CHAPTER 8 THE MEDIADoes the media impact our public opinion .docx

CHAPTER 8: THE MEDIA
Does the media impact our public opinion / impact how we
think about events?
· Picture Hurricane Katrina happening and everything only
being on the radio.
· Picture 9/11 happening and only being on the radio.
People, Government and Communications
· There are TWO types of media to think about when you think
about media – print media and broadcast media.
· Print Media – media in print – newspapers and magazines.
· Broadcast Media – electronic media – sound and images –
radio and television and the internet. This is not just the news,
news shows, televising presidential debates – think also about
movies that make political statements. Examples of singers that
sing about political ideas (Eminem, Natalie Maines speaking out
against President Bush at a concert for military action in Iraq).
· Does the media play a role in communications from the
government?
· Examples? Presidential election debates, press conference
from President Obama, weekly radio address.
· Does the media shape your political views?
· Think about the type of government we live in and how the
media effects us versus if you lived in a communist country
media flows more freely in “one direction” – the government

feeding information to its citizens versus the public responding
to public opinion.
The Development of the Mass Media in the United States
Newspapers
· There is a big difference in the way newspapers were in 1775
in the colonies and newspapers today.
· In 1775 there were about 37 weekly newspapers that were read
by the people that have land and money – newspapers were not
independent but politically affiliated and published by parties to
advance ideas of the party.
· In the 1830s newspapers started to be published daily and
started private ownership.
· Daily papers by circulation as of January 2015 – print and
electronic circulation:
· Wall Street Journal – 2.3 million every day
· USA Today – 3.2 million every day
· New York Times – 1.8 million every day
· Dallas Morning News – 400,000 every day
Magazines
· When you think about magazines think daily or monthly – less
frequency.
· This is more specialized than newspapers – more analytical –
they have more time to examine and do research on something
than a daily newspaper does.
· Usually more specialized – not just an overview of all news –
but some specific topic – from a magazine catering to
Democrats to one on celebrities.
· Weekly magazines and their weekly circulation:
· Time – 3.3 million copies.
· National Enquirer – 1 million (at its height 6 million)

· People – 3.75 million – 46.4 million people are in their
readership – when Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie had their baby
Shiloh – People paid $4.1 million to them for the first photos
and there were 26.5 MILLION page views on their internet page
– the single largest daily internet traffic ever. Does People
impact people and their viewpoints?
Radio
· Regularly scheduled and continuous broadcasting on the radio
began in 1920 on two stations – KDRA in Pittsburg and WWJ in
Detroit.
· They both broadcast the election returns in the 1920 election
where President Warren Harding won.
· First radio network – NBC (National Broadcasting Company)
– was formed in 1926.
· President Franklin D. Roosavelt did the first “fireside chat” on
radio in 1933.
· There are over 13,000 licensed broadcast stations.
· Over 90% of Americans still listen to the traditional AM/FM
frequency at least once each week.
Television
· By 1940 there were 23 television stations in the US.
· By 1950 there were 98 television stations in the US but only
9% of American households had a television.
· Today – 98% of American households have at least one
television.
· Think about the way television can shape the information you
receive from the government – news programs, the Sunday news
debates, televising the thing the president is doing on a daily
basis, CSPAN.
The Internet
· The internet began in 1969 when computers at 4 universities
were connected to form ARPANET with the support of the US
Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency.

· Early on the internet was used to transmit email among
researchers.
· In 1991 a group of European physicists developed a way to
transmit images and graphics over the internet and the World
Wide Web (WWW) was born.
· In 1993 there were only 50 websites in existence.
· Today there are over 100 million websites and over 1 billion
web users.
· Virtually every government agency, political group and person
has a website.
· Think also about bloggers and how they impact our views and
how the government and news agencies react to bloggers.
· Think about email chains and how they impact what we do and
how we think.
· Over 70% of American use the WWW.
· Does the internet effect the way you communicate with your
government and shape your political and social views?
Private Ownership of the Media
· Do not take private ownership of the media for granted.
· Most people in the US think if the government owned the
media that would be a bad thing because that would interfere
with what information was disseminated to us.
· We have freedom of speech and freedom of the press that
other countries do not enjoy.
· China – the Chinese government employs thousands of
“Internet police” to prevent “subversive content” from being
disseminated about China on the internet. They search phrases
like “human rights” every day.
· Google –
· Google resisted the US Government’s request for records for
users who were searching for pornography when they were
conducting pornography investigations.
· Google accepted the Chinese government’s limitations on
blogging and email functions because they wanted to get into

that fast growing market.
· Private ownership as opposed to government ownership gives
the news media more political freedom to publish and say what
they want.
· A consequence of private ownership? The media is dependent
on ADVERTISING – depends on advertising revenues to pay
the bills and cover their costs. Advertising rates are tied to the
audience size (the more they reach the more they pay) – so news
operations have to cater to the audiences they serve to get you
to watch television and read their publications to attract
advertisers.
· About 52 million newspapers are circulated daily – more than
60% of their content is advertising.
· Newsworthiness – the degree to which a story is important
enough to be covered in the mass media.
· Judged by audience appeal.
· What impact will it have on listeners and readers.
· Degree of sensationalism (exemplified by violence, conflict,
disaster, scandal)
· Timeliness
· “If it bleeds it leads.”
Government Regulation of the Media
· Even though most mass media is privately owned they do have
to operate under some government regulation.
· Example: the Federal Communications Commission has
regulations regarding the amount of air time provided to each
political candidate.
· Government regulation of the media has three aspects:
· Technical and ownership considerations
· Ownership
· Content
· Technical and Ownership Considerations
· Federal Radio Act – in 1927 everyone was broadcasting in

radio over each other so that no one could be understood – so
the government came in and said everyone that wanted to
broadcast had to register and get a license so that you got a
specific signal and everyone could be heard.
· Federal Communications Act in 1934 – created the Federal
Communications Commission.
· The FCC is an independent regulatory commission.
· Regulates interstate and international communications by
radio, television, telephone, telegraph, cable and satellite.
· In 1996 Congress revamped the Federal Communications Act
in 1996.
· The new law relaxed ownership laws of the media.
· Prior to 1996 one company could only own 12 television
stations and 40 radio stations – after 1996 the law said you
could own as many as you wanted so long as you did not have
over 35% of the market share nationwide.
· After 1996 telephone companies could compete with one
another to sell television services.
· After 1996 there was arguably more competition for the public
so hopefully cheaper services.
· Regulation of Content
· The First Amendment of the United States Constitution
prohibits Congress from abridging the Freedom of the Press.
· The Press means all forms of media.
· The Courts have decided many cases that determine how far
that will go.
· The courts struggle most with obscenity – what is obscene –
the federal courts are split over this but federal courts have
overturned claims of Freedom of the Press when someone is
transmitting indecent images over the internet calling them
“repugnant to First Amendment Principles.”
· The government overall has stood by the principle of not
censoring the press.
· One major exception – during wartime – the government will
ask the press not to publish certain information if it would

endanger American soldiers – i.e. planned movements in a
battle before the battle takes place.
· The FCC used to operate under three rules:
· The fairness doctrine – requiring a station had to provide fair
coverage on all public issues.
· The equal opportunities rule – if you give or sell airtime to
one candidate for public office you have to make equal time to
the other candidate under the same conditions.
· The reasonable access rule – required that stations make their
facilities available for all conflicting views on an issue.
· In 1987 under President Reagan the FCC repealed the fairness
doctrine: people feared that the stations would then just go all
conservative or all liberal because there was no need to provide
equal airtime to both types of programs.
· But keep in mind that advertisers want to sell to everyone so
they have a role in keeping the broadcast media “in check” – the
stations do not want to lose their advertisers because they are
too extreme so by in large they try to give off image they are
not endorsing any one political view.
Functions of the Mass Media for the Political System
· When you think about the function of the media in our society
and in our political system – think about the following as the
roles of the media – think about if you are the station that does
it the best you are likely to get more advertisers:
· Reporting the News
· When the news media is reporting the news keep in mind they
do not create it – the news is a creation of media releases from
companies, pr agencies, the White House.
· There is a daily briefing at the White House that tells what the

White House wants to get across to the citizens each day – they
set an agenda they want each day.
· Congressional offices issue press releases to the media in DC
or back home to get across their messages.
· Interpreting and Presenting the News
· The media executives, news editors, and reports are the
gatekeepers in directing the news flow – they decide which
events to report on and how much time to give them.
· If you have over 5,000 press releases on desk at the New York
Times you cannot report on each of those each day – you decide
which ones are most newsworthy.
· The rise of the Internet has made more news available more
quickly.
· Horse Race Journalism – this is the term that describes how
the media will cover the political candidate that is ahead in the
polls versus covering the national issues because that is what
people are most interested in hearing about.
· Overall – the American public knows more about
entertainment news than political facts and figures.
· Influencing Public Opinion
· 9 out of 10 Americans believe the media strongly influences
public opinion.
· Measuring the absolute extent of the media’s influence can be
difficult.
· When you think about how the media influences public
opinion – imagine if Hurricane Katrina had happened with no
photographs or images being projected to the rest of the United
States – but you only heard about it on the radio.
· Setting the Political Agenda
· Most political scholars believe that the media plays a role in
setting the political agenda – which is a list of issues that need
government attention.
· The media wants advertisers to pay them, advertisers pay

higher rates to media with larger viewership or larger listener
base – so the media responds to what you want to hear.
· If that is true then the government will look to the media to
see what people are caring about right now.
· Watchdog Journalism – Journalism that scrutinizes public and
business institutions and publicizes perceived misconduct – the
media can break scandals and serve as a check on wrongdoers.
Evaluating the Media in Government
· As a citizen it is your responsibility to evaluate the media
source you are reading – whether they are more conservative or
more liberal – and take what they say and evaluate it.
· There are certain media outlets that are known to be more
conservative or known to be more liberal – although they may
provide coverage to both political candidates because it appeals
to the advertisers or general audience – be aware that not all
media outlets are totally unbiased.
· Watchdog Journalism
· Journalism that scrutinizes public and business institutions
and publicizes perceived misconduct.
· Consider as final point in studying the media whether this
would be allowed in another country – would the media be
allowed to criticize the government – it our democracy IT CAN!
24
Chapter 10
The Party System in Texas
STUDENT HOMEWORK!
· In preparation for the Political Parties Chapter students need

to take this quiz:
· Political Typology Quiz at the Pew Research Center:
· http://www.people-press.org/quiz/political-typology
· BEFPORE YOU TAKE THE QUIZ WRITE DOWN
1) What party you align yourself with before you take the quiz.
2) Why.
· In class we will discuss your results and whether you were
surprised by your test results.
· The political party quiz – discuss results – who stayed the
same, who was surprised by results, etc.!
· At end of chapter we are doing the FORMING A POLITICAL
PARTIES exercise.
Political Parties and Their Functions
· What is a political party?
· In a democracy the primary way citizens communicate to their
government and control their government is by voting.
· Political party = an organization that sponsors candidates for
political office under the organization’s name.
· Nomination – this is how a political party officially designates
a candidate as an official candidate of the political party.
· The US is dominated by a two-party system.
· The Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
· The parties will nominate candidates and sponsor them –
interest groups and various groups will publicly support a
candidate but they are nominating them.
· Political scientists agree that you need at least two political
parties in a democratic society for it to function properly – you
need that competition.
· What is the function of a political party?
· Four major functions of political parties:

· Recruiting and Nominating Candidates for Office
· Who should run for office – is everyone qualified or only a
certain few people qualified to run or help run our government?
· Without political parties voters would have to confront a vast
array of self-nominated candidates - parties provide a method
of control through a peer review process.
· Caucuses – a caucus is a meeting that is closed to the general
public and only open to the members of the party – they meet to
decided on policy issues and make a selection of political
candidates for office.
· Party insiders know the strengths and weaknesses of political
candidates and can hopefully weed out stronger candidates for
us.
· Parties may not just pass judgment on candidates but seek out
good and qualified candidates and support them in running for
office.
· Each party – democratic and republican – have a national
convention every four years – where they officially nominate
the president and vice president and adopt a party platform.
· Party Platform = the statement of polities of a national party.
· Structuring the voting choice in elections
· This means that political parties help by reducing the number
of candidates on the ballot to those who have a realistic chance
of winning.
· The ability of established parties to gather support from a base
of voters discourages non-party candidates from running and
discourages new parties from forming.
· This overall reduces the amount of decision making and
research you have to do to vote for a qualified candidate –
imagine if there were 100 candidates running for President.
· Each state has its own ballot access laws to determine who can
get on a ballot – if you are running for President you have to
follow each state’s laws to get on their ballot.
· Texas: For a registered political party in a statewide election
to gain ballot access, they must either 1) obtain five percent of

the vote in any statewide election or 2) collect petition
signatures equal to one percent of the total votes cast in the
preceding election.
· Contest Elections and Mobilize Voters
· Proposing alternative government programs
· Parties have differing views on topics and programs and the
government – so the parties offer you the choice and although
each candidate is different if the party is supporting them then
you can be pretty sure he candidate will align itself with the
views of the party.
· Provide Accountability
· Keep public officials accountable to the people – are they
doing what they said they would do?
· Coordinating the actions of government officials between the
branches AND organize and manage the government AND set
the policy agenda
· Parties help coordinate the actions of various government
officials so that we can get things done in our government – i.e.
if you want to pass a healthcare bill you need to make sure that
you coordinate with the President and leaders in the House and
Senate – political parties are the vehicle to that cooperation.
A History of US Party Politics
· The Democratic party was founded in 1828.
· The Republican Party was formed in 1854.
· You can take classes that will study the evolution of the
political parties and their agendas over time.
· During different times in history sometimes one party has
been considered stronger than the other – one major time you

study is in the 1860s when the democratic party was greatly
divided over the slavery issue between the north and south.
· Today the two parties are considered to have a “rough
balance” since 1968.
The American Two-Party System
· We have a strong two party system in the US.
· Why?
· Political scientists have examined this over time and have
various answers.
· In elections it is just plain difficult for three or more to
maintain “power” mathematically – two parties will emerge
because of basic math principles in a winner take all system.
· Historically that is what we have had.
· When you look at Americans and study their political
participation, the two parties and their divisions cover what
American believe.
· How are parties organized at the national level?
· National Convention
· Every four years each party gets together at a national
convention to officially nominate their candidate for president
and vice president.
· Each Party Has a National Committee
· The Republican National Committee (RNC) has about 150
members and the Democratic National Committee (DNC) has
about 450 members.
· These committees are made up of representatives from each
state and these committees govern the party between election
years.
· The chair of this committee is usually appointed by the
presidential nominee / president.

· They office in office buildings on Capitol Hill.
· The national committee supports the president if he is from
their party and takes orders from the president / candidate for
president – they are not setting the agenda for the candidate –
that happens within the campaign.
· These committees are more a mechanism for keeping things
organized.
· Congressional Party Conferences
· At the beginning of each session of Congress, Republicans and
Democrats in each chamber hold a separate party conference
where they elect party leaders and decide committee
assignments.
· These meetings deal only with congress.
· Congressional Campaign Committees
· Each member of the House and Senate – whether you are a
Democrat or Republican –you have your own congressional
campaign committees that help you get elected – these are
separate from the national structure of the parties but are
supported by the national structure.
The Development of the Texas Party System
· Although the US has been dominated by a two party system –
Texas has seen a dominance of primarily one party in its
history.
· Under the Republic of Texas, there was not a lot of “party”
activity.
· Activity surrounded Sam Houston – a leading founder of the
Republic – and you were either in support of him OR opposed to
him.
· After Texas became a state, the Democratic Party dominated

Texas until the surprising victory of gubernatorial candidate
Bill Clements in 1978.
Party Ideology and Organization
· Party Identification = a voter’s sense of psychological
attachment to a specific party.
· Research shows there are the same number of Republicans,
Democrats, and Independents – roughly.
· Republicans
· The Republican Party is well known for its conservative
ideology, as well as its beliefs in a small national government
and strong military involvement. The Party is also generally
pro-life, pro-business (as opposed to pro-environment), opposed
to social spending, opposed to gay rights and skeptical of open
immigration.
· Democrats
· Democrats tend to favor more government / bigger government
and are known for a more liberal ideology. The Party is
generally pro-choice, for social spending, and supportive of
equal rights for everyone.
Republicans and Democrats in Texas
· Know that you have conservative and liberal Democrats.
· You also have conservative and liberal Republicans.
· Example: the Evangelical and Fundamentalist also called
“Right Wing Conservatives”
· You can study Texas history over time – year by year – and
see what factions of what party has dominated elections in
Texas.

The Rise of the Republican Party in Texas
· Texas is currently Republican party dominant.
· Before the Presidential elections of November 1988, only
three contemporary Republicans had won state-wide races in
Texas, Senator John Tower (1961-1985), Governor Bill
Clements (1979-1983 and 1987-1991), and Senator Phil Graham
(1985-2003).
· Why was the Republican party not a competitor in Texas prior
to this time?
· Collective memory of how Republican party was characterized
during the Civil War and Reconstruction.
· During that time Yankee Troops – under direction of the
Republican Congress – occupied the South.
· In 1961, Republican John Tower was elected to the US Senate
from Texas.
· In 1978, Republican governor Bill Clements elected.
· So slowly some Republicans got seats in Texas.
· In 1992 Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison was elected so both US
Senate seats from Texas were Republican for the first time since
Reconstruction.
· In 1994, Republican George W. Bush defeated incumbent
Democratic Governor Ann Richards.
· November 1998 – called “The Republican Sweep” – in

November 1998 incumbent George W. Bush won governor and
there was a sweep of winners of Republicans in every state wide
election.
· For the first time in the living memory of most, no Democrats
occupied any state wide office.
· Republicans still maintain a monopoly on state wide offices
today.
Republicans in Texas Today
· After the 2012 Presidential Election results, election revealed
the following:
· Republicans are strongest in these counties:
· The Houston suburbs
· The Fort Worth Area
· The Midland-Odessa Area
· The Northern Panhandle
· East Texas rural counties
· The Hill Country
· Republicans are weaker in these areas
· South and Central Texas
· Cities of Austin, Dallas, El Paso, Houston, and San Antonio
· Far West Texas
· In Texas the Republican Party seems to appeal strongest to the
following people”:
· Middle and upper class people in suburban communities
· People who live in rural areas and small towns
· White Angle-Saxon Protestants
· German Americans who ancestors were strong supporters of
the Union during the Civil War
· Active and retired military officers
· Traditional conservatives who find themselves in a new urban
setting

Will the Republican Party Continue to Dominate Texas Politics?
· Political scientists are theorizing that Texas will move
towards a two party system mimicking the US.
· Democrats still have considerable resources in local
government – especially in some central cities and in South and
Southwest Texas.
· The 2014 Governor’s Race:
· Rick Perry announced he was not running again so no
incumbent.
· There was a lot of talk to see if a Democrat candidate could
beat a Republican candidate and get Texas back going towards
being Democratic.
· Democratic Candidate = Wendy Davis
· Republic Candidate = Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott
· Election was November 4, 2014 and Greg Abbott won and
took office in January 2015.
COMPLETE THE
POLITICAL PARTIES EXERCISE
CHAPTER 11 – INTEREST GROUPS
· Pull up interest group website to show class different kinds of
interest groups!!!
Interest Groups and the American Political Tradition
· Lobby / Interest Group = an organized group of individuals
that who share political goals and seek to influence public
policy. Lobby and Interest Group are the same thing.
· Lobbyist = a representative of an interest group.

· Examples of Interest Groups:
· AFL-CIO – represents labor union members
· American Farm Bureau Federation – represents farmers
· Business Roundtable – represents big business
· Some people do not like interest groups in general because
they are not equal to everyone – i.e. if you are not a farmer you
are not a member of the American Farm Bureau Federation.
· Some people in society think that lobbyists bribe congressmen
– study done showed that 4 out of 5 people thought that
lobbyists bribed congressmen to vote in support of their cause.
· One study suggests that $10 billion is spent on lobbyists every
year.
· Interest groups do represent one segment of society (i.e.
farmers, doctors, students) but they are advocates for that group
to make sure their voices get heard.
· What do lobbyists do?
· Representation
· They represent people before their government.
· Example: A lobbyists for the National Association of
Broadcasters speaks for the interests of radio and television
broadcasters when Congress or another agency is considering a
relevant policy decision.
· Without that certain lobbyist the member of congress may not
take that certain issue into consideration in the same way.
· Participation
· Interest groups are a vehicle for political participation.
· They provide a way for like-minded citizens to pool their
resources and make a bigger impact together rather than
separately.
· People come together because it is easier to get the
government to listen to a group of individuals rather than one
individual.
· Interest groups facilitate that participation of multiple people

to come together to promote their common interests.
· Education
· Interest groups provide education to their own members, the
public at large, and to government officials.
· Agenda Building
· Interest groups bring new issues into the government
limelight.
· American society has a lot of problems but the government
cannot address every single one of them.
· Interest groups are advocates for solving the problems of their
group – they bring those problems to the limelight to try and see
that something is done to solve them.
· Think about the saying “the squeaky wheel gets the grease.”
· Program Monitoring
· Interest groups also monitor programs – they engage in
“program monitoring” – means they keep track of government
programs of interest to their members.
· When a program is not operating like it should the interest
group pushes the administrators to change it.
· Example: if there is a program offering federal subsidies to
farmers in time of major drought – the interest group the
farmers are a member of will monitor the program and if it is
not working the interest group will push the government to
change it.
How Interest Groups Form
· How do interest groups form, start, and get organized to get
members and make an agenda?

· Interest Group Entrepreneurs = an interest group organizer or
leader.
· The interest groups entrepreneur will succeed or fail the same
way a business entrepreneur succeeds or fails – there must be
something attractive to the “market” in order to convince people
to join / form an interest group AND member(s) have to be
persuaded that the benefits of membership / forming an interest
group outweigh the costs.
· Note that some interest groups have actual members – i.e.
farmers – and some interest groups don’t have a lot of members
but hire lobbyists or establish lobby offices in DC because their
company is so big they want to have a person in DC – i.e.
Google has an office in DC and lawyers who are lobbyists who
represent their interests because they are such a big company
and have so many interests.
Lobbyists
· Some of the money that interest groups raise is used to pay
lobbyists who represent their organization before the
government.
· Lobbyists make sure that people in the government know their
members want – AND – make sure their groups know what the
government is doing.
· Example – hedge funds have lobbyists in DC so make sure the
lobbyists are plugged into any new regulations that are being
proposed that could impact them and their clients.
· A lobbyist may be a full time employee – OR – can be
someone you hire by the hour that works for a public relations
firm or a law firm.

· Lobbyists are usually people who are in the know, may be
people who have served in high government positions and have
influence and credibility.
· Example: Billy Touzin, Republican from Louisiana who
chaired the House Energy and Commerce Committee – was later
hired by the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of
America – interest group for the drug industry. His credibility
and access to members of the House made him a catch to the
group. His initial salary was reported at $2 million / year.
· 40% of representatives and senators who leave Capitol Hill
become lobbyists.
Lobbying Tactics
· There are three types of lobbying tactics we discuss:
· Direct Lobbying
· Attempts to influence a legislator through personal contact and
personal relationship.
· A lobbyist will meet with the member of Congress or a
member of their staff.
· The lobbyists will make their arguments / positions known and
ask for support.
· The goal is to educate the policy makers and help them do
their job by educating them about a certain subject.
· Sometimes lobbyists will be asked to come and speak before
Congress in a meeting or congressional hearing to educate
members about something and will present all sides of an issue.
· Grassroots Lobbying
· Lobbying activities performed by rank and file interest group
members or people who sympathize with the interest group’s
cause.
· Example: Letter writing campaigns, protests, emails, faxes,

telephone calls.
· Information Campaigns
· An organized effort to gain public backing by bringing a
group’s views to public attention.
· This is a public relations campaign.
· Involves sending speakers to meetings across the country,
printing pamphlets, handouts, newspaper and magazine ads,
making a website.
· Example: labor union for Wal Mart launched an informational
campaign against Wal Mart and how they treat their employees.
Regulation of Lobbying
· In Texas, you have to register as a lobbyist and file a report
with the Texas Ethics Commission if:
· Private-sector lobbyists who cross a compensation threshold
of $1,000 per calendar year
· An expenditure threshold of $500 per quarter year – means if
someone spends more than $500 per quarter to directly
communicate with members of Congress to influence legislation
or administrative action.
· The registration form requires the lobbyist to disclose the
following:
· For whom the person lobbies, including information about
those clients.
· The policy areas of their concern.
· The compensation category into which the salary or
reimbursement falls.
· The identify of anyone that works for them that has direct
contact with political officials.
· Expenditures for broadcast or print advertisements, mass
mailings, or other communications designed to support of

oppose legislation or administrative actions.
· Expenditures on members of the state legislature in excess of
$114 (60% of legislative per diem) on food, drink,
transportation and lodging.
· Must report expenditures in excess of $50 on gifts – including
reporting the form of a gift, reported by name, date, place, and
purpose.
·
· Lobbyists who foresee spending more than $1,000/year must
file activity reports by the 10th day of each month – those who
spend less just have to file annually.
· But lobbyists do NOT have to report the following:
· Compensation received to “prepare for lobbying”
· Office expenses like telephone, fax, copying, office supplies,
postage, dues, transportation, cost of clerical help.
· Costs associated with events to which all members of the
legislature are invited to attend.
· Campaign contributions to public officials – these are not
reported as lobbying expenses but as campaign contributions so
fall under the reporting requirements for campaign
contributions.
· Overall – the public does NOT think it gets an accurate picture
of the investments in lobbying that interest groups make.
· In Texas, The Texas Ethics Commission enforces reporting
laws.
· Lobby Industry in Texas – statistics:
· You can look at the Texas Ethics Commissions’ website and
see statistics.
· In 2014:
· 8,517 lobby contracts with 1,836 lobbyists.
· Contracts worth between $169M-$345M

· Most Texas lobbyists are affiliated with law firms.
· 30 lobbyists earned more than $1.5M for their services.
· 14 identifiable industries collectively paid more than $5
million EACH to have their interests protected and advanced.
· Who spends the most on lobbing in Texas?
· ATT&T Corp = $10.5M
· Texas Medical Association = $1.4M
· Association of Electric Companies = $1.3M
· Texas Trial Lawyers Association = $1.25M
Should Texas allow former lawmakers to become lobbyists once
they leave office?
· Many states ban former law makers from becoming lobbyists
immediately after leaving office for a period of time.
· Texas does not.
· The members of the Texas legislature make $7,200/year and
lobbyists make A LOT more than that so when they leave office
many interests groups would like to hire the former legislatures
because they know people in Austin.
· Reasons to NOT allow former lawmakers to immediately
become lobbyists:
· Former lawmakers created the legislation, regulated industry,
and oversaw government agencies.
· If former lawmakers are allowed to go be a lobbyist then they
may have the temptation to author legislation that helps the
industry in which they hope to work after the leave office.
· Will they block “undesirable” legislation because a potential
employer might look favorably on that?
· Banning former law makers from becoming lobbyists may
ensure that ex-lawmakers wouldn’t grant benefits to future
employers.

· Reasons to keep law the same – no ban on former lawmaker
immediately becoming a lobbyist:
· Few people are better suited to be lobbyists than people who
have actually worked in the legislature and know people and
know how it works.
· Expertise leads to better laws that are written better and
crafter better.
· Texas lawmakers are so poorly compensated for their public
service that they should be able to get some kind of pay back
when the leave the legislature.
1
VOTING AND ELECTIONS
Negative Campaign Ads
· When you think about Voting and Elections – form some
opinions about negative advertising in campaigns – this is a
theme that runs throughout this section.
· You Tube
· Wendy Davis “Justice” ad has been called one of the most
controversial ads ever made.
· Joni Earnst “Make ‘Em Squeal” ad
· Sleaziest Political Ads of 2012
· Daisy Ad
· One of most controversial political ads ever made.
· Ran by incumbent president Lyndon B. Johnson in campaign
against Barry Goldwater.
· Johnson wanted to capitalize on Goldwater’s support of using
nuclear weapons.
· In the Vietnam War Johnson wanted to deescalate and

Goldwater was a supporter of using nuclear weapons if
necessary.
· Agree / Disagree?
Democracy and Political Participation
· Democracy is rule by the people.
· How much participation by the people is necessary for a
democratic government?
· Political theorists are all over the map on this question.
· On one spectrum people believe if every person does not
directly participate in the day to day decision making then the
country is not a democracy.
· On the other side of the spectrum people believe that in a large
complex nation complete participation by each citizen is not
realistic – so people elect representatives through voting that
take care of the day to day activities in government.
· Political Participation – actions of private citizen by which
they seek to influence or support government and politics.
· There are two kinds of political participation – conventional
and unconventional.
· Conventional – routine political behavior that is acceptable in
the dominant culture – i.e. putting political signs in your yard,
carrying signs outside of an abortion clinic in protest.
· Unconventional – uncommon political behavior that
challenges dominant norms – i.e. terrorism, killing an abortion
doctor to protest abortions.
Unconventional Participation
Terrorism
· Terrorism – premeditated, politically motivated violence
against non-combatant targets by clandestine groups or agents.
· Terrorism is an extreme form of unconventional political
participation.
· Examples:

· Timothy McVeigh bombed federal building in Oklahoma City
in 1995 because he said the government was hostile to gun
owners, religious sects and patriotic militia groups.
· September 11 – terrorist attack against the United States and
what the United States stands for.
Does unconventional political participation ever work?
· Abortion protestors killing doctors who perform abortions?
· It may make one or two doctors not perform abortions but it
has not outlawed abortions – so no.
· Anti-war protestors have staged unconventional protests in our
history and accomplished their goals – i.e. President Lyndon B.
Johnson did not seek reelection in 1968 at the hands of anti-war
protestors.
· The Montgomery Bus Boycott – 1955 prompted by Rosa Parks
(she refused to give up her seat for a white man) – and that
sparked the Civil Rights Movement – but all of the black
citizens refusing the busing system was considered
unconventional political participation.
Conventional Participation
· In a democracy people should not have to risk their lives,
livelihoods, or property to participate in politics - think about
conventional participation when you think about this.
· Conventional political behavior falls into two categories –
supportive behavior – and – influencing behavior.
· Supportive Behavior –
· An action that expresses allegiance to the government and
country.
· Examples – reciting the pledge of allegiance, flying the
American Flag, voting, organizing a July Fourth parade or
activity in your neighborhood.
· Influencing Behavior –
· A behavior that seeks to modify or reverse government policy
or serve political interests.

· Examples: voting against something, contributing money to a
certain political campaign, attending political meetings,
persuading others how to vote.
Participation Through Voting
· Elections are formal procedures for making group decisions.
· Voting is the act individuals engage in the election.
· Suffrage and franchise both mean the right to vote.
· You can evaluate a country by a few principles:
· Who is allowed to vote.
· How much each person’s vote counts.
· How many votes are needed to win.
· According to democratic theory all citizens should be able to
vote.
· No nation grants a universal right to vote.
· Even in the United States there are some people who cannot
vote today – who cannot vote in the United States?
· If you are under 18 you cannot vote in the US.
· If you do not register to vote you cannot vote in the US.
· If you are a felon different laws may apply to you as far as
voting – it depends on your state.
· Maine and Vermont allow you to vote in prison while you are
a convicted felon.
· In Texas you can vote once you have served your incarceration
time, probation and parole – your voting rights are restored.
Legal Restrictions to Voting in the Past
· When our country was first formed – generally only

landowners could vote.
· The original 13 states started to lift voting requirements after
1800.
· White males who were working class and not landowners – got
right to vote by 1850.
· Poll Tax
· The poll tax was a payment that was required before you could
vote – adopted in 1902.
· Cost was $1.75 – this represented an entire day’s wage for
some people.
· Many people in the US and Texas were prevented from voting
because they could not afford it.
· United States Constitution ratified the 24th Amendment in
1964 that voided the poll tax in national elections.
· Texas kept the poll tax for state elections until it was held
unconstitutional in 1966 - This was not that long ago!!!
· Black Voters:
· 15th Amendment to the US Constitution - 1869 - prohibited
states from denying the right to vote “on account of race, color,
or previous condition of servitude.”
· The White Primary
· Black citizens were barred from participating the first
Democratic Primary in 1906.
· Not until 1944 were the “white primary” laws off the books in
Texas.
· In practice this did not grant black people the right to vote
immediately – two Supreme Court decisions were what gave
blacks the right to vote:
· Smith v. Allwright – held that the law preventing blacks from
voting in primary elections were unconstitutional.

· The Voting Rights Act of 1965 – suspended discriminatory
voting tests.
· Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966 – held that
state poll taxes were unconstitutional.
· These actions promoted voting equality in the US and greatly
increased the registration of black voters.
· Women Voters:
· Until 1869 women could not vote anywhere in the world.
· In 1869 Wyoming granted women the right to vote.
· The next state was 1893 – Colorado granted women the right
to vote.
· In 1919 Congress passed the 19th Amendment – prohibited
states from denying the right to vote “on account of sex.”
· In Texas an attempt was made to extend suffrage to women in
1917 but it failed by four votes in the Texas Legislature.
· Not until ratification of the 19th Amendment of the United
States Constitution in 1920 did suffrage come to women in
Texas.
Why do some people vote and some people not vote?
· Education
· Single largest predictor of whether someone votes or not is
education – people with more education are more likely to vote
– people with less education are less likely to vote.
· Money: research shows there is a relationship between your
socioeconomic status and your political involvement – this is
called the standard socioeconomic model of participation:
· People with higher status and more education are more likely
to participate in voting than those with lower status and less
education.
· Education is the single largest predictor of voting or not
voting.

· Age impacts voting:
· Younger people are more likely to participate in
demonstrations and boycotts and less likely to vote.
· Voting rates increase as people grow older until people turn 65
and then the voting decreases.
· Race and gender:
· These used to be a factor in voting but are not as much now
given the laws that fought for equality in giving “everyone” the
right to vote.
· Political Involvement – people that are interested in politics
are more likely to vote than people who are not.
· People that identify strongly with one party over another are
more likely to vote than not.
· Married people:
· More likely to vote than those people who are not living with
a spouse.
· People are more likely to vote when elections are close or
highly contested – because they think their vote will “count” as
opposed to when people think one person will for sure win they
will not be as likely to vote.
· There are some countries where voting is mandatory – so their
voter turnout rate is higher than the United States.
· In most democratic governments the government is responsible
for registering people to vote – in the United States people have
to register themselves – researchers believe voter turnout rates
would go up if the government registered everyone to vote.
· The fact some people have to register in advance of the
election turns away some people.
· When you move you have to re-register.
· There are eight states where you can register to vote and vote

on the same day – they have had a consistently higher number
of their citizens voting.
· Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Washington, DC, Minnesota, Montana,
New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Wyoming.
· Turnout is higher in Oregon than other states because
everyone in Oregon votes by mail.
Explaining Political Participation
· The United States has seen a decline in voter turnout over
time.
· Texas has seen a decline in voter turnout over time.
· Why?
· Education and socioeconomic status heavily influences why
someone votes or does not vote.
· Texas has poverty rates higher than the poverty rates in the US
– in 2014 (most recent stats):
· Texas ranked 46/50 states in terms of people in poverty.
· People below poverty rate in Texas in 2014 = 3,681,000
· 17.4% of our citizens are in poverty.
· Looking at people 25 years of age or older in Texas, 1 in 4 has
not graduated high school.
· With money and education being the biggest predictors of
whether you vote or not – you would expect Texas voter turnout
to be low given these statistics.
· November elections in 2012 and in 2014:
· In 2012 in Texas – 50.1% of voters voted.
· In 2012 Texas was ranked 48th of the 50 states in terms of
voting.
· In 2014 in the November election in Texas – 28.5% of
registered voters voted.
· In 2014 Texas was ranked 49th of the 50 states in terms of
voting.

· In Presidential voting years 57.8% of registered voters vote in
general.
· However during Obama’s first run for office there was a spike
– 62% of registered voters came out to vote.
· The 2012 presidential election – 57.5% of registered voters
voted.
· In congressional voting years 42.2% of registered voters vote.
· In the November 2014 election (governor race and other races)
– 33.6% of registered Texans voted (The Texas Tribune). In the
2010 election in Texas it was 37.5%.
How do you INCREASE voter turnout?
· Register more people to vote!
· Make it easier to register – i.e. register online and
immediately get your voter registration card.
· Move to federal voter registration.
· Convince people that their vote does matter – a lot of people
don’t vote because they think one vote will not make a
difference – if everyone said that we would have no one voting!
· Decrease time it takes to vote – avoid the lines by adding
polling places, putting app on phones that tracks lines, early
voting.
· Allow people to vote online – privacy experts caution against
this!
· Train poll workers so they are more efficient – a lot of polling
locations are disorganized, have a reputation for running out of

ballots, have a reputation for broken polling machines, etc.
· Get rid of the Electoral College and elect President by popular
vote so people think their vote really counts.
· Post card reminders – people are barraged with media these
days and a simple post card reminder via mail would have a
bigger impact.
· Email / phone call reminders to vote.
· Have Election Day be a national holiday.
· Some states allow you to vote and register in the same day:
· Colorado
· Connecticut
· Idaho
· Illinois
· Iowa
· Maine
· Minnesota
· Montana
· New Hampshire
· Wisconsin
· Wyoming
· Washington, D.C.
· North Dakota has no registration at all – you just walk in,
show ID, then vote.
· Early Voting
· Texas was one of the first states to allow early voting – this is
voting before an election at designated places – not all polling
places are open but just a few.
· Goal is to allow more access to voting so if you cannot make
it on Election Day you can vote early – and decreases the lines

on Election Day.
· Ballots in Texas
· SHOW A BALLOT – WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE!
· Texas requires that ballots be printed in other languages – not
just English.
· Two Types of Ballots
· Party Column Ballot – names of all candidates in one party are
listed in a parallel column.
· Office Block Ballot – offices listed and candidates beneath
offices.
THINK ABOUT THIS…if you are running for President you
have to get on the ballot on ALL 50 state in the United States –
this is a major task – here is how you get on the ballot in Texas
– think about having to do this or something similar in all 50
states”
How to get on the Ballot in Texas
TWO WAYS
(1) Be a member of a party that got at least 5% of the vote in
the previous general election – OR
(2) IF you are a “new” party or person or not a member of a
party that got at least 5% of the vote in the previous general
election then you have to collect signatures totaling 1% of the
vote in the previous election. EXAMPLE: If you wanted to get
on the ballot in 2008 then that was 74,108 signatures.
· Republicans and Democrats get on the ballot easily because
those parties have gotten at least 5% of the vote in the last
general election.
· Smaller parties and individuals have a harder time getting on
the ballot.
· In 2004 Kinkey Friedman got enough signatures to get on the
ballot for governor.

· From 2004-2008 only the Libertarian Party was able to break
the 5% barrier of all of the “smaller” parties.
· In 2010 the Green Party broke the 5% barrier and the
Libertarian Party did, too.
You live in Texas – what elections will you participate in –
state and national?
· Primary Elections
· Primary elections are elections within a party that narrow the
field of candidates before the general election.
· Primary elections are one way a party can determine who their
nominee will be.
· Larger parties like Republicans and Democrats use primary
elections.
· A smaller party could use a party convention –OR – a caucus.
· Party Convention = designated delegates get together and vote
/ determine who the nominee will be – OR –
· A caucus - closed door meeting where party leaders determine
who the nominee will be.
· In Texas – any party receiving 20% of the gubernatorial vote
MUST hold a primary – all other parties in Texas MUST use the
convention system.
· How do you get on the ballot in a primary?
· File your application with the party chair in your state or
county and pay the fee.
U.S. Senator
$5,000
U.S. Representative

$3,125
Texas Statewide Officer
$3,750
Texas State Senator
$1,250
Texas State Representative
$750
Texas County Commissioner
$750-$1,250
Texas District Judge
$1,500-$2,500
Texas Justice of the Peace
$375-$1,000
Texas Constable
$375-$1,000
County Surveyor in Texas
$75
· Who wins the primary?
· The Majority Rule = you have to get absolute majority (50 +
1%).
· If no one gets the majority then you have a runoff primary
which is between the two candidates that have received the most
votes in the primary.
· When are primaries?
· The first Tuesday in March of even-numbered years.
· Runoff primary is the fourth Tuesday in May OR at least must
be more than two months after the initial primary.
· NOTE: The next presidential election is on November 8, 2016.
· The next Texas primary scheduled for Tuesday, March 1,
2016.
· Why are primaries so important in Presidential Elections?

· Is Primary Turnout higher or lower than general elections?
· You are not electing anyone to office but just electing
candidates who run for office – voter turnout in Texas primaries
is MUCH lower than in general elections.
· Roughly 12% of registered voters in Texas voted in the last
primary.
· Primaries are either OPEN or CLOSED
· Open Primary States
· Texas allows open primaries.
· You cannot vote in more than one party’s primary but you do
not have to declare which party you are affiliated with in order
to vote.
· Example: you do not have to be a registered Republican or
Democrat in an open primary – but you can only vote in one
primary – either Republican or Democrat.
· Closed Primary States
· You must declare in advance which party you are affiliated
with and then you can only vote in that party primary – you
would not even have the option to vote in another party’s
primary.
· Mixed Primary States
· There are 5 states that have a mixed system where one party is
open and the other is closed.
· Crossover Voting
· This happens when members of one party try to impact another
party’s primary results by voting in their primary.
· Example: I am a Republican and I vote in the Democratic
Primary for the candidate I think I can bet – hoping my vote
helps the weak Democratic candidate get elected and I can beat
that person in the general election.
· Just because you vote for one party in the primary does not
mean you have to vote for that party in the general election –
you can vote with one party in the primary and another party in

the general election – you can also vote for different candidates
in the primary and the general election.
· General Elections
· Primaries nominate candidates to run in general elections.
· General elections let voters to choose between candidates of
all of the parties.
· General elections are choosing people for public office so they
are run by the officials of state and county governments – NOT
by parties.
· The winning candidate has to win by a plurality vote – just
means more votes than the other person – NOT by a majority
(50 + 1%).
· General elections in Texas are held every other year on the
same day as national elections – the first Tuesday after the first
Monday in November in even-numbered years.
· In years divisible by 4 we elect:
· President, Vice President, all U.S. Representatives, and 1/3 of
the U.S. Senators.
· In Texas, all 150 members of the House are up for election
and about half (15-16) of the 31 senators are up for election.
· In Texas there will also be some board, court positions at the
state level and half of the county positions filled in this general
election.
· The voter turnout is usually higher because you are electing
the president and major United States positions.

· Think about the impact this can have on state elections – i.e. if
everyone is thrilled with a Democratic incumbent President of
the United States then Democrats in state elections may do
better. Or the reverse if people are not thrilled with the party of
the President.
· In the years not divisible for 4 we elect:
· We elect our major state positions – governor, lieutenant
governor, attorney general, etc.)
· Our last general election in November 2014 was when we
elected our new governor, etc.
· There is a lower voter turnout in these races.
· Special Elections
· Special elections are held to fill vacancies or for an emergency
need like ratifying a constitutional amendment.
A vacancy filled during a special election only fills the vacancy
until the expiration of the term or until the next general election
– whichever comes first.
The Evolution of Campaigning
· The major way citizens “control” the government is voting in
elections.
· Political parties play a major role in structuring the voting
choices by reducing the number of people on the ballot to those
that have a realistic chance of winning.
· Election Campaign = it is an organized effort to persuade
voters to choose one candidate over others competing for the
same office.

· From the 1950s back – political parties played a major role in
each candidates campaign and the organization of each
candidate’s campaign (everything from contacting voters to
preparing and paying for ads and buttons).
· Today candidates do not usually rely on their political parties
to run their campaigns – these days candidates hire political
consultants to raise the money, structure the campaign, and
conduct media campaigns.
· Starting in 2004 political candidates started relying heavily on
the media and email.
Who is Eligible to Run for Political Office?
· President –Must be a natural born citizen, be at least 35 years
old, and be a resident of the country for 14 years by the time of
inauguration.
· Vice President –Must meet the same requirements as the
president and also not be a resident of the same state as the
president.
· Senator – Must be a citizen for at least 9 years, be at least 35
by the time of taking office, and be a resident from the state
from which you are elected.
· Representative - Must be a citizen for at least 7 years, be at
least 25 by the time of taking office, and be a resident of the
state from which you are elected.
· State Political Officials? Each state does it differently so
check each state’s requirements.
Elections

· Primary Elections
· Primary elections are elections within a party that narrow the
field of candidates before the general election.
· Primary elections are one way a party can determine who their
nominee will be.
· Larger parties like Republicans and Democrats use primary
elections.
· A smaller party could use a party convention –OR – a caucus.
· Party Convention = designated delegates get together and vote
/ determine who the nominee will be – OR –
· A caucus - closed door meeting where party leaders determine
who the nominee will be.
· In Texas – any party receiving 20% of the gubernatorial vote
MUST hold a primary – all other parties in Texas MUST use the
convention system.
· How do you get on the ballot in a primary?
· File your application with the party chair in your state or
county and pay the fee.
· Who wins the primary?
· The Majority Rule = you have to get absolute majority (50 +
1%).
· If no one gets the majority then you have a runoff primary
which is between the two candidates that have received the most
votes in the primary.
· When are primaries?
· The first Tuesday in March of even-numbered years.
· Runoff primary is the fourth Tuesday in May OR at least must
be more than two months after the initial primary.

· NOTE: The next presidential election is on November 8, 2016.
· The Texas primary is tentatively scheduled for Tuesday,
March 1, 2016.
· Is Primary Turnout higher or lower than general elections?
· You are not electing anyone to office but just electing
candidates who run for office – voter turnout in Texas primaries
is MUCH lower than in general elections.
· Roughly 12% of registered voters in Texas voted in the last
primary.
· Primaries are either OPEN or CLOSED
· Open Primary States
· Texas allows open primaries.
· You cannot vote in more than one party’s primary but you do
not have to declare which party you are affiliated with in order
to vote.
· Example: you do not have to be a registered Republican or
Democrat in an open primary – but you can only vote in one
primary – either Republican or Democrat.
· Closed Primary States
· You must declare in advance which party you are affiliated
with and then you can only vote in that party primary – you
would not even have the option to vote in another party’s
primary.
· Mixed Primary States
· There are 5 states that have a mixed system where one party is
open and the other is closed.
· Crossover Voting
· This happens when members of one party try to impact another
party’s primary results by voting in their primary.
· Example: I am a Republican and I vote in the Democratic
Primary for the candidate I think I can bet – hoping my vote
helps the weak Democratic candidate get elected and I can beat
that person in the general election.

· Just because you vote for one party in the primary does not
mean you have to vote for that party in the general election –
you can vote with one party in the primary and another party in
the general election – you can also vote for different candidates
in the primary and the general election.
· General Elections
· Primaries nominate candidates to run in general elections.
· General elections let voters to choose between candidates of
all of the parties.
· General elections are choosing people for public office so they
are run by the officials of state and county governments – NOT
by parties.
· The winning candidate has to win by a plurality vote – just
means more votes than the other person – NOT by a majority
(50 + 1%).
· General elections in Texas are held every other year on the
same day as national elections – the first Tuesday after the first
Monday in November in even-numbered years.
· In years divisible by 4 we elect:
· President, Vice President, all U.S. Representatives, and 1/3 of
the U.S. Senators.
· In Texas, all 150 members of the House are up for election
and about half (15-16) of the 31 senators are up for election.
· In Texas there will also be some board, court positions at the
state level and half of the county positions filled in this general
election.
· The voter turnout is usually higher because you are electing
the president and major United States positions.

· Think about the impact this can have on state elections – i.e. if
everyone is thrilled with a Democratic incumbent President of
the United States then Democrats in state elections may do
better. Or the reverse if people are not thrilled with the party of
the President.
· In the years not divisible for 4 we elect:
· We elect our major state positions – governor, lieutenant
governor, attorney general, etc.)
· Our last general election in November 2014 was when we
elected our new governor, etc.
· There is a lower voter turnout in these races.
· Special Elections
· Special elections are held to fill vacancies or for an emergency
need like ratifying a constitutional amendment.
· A vacancy filled during a special election only fills the
vacancy until the expiration of the term or until the next general
election – whichever comes first.
· How do you register to vote?
· In Texas you cannot walk into the polling location and register
to vote then vote in the same day.
· To vote you have to register in advance –
www.usa.gov/register-to-vote
· Registering to vote is super easy – keep in mind the legal
restraints that used to make registering super hard to vote – i.e.
during times of segregation and the poll tax.
· In Texas you need to register at least 30 days before an
election then you are deemed to be registered in time.
· You can register when you obtain a new drivers license.
· You are permanently registered but if you move you have to
let them know your change of address.

Nominations
· Nominations usually involve an election by party voters like a
primary – national party leaders are not choosing exactly who
runs for president for example – there are primaries to see who
it will be so the voters are choosing.
· Each state is different in how they conduct elections.
· Nominations for Congress and State Offices
· In the US almost all aspiring candidates for major offices are
nominated through a primary election.
· Primary Election = a preliminary election conducted within a
political party to select candidates who will run for public
office in a subsequent election.
· Primaries are different in every state since states have their
own election rules and rules about what it takes to get on the
ballot – 40 or so states utilize primary elections to nominate
candidates for all state and national offices.
· You cannot vote in both the republican and democratic
primary – you can choose one to vote in.
· In the regular election you can then vote either way – i.e. just
because you vote in the democratic primary does not mean you
have to vote democratic in the democratic election.
· Only about half of the voters who vote in the general election
have previously voted in the primary – so not everyone votes in
the primary.
· And you can still vote in the general election even if you did
not vote in the primary.
· Nominations for President
· Each party formally chooses their president and vice
presidential nominee at the national convention held every four

years.
· This is where the nominee is ratified by the decision that was
made in the primaries.
· Convention activities focus on creating a favorable media
image of the candidate – the actual “formally choosing the
candidate” is just the delegates ratifying the decision – the
speeches at the convention that are televised are planned very
carefully to give the most positive media attention to the
candidate as possible.
· Delegates from each state attend their party convention.
· How the delegates are selected varies from state to state and
from party to party.
· Two methods are used in the majority of the states to decide
which potential candidates will get the state’s support:
· Presidential primary = a special primary election used to
select delegates to attend the party’s national convention –
which in turn nominates the presidential candidate.
· Caucus / convention = a method used to select delegates to
attend a party’s national convention. Generally a local meeting
selects delegates to attend a county wide meeting – the county
wide meeting then selects delegates for a higher level meeting –
the process culminates in a state convention that then selects the
delegates that will attend the national meeting.
· Is it hard to get the party nomination for president?
· Yes – the process of nominating party candidates for president
is a long, drawn out complex affair that does not parallel that in
any other nation.
· Potential candidates begin campaigning many months before
the first convention delegates are even selected.
· Soon after the presidential election ends – prospective
candidates start “lining up” political and financial support for
their race nearly four years later.
· This “silent campaigning” is often called the “invisible
primary.”

· There are certain principles that have proven true over time –
and political scientists agree on - when it comes to getting the
nomination for president:
· When there is no incumbent in the White House seeking
reelection the presidential nominating process becomes
contested in both parties.
· An incumbent president usually encounters little or no
opposition for re-nomination in the party.
· The Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primaries matter –
these occur early in the election season – the first ones – and
that is why they are so closely watched – history shows that if
you are first in this caucus and this primary you are likely to get
your party nomination.
How does a party decide who to run?
· Just because your party is on the ballot does not mean you as
an individual can get on the ballot – the party you are a member
of has to decide they will put you on the ballot for them as their
representative.
· How does this happen?
· Big parties like Democratic Party and Republican Party have
primary elections.
· Primary Election - allows members of a political party to
choose a party’s candidates.
· You can have run-offs in a primary election.
· These are large state-wide primary elections at polling places.
· Open Primary = anyone can vote in any primary that is open
but you can only vote in one primary – either Republican or
Democrat – not both.
· Closed Primary = advance declaration of political party
required so only those who have registered as members of a
party in advance can vote in the closed primary.
· Minor / smaller parties do not have state wide primary

elections.
· The smaller parties will choose their candidates in county and
state conventions – these are different than primaries at polling
places – they are not state wide and are members of the smaller
party getting together to determine who their candidates will be
and what their platform will be.
· Each smaller party is different but imagine it something like
someone who is interested might file some paperwork or an
application with the party chair and express their interest in
getting on the ballot then it is discussed / voted on at the
convention.
Elections
· There are elections in the United States held in early
November of even numbered years – this is called the general
election.
· Every four years you have a presidential election – during a
presidential election year you call it the presidential election
(even though other offices are being voted on, too).
· Straight Ticket = means that you vote one party on your entire
ticket.
· Split Ticket = means that you vote for candidates from
different parties throughout your ticket.
Campaigns
· Incumbent = the candidate who currently holds office.
Incumbent can be hard to defeat because of their name
recognition, fundraising ability – incumbents for the House of
Representatives are reelected 95% of the time.
· Challenger = the candidate who is challenged the incumbent
and trying to unseat the incumbent.
· Open Election = an election that lacks an incumbent.
· Campaign Financing
· Campaigns are expensive to run – especially with the role the

media plays today and media is expensive.
· Former Speaker of the House Tip O’Neill said: “There are four
parts to any campaign. The candidate, the issues of the
candidate, the campaign organization, and the money to run the
campaign with. Without money you can forget the other three.”
· Money pays for office space, staff salaries, cell phones,
computers, advertising / media expenses, travel expenses,
campaign literature.
· Each state has their own regulations on state campaign
financing.
· Federal election campaign financing is regulated by the
Federal Election Commission (FEC):
· Six members appointed by the president with approval by the
senate.
· No more than three members from the same party.
· Six year appointments – all staggered – so no president can
appoint all members.
· The FEC enforces limits on financial contributions to national
campaigns.
· FEC requires full disclosure of campaign spending.
· Limits the amount of money nonparty groups like PACs
(Political Action Groups) can contribute to national campaigns.
· Limits are imposed on individual giving - $2,500 per
candidate per election and $30,800 to national party per
calendar year, and $10,000 to your state / national / local party
combined each year.
· National party can give $5,000 to each candidate per election.
· State / national / local party can give $5,000 to each candidate
per election.
· PACS can give $2,500 to a candidate per election.
· Foreign nationals cannot donate to any US campaign –
prohibited from accepting money from foreign nationals.
· Churches and charitable organizations cannot make
contributions to political campaigns.

Chapter 5
The Texas Legislature
The Structure and Organization of the Texas Legislature
· Texas constitution makes the legislative branch the most
powerful one in Texas government – versus the executive /
governor being the most powerful.
· They did this by:
· Strong legislative branch and gave them the power to develop
the state budget
· Power of executive branch was distributed among several
individuals – including a lieutenant governor separate from the
governor.
· This resulted in a strong legislative branch.
· What does the legislature do?
· Enact laws
· Create budget for state
· Oversees state agencies
· Represents constituents
· What is a bicameral legislature? Legislature with two
chambers.
· Texas has a two chamber legislative branch.
· This is just like the US Government.
· Texas has a House of Representatives and a Senate.
· Note that all states except one have a two chamber legislative
branch- which state has just one? Nebraksa.
· Texas House of Representatives – what are some
characteristics of it?
(1) www.house.state.tx.us
(2) 150 members in the Texas House.

(3) Average district population = 139,000
(4) Term length = 2 years
(5) No term limits.
(6) Minimum age to serve = 21
(7) Residency requirements = US citizen, qualified voter, Texas
resident for 2 years, district residency for 1 year
(8) Salary = $7,200 + $190/day when in session
99 Republicans
50 Democrats
1 independent
· Texas Senate – what are some characteristics of it?
(1) www.senate.state.tx.us
(2) 31 members in the Texas Senate.
(3) Average district population = 672,000
(4) Term length= 4 years
(5) No term limits.
(6) Minimum age = 26 years
(7) Residency requirements = US citizen, qualified voter, Texas
resident for 5 years, district resident for 1 year
(8) Salary= $7,200 + $190/day when in session
29 Republicans
12 Democrats
· For any action to take place in the Texas legislature, both
chambers must agree to it. This is just like the US Government.
· Elections for Texas legislators:
(1) Senate staggers its terms so roughly half are up each
election. Note that every decade when new district lines are
redrawn that means everyone has to re-run since the whole state
has been reapportioned – districts do not remain the same in any
district because of population growth and shift in district lines.
So everyone is not up at once after this senators are randomly
reassigned to run after 2 or 4 years.

(2) Incumbency reelection rates are very high in Texas.
· Texas legislature is a part-time legislature
· What is a biennial session? Legislative sessions held once
every two years.
· The constitution in Texas limits the legislative sessions to
only 140 days every two years.
· They meet in regular session during odd numbered years.
· What are arguments in favor of biennial sessions?
(1) Limits government activity.
(2) Gives legislators time to pursue other professions.
(3) Gives legislators time to stay in touch with constituents.
(4) Saves the state large costs of holding annual sessions.
(5) The authors of the Texas constitution wanted limited
government and thought a full time legislature would cause
mischief.
· What are the arguments again biennial sessions?
(1) A 19th century concept is totally out of date in the 21st
century.
(2) Legislators are crushed for time when they meet.
(3) Budgets have to be made more than 2 years in advance for
each session.
(4) There is no one there to oversee the administrative actions
to carry out many of the decisions made during session.
(5) You have part time legislators but full time lobbyists
working when legislators are not.
· What is a special session? A legislative session called by the
governor to address specific issues determined by the governor.
(1) Special sessions last a maximum of 30 days.
(2) Content of special sessions are determined by the Texas
Governor and the legislature can only consider the special

issues identified.
(3) Special sessions are rare
· Ann Richards called only 2 special sessions in her 4 years –
both to resolve issues of school funding.
· George W. Bush never called a special session.
· Rick Perry called for 9 special sessions:
· 3 for redistricting issues in 2003
· 3 for educational finance issues in 2006
· 1 for school finance reform in 2006.
· 2 for the recent abortion bill
· Compare salaries of state legislators:
(1) California legislators make $116,098 per year.
(2) New York legislators make $79,500 per year.
(3) Texas makes $7,200 per year + $150/day when in session.
· What do you think of the salary of the Texas legislators – why
is it low compared to other large states?
(1) Texas legislators meet only part time
(2) Lower salary structure promotes a “citizen’s legislature”
where there are no financial incentives to stay in the legislature
as a career but you are motivated by altruistic desire not money.
(3) Most think that this means the legislators actually do more
good because they live the life of all citizens – working a full
time job and having the same finances as other state citizens.
Responsibilities of the Texas Legislature
· What responsibilities does the Texas Legislature have?
· Primary responsibility = to enact laws.
· Other responsibilities?
(1) Represent their constituents when voting on legislation
(2) Legislative oversight – they oversee the spending of
executive agencies
(3) Regulate the ethics of the legislative branch
(4) Power of impeachment

(5) Power to oversee the reapportionment of district lines every
10 years
(6) Power to propose constitutional amendments.
Let’s talk about some of these in more depth….HOW SHOULD
YOUR LEGISLATORS DECIDE HOW TO VOTE?
· Representation of Constituents
· Just as in the US System – legislators have to decide whether
to vote how they think is best for the state or if it is different –
to vote how their constituents want them to vote.
· What is an instructed delegate? A legislator who votes on
legislation as a majority of his or her constituents would want
him to vote.
· Examples of how Texas legislators would be influenced to
vote?
· Legislator from Rio Grande Valley would vote to promote
Texas citrus products grown in their district since that is their
big industry.
· Legislator from Fort Hood in central Texas would vote on
things that would promote military bases since that is their big
industry.
*In the 200l legislative session a representative from a rural
area sponsored legislation to bring the internet to rural areas –
legislators from Houston voted against that legislation because
they are not from a rural area. All legislators were acting as
delegates.
· What is trustee representation? A style of representation in
which a legislator votes on a particular issue in a way that
benefits the state as a whole but might be against the majority
of what his constituents would want.
Example:votes to increase the sales tax.
· Power to Make Laws
· Main function of the Texas legislature is to make laws and
adopt a budget.

· What does the legislature write laws about? Examples?
(1) Criminal law
(2) Building of state highways
(3) Education of children in Texas public schools
(4) Allocation of Texas welfare benefits
· State budget passed in 2014/2015 = $94.6 billion
· How a bill becomes a law in Texas?
· Very similar to US process
· PLAY ON YOUTUBE: School House Rock
· But because of limited time in session there is more of a sense
of urgency to get it done.
· Bill Introduction
· Any member of the House or Senate may introduce a bill.
· Bills sometimes come from a special committee of some kind
that meets out of session and it grows from there.
· Texas Legislative Council – an organization that provides
technical and research services to members of the legislature
and can be used by all legislators – they can help drafting a bill
since they are there all the time.
· Some bills are introduced in the House and Senate at the same
time by partners working together.
· Timing of introduction is key since you have at most 140 days
to get it through. So early in the session is best time to
introduce.

· Any bill that raises revenue or increases taxes must start in the
lower chamber first – which is the House of Representatives.
· Most bills require consent of at least four-fifths of the
members of the House and Senate.
· After a bill is introduced it goes to the presiding officer of
either the House or Senate and that person assigns it to a
standing committee.
(2) The Committee Process
· Committee chairs work with their committee and the presiding
officer to determine which bills will be priorities on the agenda.
· Committees is where the bills are scrutinized.
· Committees can hold public hearings, draft changes to the
initial legislation, debate the merits of the bill.
· After considering a bill the committee can do what?
· Choose to take no action
· Recommend against passing the bill
· Report favorably on the bill for consideration by the whole
chamber.
· The committee report is made available to all legislators.
· If a committee recommends a bill it is then scheduled for
consideration.
· In the House the committee report goes to the Committee on
Calendars or the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars.
· In the Senate most bills are scheduled by the full senate in the
order in which they were reported by committees. Local and
non-controversial bills are scheduled by the Senate
Administration Committee.
(3) Floor Action

· Once the bill comes back to the House or Senate it gets a
second reading before being considered by the full chamber.
· Any member can offer an amendment but it has to be approved
by the majority of the members present to be adopted.
· In the Senate there is no limit on debate and the Senators can
seek to have a bill killed by a filibuster – just as in the US
Senate.
· Filibuster:
· During a filibuster, a senator is limited to topics relevant to
the bill being discussed and cannot eat, drink or use the
restroom during the speech.
· The rules also prohibit sitting or leaning on a desk or chair
under any circumstances when the senator has the floor and is
speaking on the bill or resolution.
· Filibusters end either when the senator voluntarily yields the
floor or after three violations of the rules for decorum and
debate.
· After the third violation, the Senate can vote on a point of
order, which if sustained would force the senator to yield the
floor, according to the Legislative Reference Library of Texas
website.
· Wendy Davis Filibuster:
· On June 25, 2013 performed an 11 hour filibuster to try and
block the passage of SB 5 re more restrictive abortion
restrictions.
· Filibuster ended 3 hours before midnight when republicans
called for a vote that she had violated rules 3 times.
· The vote went on after midnight re did she or did not have 3
violations SO the bill was considered dead.
· Then Governor Rick Perry called two back to back Special
Sessions of the Legislature and it was signed into law in July
2013.

· The quote: “Wendy Davis won the battle but Rick Perry won
the war.”
· After any amendments it is given a third reading – at this
point if there are any more amendments proposed then 2/3
majority have to approve the amendment.
· Then there is a final vote.
· In the Senate because it is larger they have voting buttons that
come up on a voting board.
· In the House because it is smaller they do a voice vote by
calling the roll of the members.
· When a bill is passed in the chamber where it originated then
it goes to the other chamber for consideration. It follows the
same steps it followed in the originating chamber.
· If the bill is returned to the originated chamber without
amendments then it is put in final form, signed by the Speaker
of the House and lieutenant governor and then sent to the
governor.
(4) Conference Committee Action
· Bills that are returned to their originating chamber with
amendments require further action.
· The originating chamber can either agree with the amendments
passed by the second chamber or request a conference
committee to work out the differences between the two versions.
· What s a conference committee? A temporary committee
created to work out differences between the House and Senate

versions of a specific piece of legislation. 5 members of each
chamber appointed by the presiding officers.
· Conference committee reports have to be approved by at least
3 out of 5 people from each chamber on the committee and have
to be approved without any further amendments by both
chambers to get to move forward.
(5) Governor’s Action
· When the governor receives a bill he has 10 days to sign it,
veto it, or allow it to become a law without signature.
· If the governor vetos a bill and the legislature is still in
session then the bill is returned to legislature with an
explanation of why the governor vetoed it.
· 2/3 majority in each chamber is required to override a
governor’s veto.
· If Governor does nothing then it becomes a law.
· 84th Texas Legislature / 85th Texas Legislature
· Laws passed in 84th Legislature
· Power of Legislative Oversight
· What is legislative oversight? A Committee’s investigation of
government agencies to ensure they are acting as the legislature
intended – includes accounting oversight.
· There is accounting oversight
- Making sure money was spent how it was supposed to be spent
according to the law.
· There is policy oversight.
· Attempt by legislators to determine if the laws they passed are
working.

· Generally oversight is thought to be incomplete and not done
as well as it could because the legislature is only in session 6
months every 2 years.
· How does the legislature keep a check and balance on the state
agencies?
(1) Legislative Audit Committee – committee that performs
audits of state agencies. Any entity receiving funds can be
audited in multiple ways – i.e. financial audit, compliance
audit, economy and efficiency audit, effectiveness audit, special
audit.
(2) Sunset Advisory Commission – committee that evaluates the
need for more than 150 state agencies on a 12 year cycle to
determine if the agency should be renewed, changed, or have its
“sunset.”
· Power of Impeachment
· Texas legislature can impeach the governor, other high up
officers, and judges.
· Similar process at state level as in national level.
· Impeachment – the formal bringing of charges against a public
official.
· How is the process done in Texas?
(1) Majority vote in the Texas House of Representatives to
bring charges.
(2) A trial takes place in the Senate and 2/3 majority of the
senate is required for conviction.
· One Texas governor has been impeached – in 1917 Governor
James E. Ferguson was impeached and removed from office for
21 counts of mis-using public funds.
· Power of Reapportionment
· Must take place every 10 years following each US census.
· Districts need to have an equal population after redistricting

of lines is complete. This is per a US Supreme Court decision
holding it so.
· The legislature is given the power of the redistricting in
Texas.
· Gerrymandering – what is it?
(1) Redrawing a congressional district to intentionally benefit
one political party.
(2) It is a constant and unavoidable part of the redistricting
process.
· Redistricting Process
(1) How the boundaries of political districts are redrawn after a
census is significant because WHY?
· Which redistricting plan is chosen impacts which political
party may win
· Whether incumbents will find it easy or hard to win – if they
have tons of new constituents they may find it very difficult
· Whether there will be minority representation in the
legislative bodies
(2) Republicans may want the plan drawn one way and
Democrats the other.
· This is a difficult process – in 2003 he Texas legislature called
3 different special sessions to try and accomplish the
redistricting.
· Power to Propose Constitutional Amendments
· 2/3 of BOTH the House and the Senate have to vote to approve
the Constitutional Amendment.
· Then the Constitutional Amendment goes to the Texas voters
during the next general election and a MAJORITY of voters
have to approve it.
Presiding Officers
· Leadership in the Texas Legislature

· Compared to the US Congress, the Texas legislature is really
dominated by the two chamber leaders.
· What are the names of the two chamber leaders in Texas?
· Speaker of the House = presiding officer over the Texas House
of Representatives.
(1) Elected by the members of the House at the start of each
session.
(2) Current = Joe Strauss from San Antonio.
· Lieutenant Governor = the second in command in Texas and
this person serves as the presiding officer over the Texas
Senate.
(1) Elected by the citizens of Texas on the general election
ballot.
(2) Current = Dan Patrick
(3) No term limits.
· The two chamber leaders are full time legislators and have a
large staff who work full time.
· In contrast, part time members of the legislator have minimal
staff, if any, so have a hard time combating the agenda of the
full time chamber leaders who are full time and have extensive
staff.
· In the US Congress the leaders of the chambers may delegate
certain action items to lower members of their party.
· In contrast, in Texas, because they only meet 140 days every 2
years, these two chamber leaders rule with an iron hand and
have to keep them on track – so legislation they are not
interested in may not make it to the floor at all.
· Committees in the Texas Legislature

· In the US Congress, membership into certain committees can
depend on your seniority and party affiliation.
· In contrast in Texas, the chamber leaders determine who gets
on what committee – so personal relationships and loyalty to
that person play a role. Their good pals can find themselves on
the more exciting committees and political enemies on those
committees that are considered less important.
· But committees in Texas are not organized around party lines
as much as in US politics – so a Republican can be asked to
lead a committee even thought the Democrats have the majority
of the members at that time.
· Unlike the US Congress that is a highly charged political body
– the Texas legislature is not considered to operate only on
party affiliation – it is more about personal relationships.
Examples of committees they appoint:
· Ad Hoc Committee – special committees appointed to address
a specific policy problem. Example: key players in the Texas
prison system get together to discuss and iron out Texas prison
policies.
· Interim Committee – committees that meet inbetween session
to work out issues on a bill. Example: school funding issues or
educational requirements for testing of students. These
committees are very powerful in setting the agenda for the next
legislative session because they are meeting out of session.
· The Texas Budget
· Legislative Budget Board – the legislative board authorized to
draft the proposed budget in Texas.
· The Texas Lieutenant Governor is the leader of this committee
– so imagine that he or she has considerable power in Texas.

· In the United States, the President’s office of Management and
Budget drafts the proposed budget.
· Two-Thirds Rule– rule in the Texas Senate that prevents any
legislation from being considered for debate unless two-thirds
of the members vote for consideration.
(1) This means that the Lieutenant Governor – as the presiding
officer – and 11 other senators can keep a piece of legislation
from being considered.
(2) Any 12 senators can block a piece of legislation – it is just
that the Lieutenant Governor “holds the gavel” and sets the
agenda so he has considerably more power.
· The Influence of Lobbyists
· “Sharpstown Scandal” – a bribery scandal in the Texas
legislature in 1971.
· “Dirty Thirty” – a group of legislators who brought modern
ethics to the Texas legislature after the Sharpstown Scandal.
· Main thing to know:
(1) Prior to 1971 the lobbyists were on the floor of the House
and directly influencing how votes were cast. Many legislators
relied directly on lobbyists regarding how to vote. And
lobbyists were by in large former legislators themselves.
(2) Post 1971 – lobbyists are no longer allowed on the floor of
the House and members of the Speaker’s staff cannot take
lobbyist jobs once they leave state government.
(3) There are now laws in place regarding disclosure of
campaign finance funds and laws requiring lobbyists to limit
their activities in the Texas chambers.
· Current Texas Legislature -

· Texas Legislature meets 2nd Tuesday in January of odd
numbered years.
· 85th Texas Legislature session: January 10 2017 – May 29,
2017
· What were some big topics in the 84th Texas Legislature?
(1) General Appropriations Bill.
(2) Handguns on college campuses.
(3) Sale, distribution, laws on e-cigarettes
(4) Elimination of daylight savings time in Texas
· Big agenda items for the 85th Texas Legislature:
· Raising legal age of prosecution as adult in Texas – from 17 to
18
· Reforming the CPS System
· Mental healthcare for inmates in Texas prisons
· Should Texas prisons be privately owned OR owned by the
government?
· School finance – reform and private school vouchers
· Ban of fracking
· Legalization of marijuana – medical and./ or recreational
Calendar of Events for 84th Texas Legislature:
http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/dates/dates%20of%20interest.pdf
· Bills that have been introduced in 85th Texas Legislature
https://legiscan.com/TX/legislation?status=introduced
NAME: ________________________________
Texas Government 2306 – Spring 2019
TEST II – Chapters 10, 13, 11, 12, and 5

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE (40 points total)
Per your Syllabus your Multiple Choice Questions are taken in
the Testing Center. Remember to take a Scantron to the Testing
Center and to put your answers on the Test AND on the
Scantron. These must be taken by the time the Testing Center
closes on Wednesday, April 10, 2019.
II. ESSAYS (60 points)
Please save this document to your computer, type your answers
onto the document under ANSWER, save it, and upload it to
BlackBoard under Test 1. Your essays are due on BlackBoard
by the end of the day on Wednesday, April 10, 2019.
You MUST use complete sentences or you will lose points.
Answers should be at least one paragraph each.
Chapter 10 – The Party System in Texas
1. We took the the Political Typology Quiz done by the Pew
Research Center. In class I picked the top answer each time and
we saw where that fictional person would fall on the voting
spectrum. Take the quiz for yourself and let me know what you
learned – you do not need to tell me where you fall on the
political spectrum but let me know what you learned (i.e.
whether any issues stood out to you as being more or less
important to you, you were surprised to learn certain things
about your beliefs, etc.) and explain.
2. What did you learn from the forming a political party
exercise? Fully explain.
Chapter 13 – Interest Groups and Political Power in Texas

3. What did you learn from the forming an interest group
exercise? Fully explain. Then go to
www.projectvotesmart.com and search under interest groups –
or another website that interests you to research interest groups.
Find an interest group and write me an overview of that interest
group and explain whether or not you would join it and why.
Chapter 11 – Elections, Campaigns, and Voting in Texas
4. You learned the United States and Texas have both seen a
decline in voter turnout over time. If you were a political
candidate, (1) what would you do to increase voter turnout in
your election, and (2) why do you think this would work / why
would you do this?
Chapter 12 – Mass Media in Texas Politics
5. You are running for Texas Governor. Explain how you will
utilize each form of media we discussed – all print and all
broadcast – in your campaign. Also address which forms of
media you think are more and/or less effective for
communicating with your voters.
Chapter 5 – The Texas Legislature
6. You are a member of the Texas Legislature and want to
legalize marijuana in Texas. Walk me through everything you
would do during the “off season” of the Texas Legislature and
during the 140 day session to get your proposed bill to become
a law. Also explain the framework for how a bill becomes a law
in Texas and how you would work with that system to work to
get your proposed bill to become a law.

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