 NT 240 300 235
9 24.0 NT 240 365 235
10 25.7 NT 390 240 235
11 32.3 NT 490 250 235
55. - 47 -
Table-4.3.3.b Limit values of nominal dimensions of vertically perforated bricks and
these values differences that can be considered between (mm) [4]
Nominal
dimensions
(mm)
Limit values Considerable maximum difference
(mm)Biggest
(mm)
Smallest
(mm)
85 88 82 5
90 93 86 6
115 118 110 6
135 138 130 7
145 148 139 7
175 178 168 8
185 188 178 8
190 193 181 8
235 239 225 9
240 244 229 9
250 254 245 9
290 294 279 10
300 308 379 11
390 373 379 12
490 496 480 12
Gross dry unit volume:
Table-4.3.3.c Types of vertically perforated (W) class bricks due to gross dry unit
volume and compression strength[4]
Brick’s Compression Strength Dry unit volume mass Brick Symbol
Class Type Arithmetic
average
Minimum
𝑵
𝒎𝒎 𝟐
(𝒌𝒈𝒇/𝒄𝒎 𝟐
)
Minimum
value
𝑵
𝒎𝒎 𝟐
(𝒌𝒈𝒇/𝒄𝒎 𝟐
)
Maximum Minimum
0.7 I 3.0 (30) 2.4 (24) 700 601 0.7/30
II 4.0 (40) 3.2 (32) 0.7/40
0.8 I 4.0 (40) 3.2 (32) 800 701 0.8/40
II 5.0 (50) 4.0 (40) 0.8/50
0.9 I 5.0 (50) 4.0 (40) 900 801 0.9/50
II 6.0 (60) 4.8 (48) 0.9/60
1.0 I 6.5 (65) 5.2 (52) 1000 901 1.0/65
II 8.0 (80) 6.4 (64) 1.0/80
56. - 48 -
Table-4.3.3.d Minimum hollow line number of Vertical perforated (W) class brick due
to nominal dimension[4]
Nominal dimension
(mm)
Number of hollow line
(minimum)
115 5
145 7
175 8
190 9
240 11
250 11
300 13
365 16
59. - 51 -
4.3.4 Cavity Brick Masonry
Brick masonry cavity walls consist of two wythes of masonry separated by an air
space connected by corrosion-resistant metal ties (see Fig.1). The exterior masonry
wythe can be solid or hollow brick, while the interior masonry wythe can be solid brick,
hollow brick, structural clay tile, or hollow or solid concrete masonry units. The
selection for each wythe depends on the required wall properties and features. A cavity
of 2 to 4 1/2 in. (50 to 114 mm) between the two wythes may be either insulated or left
as an air space. The interior surface of the cavity wall may be left exposed or finished in
conventional ways.
A brick cavity wall is differentiated from a brick veneer with masonry backing by how
the designer considers load resistance by the exterior wythe. The exterior wythe of a
cavity wall is designed to resist loads by stresses developed in that wythe. Further,
both wythes resist out-of-plane loads by stresses in each wythe. These stresses,
whether axial, flexural or shear, must be less than the corresponding allowable
stresses. The exterior wythe of a brick veneer wall transfers out of plane loads to the
backing and is not subject to limitations of the allowable stress values. No axial loads
are applied to the veneer wythe. Out of plane lateral loads are transferred by metal
ties to the backing which is designed for the full load. Shear stresses generated by the
veneer's weight are ignored. Other design issues, such as water penetration resistance,
fire resistance, thermal, and sound transmission, are the same for either brick masonry
cavity walls or brick veneer over a masonry backing; therefore, such information in this
Technical Notes is appropriate for both types of wall systems. [19]
60. - 52 -
Figure-4.5 Cavity Brick Wall
Properties of Cavity Walls
Structural Properties Properly designed, detailed and constructed cavity walls may be
used in any building requiring loadbearing or non-loadbearing walls. The increased
flexibility by the separation of the wythes and the use of metal ties permits more
freedom from differential movement between the wythes. This is extremely important in
today's construction which makes use of many combinations of dissimilar materials. The
structural behavior of cavity walls is complex because of the interaction of the wythes,
ties and support conditions. Typically, the inner wythe of a cavity wall is designed to
support the weight of floors, roofs and live loads. The outer wythe is mainly non-
loadbearing. Out of plane loads are shared by the wythes in proportion to their stiffness
and the stiffness of the connecting ties. Walls tied together by brick headers (masonry
bonded hollow walls or utility walls) behave differently from walls tied together by
metal ties. Therefore, this Technical Notes addresses only metal-tied walls. Information
on masonry bonded hollow walls (utility walls) can be found in other technical
literature. [17]
61. - 53 -
4.4 BEARING PROPERTIES
4.4.1 Non-Bearing
A non-loadbearingwall isawall thatdoesnotsupportany gravityloadsfromthe building,
hence doesn’tbearanyweightbesidesitsown. Vertical perforatedbricksare producedintwo
differentgroupsasCarrier(HD) andNon-Carrier(LD). Non-Bearingbricksare 35% or more
hollowbricksandare usedin MasonryBuildings. Non-bearingvertical hollowbrickscanbe
usedinreinforcedconcrete buildings,gardenwalls,inhighwallswhere pressure resistance
mustbe high. [4]
4.4.2 Load-Bearing
A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that bears the weight of the house above
said wall, resting upon it by conducting its weight to a foundation structure. The
materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings
are concrete, block, or brick.
By contrast, a curtain wall provides no significant structural support beyond what is
necessary to bear its own materials or conduct such loads to a bearing wall.
Load-bearing walls are one of the earliest forms of construction. The development of
the flying buttress in Gothic architecture allowed structures to maintain an open interior
space, transferring more weight to the buttresses instead of to central bearing walls. For
example, the Notre Dame Cathedral has a load-bearing wall structure with flying
buttresses. [4]
62. - 54 -
The birth of the skyscraper era, the concurrent rise of steel as a more suitable framing
system first designed by William Le Baron Jenney, and the limitations of load-bearing
construction in large buildings led to a decline in the use of load-bearing walls in large-
scale, commercial structures
Load Bearing bricks especially used in construction of external walls so in TS EN 771-
1 standard there are conditions and standards for those types of bricks. During
manufacture process these conditions must be followed.
Load bearing bricks used in the exterior and interior, bricks used as load carriers,
other than their own weight. [4]
ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSE
As we discussed above brick masonry is very useful, ecological and economical
material which widely used for many purposes. On the other hand, Brick Masonry has
an important place in architectural designs. From many ages, we can see that Brick
Masonry widely used for Architectural purposes also until today and still used in whole
World.
The brick is used in architecture for centuries because it is resistant to external
influences, its insulation properties, its easy application and maintenance, plaster
requirement and its aesthetic appearance.
There are many competitions which named ‘’Brick in Architecture’’ in Turkey and in
Europe. [14]
63. - 55 -
Figure-4.6 Photo from Competition of ‘’Brick in Architecture’’
Figure-4.7 Photo from Competition of ‘’Brick in Architecture’’
67. - 59 -
BRICK MAASONRY IN TURKEY
Masonry construction is commonly used in many countries all over the world. They
are built using blocks made of mud, stone, cement or brick and their mechanical
behaviors are less understood according to structures with constructed using reinforced
concrete. In recent years many moderate and strong earthquakes destroyed and damaged
a lot of brick masonry structures in Turkey. The brick masonry structures are the
products of cultural heritage of people who live in Anatolia. According to the national
building census in 2000, the masonry construction is the most used type of building in
Turkey. The brick and tile industry is ahead of the main sub-sectors that support the
construction industry one coming. Bricks obtained by shaping, drying and baking kilns -
tiles are environmentally friendly, economic, do not contain substances that are not
healthy, completely natural and human which is preferred due to its nature-friendly, heat
storage feature, having heat and sound insulation, widely used in past daily construction
are building materials that have been proven to be used and will continue to be used.
Companies in the brick-tile sector, with the distribution all over the country, tend to
cluster in regions where it is dens. Brick-tile industry in terms of the intensity of the
firms, the Black Sea, Mediterranean, Aegean and Marmara regions, Central, Eastern and
Southeastern Anatolia regions seems to be less.
Since the brick-tile is produced entirely from domestic raw materials and resources,
there is no external dependency in the sector. Because it is a totally indigenous
production, also has an important place in terms of openness. Being domestic
production, easy to raw economical due to its widespread availability.
In addition, thanks to the presence of companies in every region of the country, it is
located at the beginning of the most common wall materials used. The last ten years in
the sector. In fact, it seems that there is no growth, and that the narrowing is
experienced. Last re-recovery and growth-oriented work carried out since years it said.
Table-5.a Turkey's Brick Import Quantities: [27]
Years Brick Import Quantities
Value Quantity
(kg)
Change
2001 187.225 6247.769
2002 185.171 3988.547 -1.1
2003 174.830 4688.023 -5.9
2004 1496.788 29033.454 88.3
2005 2487.278 44990.489 39.8
2006 1697.278 23203.991 -46.6
2007 2724.765 28616.379 37.7
2008 3294.526 27476.743 17.3
2009 590.079 4960.945 -458.3
2010 359.079 5670.593 -64.3
2011 1170.068 12714.768 69.3
2012 1189.199 20148.560 1.6
68. - 60 -
In economic crises, production is either significantly reduced, or completely it is
stopped. In 2011, total brick production in Turkey decreased by 5% to 6 billion units /
year. Tile production in 2011 is around 600 million units / year in parallel with the
previous year. Brick and tile there is a direct contribution of 1.5 billion TL to the
country's economy.
Table-5.b: Brick Import Graph[27]
Table-5.cTurkey's Brick Export Quantities: [27]
Years Brick Export Quantities
Value Quantity
(kg)
Change
2001 24.440 3.533 -
2002 0 0 -27.1
2003 5.441 5.141 100
2004 17.349 38.150 69
2005 130.646 341.992 87
2006 87.594 678.872 -49
2007 70.618 453.268 -24
2008 112.272 555.201 37
2009 70.005 409.763 -60
2010 166.257 723.280 58
2011 197.483 1.042.816 16
2012 604.238 4.335.889 67.3
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Brick 415 154 195 1518 2537 1860 2741 3304 665 759 1177 1204
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Brick Import
69. - 61 -
When Turkey's income from brick exports for the last decade is examined, 2008
Turkey experienced a very high decline in exports it seems to have begun to recover.
Table-5.d: Brick Export due to years[27]
It can be seen that after 2008 Export is increasing. [27]
SUMMARY AND MY VIEW
As a result, and summary in our thesis we discussed and had many main and general
information about Brick Masonry and Differences of usage. When we wrote about
manufacturing process of Brick from beginning until end and usage, advantages and
types. We can summarize our thesis briefly like this.
Clay Brick is a building material obtained from clay which is used on walls by being
connected to each other with mortar. The first brick or tile production facility is perhaps
the first to be built by people. These houses were built with a simple production system,
especially along the river banks and settlement areas in the delta, with dried clay tablets,
next to the houses to be built. It is unfortunately not possible to give a start date in this
regard. Uncooked clay tablets in excavations at the banks of the Dicle and Euphrates
rivers in Mesopotamia show 13th century BC. The use of Brick and tile is as old as the
formation of human beings.
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Brick 8 0 1 1 0 14 139 22 134 14 3 311
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Brick Export
70. - 62 -
The first industrial production of the cooked bricks corresponds to the construction of
the Babylonian tower in the 4th century BC. Historians have calculated that 85 million
bricks are used in this house. Today, if we think that this number can produce bricks
only with 5-6 advanced technological factories with 1 year of work, it is necessary to
accept that the production made here is really technologically worthy. This is why the
Tower of Babel is an important symbol of brick production and industry. It is considered
to be the Corinthians who first produced and used the tile. Corinthians produced
concave tiles, which are used today, in the 4th millennium BC, making them thicker and
larger than the present by beating the prepared brick with a rammer. In Anatolia and in
Europe, this historical development has taken on a different dimension with the progress
of parallel production methods, the first standards of the Romans and the
commencement of trade with this business.
In later periods, brick and tile, an indispensable part of Seljuk and Ottoman
architecture in Anatolia, has created an architectural style unique to Anatolia with the
standards of the Ottomans. The first standards were applied during the Ottoman period
when tiles were smaller and brick dimensions were larger. At that time, non-standard
production or their use in construction was prohibited and significant penalties were
foreseen. Even in the case of building floors and models, standard practices were
introduced during this period. When the sectoral development in Anatolia is taken into
consideration, unfortunately the factory and industrial production facilities outside the
workshop and open hearth manufacturing facilities have not been realized until the last
period of the Ottomans.
Following the declaration of the Republic, brick and tile production facilities were
started to be built in the Marmara and Aegean regions thanks to foreign entrepreneurs.
In the following period, the development process in the sector was caught by domestic
entrepreneurs and firstly the facilities built with imported machines were left to
domestic machinery. However, this formation is too late and perhaps a reason why the
industry is less modernized than European conditions.
By examining the production stages of bricks and tiles, the method of production can
be examined better:
1) Row Material preparation
2) Forming
3) Drying
4) Burning
5) Packaging and dispatch
We discussed the manufacturing process detailed in section 3 above. All steps are
important in production in order to get a good qualified Brick, but burning is much
important because strength of Brick depends on this step.
Brick is very useful and ecological, except those it has many types due to Strength,
Geometrical Shape, And Place needed to be used. Brick Masonry can be used as an aim
of isolation, for external walls, interior walls etc. On the other hand we have to
remember about Architectural purpose of Brick, it has been used for this aim in the
history and of course in modern Architecture. It is main material which can be used in
order to design beautiful structures.
Turkey has a main role in Brick production whole world. We discussed above with
graphics and datas. It can be seen that Brick Production is increasing year by year. There
71. - 63 -
are important regions and cities. We can give Turgutlu as an example, 20% of brick
production carrying in Turgutlu.
* From my view Brick Masonry has very important place in our life, we can say that
it is important for humanity as water and oxygen. It would be the mostly used material
per person. If we take any country or any place as an example it is clear that Brick
Masonry used from everyone. For example, in my country ‘’TURKMENISTAN’’ brick
masonry is mostly used material in buildings. It is used as load bearing, in constructions.
Types of bricks are mostly solid shape, I think it’s because of Selchuklu. In Selchuklu
solid bricks used in many dimensions, it can be seen in historical buildings in
Turkmenistan. And many beautiful shapes are giving to bricks by cutting them during
construction process. And I believe that Brick Masonry will be used for many ages and
it will be improved day by day. Some pictures below, about usage of Brick in
Turkmenistan and Middle Asia.
